PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080 Ap il 23, 2025 1 / 27
OPEN ACCESS
Ci a ion: Ga cía Sanjuán L, Ri e a-Jiménez
T, Diaz-Gua damino M, Whea ley D, Lozano
Rod iguez JA, Donai e Rome o T, e al.
(2025) Shedding new ligh on he con ex
and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae: The
Caña e al de León 2 S ela and Las Capellanías
bu ial complex (Huel a, SW Spain). PLoS ONE
20(4): e0321080. h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/
jou nal.pone.0321080
Edi o : S e anos Gima zidis, Aus ian Academy
o Sciences, AUSTRIA
Recei ed: No embe 11, 2023
Accep ed: Ma ch 2, 2025
Published: Ap il 23, 2025
Copy igh : © 2025 Ga cía Sanjuán e al. This
is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he
e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License, which pe mi s un es ic ed use,
dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal au ho and sou ce a e
c edi ed.
Da a a ailabili y s a emen : The da a used o
his s udy a e con ained wi hin he manu-
sc ip . The 3D and 2.5D da a used o digi ally
econs uc he s ela a e eely a ailable om
Du ham Uni e si y's public eposi o y unde
CC BY 4.0 license and can be accessed om
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Shedding new ligh on he con ex and
empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae:
The Caña e al de León 2 S ela and Las
Capellanías bu ial complex (Huel a, SW
Spain)
Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán1☯, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez1☯, Ma a Díaz-Gua damino 2☯*,
Da id Whea ley3‡, José An onio Lozano Rod íguez4‡, Teodosio Donai e Rome o5‡,
An onio Césa González-Ga cía6‡, Raquel Mon e o A ús1, José Ruiz Flo es1,
Ja ie Be mejo Meléndez7‡, Miguel Ángel Roge io-Candele a8‡, Johan Ling9,
E ic And ieux2‡, Ian Baili 2‡
1 Depa men o P ehis o y and A chaeology, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain, 2 Depa men o
A chaeology, Du ham Uni e si y, Du ham, Uni ed Kingdom, 3 Depa men o A chaeology, Uni e si y o
Sou hamp on, Sou hamp on, Uni ed Kingdom, 4 Spanish Ins i u e o Oceanog aphy, CSIC, San a C uz
de Tene i e, Spain, 5 Depa men o Ea h Sciences, Uni e si y o Huel a, Huel a, Spain, 6 Ins i u e o
He i age Sciences (Incipi ), CSIC, San iago de Compos ela, Spain, 7 Depa men o His o y, Geog aphy,
and An h opology, Uni e si y o Huel a, Huel a, Spain, 8 Ins i u e o Na u al Resou ces and Ag obiology
o Se ille, CSIC, Se ille, Spain, 9 Depa men o His o ical S udies, Swedish Rock A Resea ch A chi es,
Uni e si y o Go henbu g, Go henbu g, Sweden
☯ These au ho s con ibu ed equally o his wo k.
‡ These au ho s also con ibu ed equally o his wo k.
* ma [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Ibe ian la e p ehis o ic s elae s and ou as a signi ican exp ession o Eu opean p ehis o ic
a . Fo well o e a hund ed yea s, he con ex o use o he c. 300 Ibe ian s elae known
o his da e has been in ensely discussed. This deba e, howe e , was inhe en ly lawed
and limi ed in i s scope, as almos all he a ailable examples we e ound by chance, and
no good-quali y empi ical e idence was a ailable o unde s and hei p ima y con ex . In
his pape , we p esen he i s conclusi e scien i ic e idence demons a ing ha Ibe-
ian la e p ehis o ic s elae we e used bo h as g a e ma ke s and landscape landma ks
associa ed wi h pa hways. This incon o e ible e idence s ems om ieldwo k unde aken
in June 2022 and Sep embe 2023 a he si e o Las Capellanías (Caña e al de León,
Huel a) in sou h-wes Spain, including ield walking, geophysics and exca a ion. The
g ound-b eaking disco e ies made a his ema kable si e wi hin ba ely a yea e eal he
con ex ual associa ion o h ee di e en s elae o as many g a es wi hin he con ex o a
la ge long-s anding bu ial complex. Speci ically, in his pape we s udy S ela #2 h ough a
b oad combina ion o me hods anging om geoa chaeology o luminescence da ing and
a chaeoas onomy, as well as mul iple digi al isualiza ion and emo e sensing echniques.
This mul idisciplina y app oach p o ides da a ha e eal mul iple lines o e idence con-
ce ning he con ex and empo ali y o he s ela, i s manu ac u e and i s g aphic design.
Al oge he , his lays ou a much needed and long-awai ed eliable empi ical base o unde -
s and whe e, when and how Ibe ian p ehis o ic s elae we e used.
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080 Ap il 23, 2025 2 / 27
PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
“We hewed logs and buil his py e upon he alles headland whe e i uns ou abo e he
sea: duly we made his une al, bewailing him wi h bi e ea s. A e body and a mou we e
qui e bu ned away, we piled a mound o e hem and o c own i d agged up a monoli h”,
Home , The Odyssey (London, A c u us, 2021. T ans. by Alexande Pope). “As he spoke he
began s ipping he spoils om he son o Paeon, bu Alexand us husband o lo ely Helen
aimed an a ow a him, leaning agains a pilla o he monumen which men had aised o
Ilus son o Da danus, a ule in days o old”, Home , The Illiad (P ojec Gu enbe g, 2022.
T ans. by Samuel Bu le ).
In oduc ion
La e p ehis o ic s a ua y a iously desc ibed as menhi s, s a ue-menhi s o s elae is common
in se e al egions o wes e n Eu ope, no ably F ance, Ibe ia, he Alps, G eece and he wes -
e n Medi e anean Islands [1–8]. In Ibe ia, since he publica ion o he Solana de Cabañas
(Cáce es, Spain) ‘sepulch al slab’ in he la e 19 h cen u y [9], p ehis o ic s elae ha e been a
majo opic o deba e. A la ge body o li e a u e, including six books and o e wo-hund ed
pape s, bea wi ness o he signi icance o hese monumen s, da ing om he 3 d o he 1s
millennia BC, and o which almos h ee hund ed examples a e cu en ly known – see [10,11]
o he la es o e all syn heses and an o e iew. A subs an ial pa o he long-s anding and
s ill-ongoing deba e a ound Ibe ian la e p ehis o ic s elae has ocused on hei con ex . This
is pa icula ly he case wi h he subg oups cha ac e ized by pe sonages wea ing a special,
c escen -like ‘headd ess’ (some imes e e ed o as ‘diademadas’ – o ‘diadema ed s elae’) o
su ounded by a panoply o weapons (called ‘wa io ’ s elae). These wo g oups o s elae ha e
a simila geog aphic dis ibu ion along he middle basins o he main i e s d aining in o he
A lan ic ac oss wes e n Ibe ia, he Guadalqui i , he Guadiana, he Tagus, and he Due o. Fo
a long ime, hey we e also seen as symbolically and socio-cul u ally apa , a no ion ha ecen
disco e ies in Almadén de la Pla a and Caña e al de León, in sou h-wes Spain, ha e dispelled
(see [8,10], o ecen syn heses).
In his pape , we p esen he i s conclusi e scien i ic e idence demons a ing ha Ibe ian
la e p ehis o ic s elae, and pa icula ly he so-called ‘headd ess’ and ‘wa io ’ se ies, we e used
as monumen s, bo h in bu ial commemo a ion and in e i o ial and landscape ma king wi h
a s ong associa ion wi h pa hways. This e idence s ems om ieldwo k unde aken a he
si e o Las Capellanías (Caña e al de León, Huel a) in sou h-wes Spain, whe e in 2019 one
such s ela was ound by chance [12], including ield walking, geophysics and wo exca a ion
campaigns (ca ied ou in June 2022 and Sep embe 2023). This in es iga ion led o he dis-
co e y o a la ge bu ial complex composed o se e al cai ns and cis -like chambe s, as well as
a second and hi d s elae.
Th oughou he 20 h cen u y, he p oblem o de ining he con ex o use o Ibe ian wa io
s elae emained un esol ed. The s eady disco e y o new s elae o e he yea s did no con-
ibu e o cla i y he p oblem o hei con ex , as, in mos cases, new s elae we e no ound
as a esul o a chaeological ieldwo k, bu as chance- inds in he cou se o ag icul u al wo k
(ploughing, e acing, e c.). In addi ion, mos s elae did no appea o be associa ed o imme-
dia ely isible o ecognisable a chaeological ea u es such as ma e ial cul u e o a chi ec-
u al emains. The alleged p esence (almos always h ough un e i ied epo s) o ashes o
bu n (possibly) human bones, u ns, and occasional (and enuously suppo ed) connec ion
o une a y a chi ec u e (pi s, cis s, mounds), sugges ed an associa ion wi h bu ial p ac ices
o a numbe o s elae. Tha was ce ainly he case o Solana de Cabañas (which was al eady
he ollowing DOIs: h ps://doi.o g/10.15128/
2sb397830 h ps://doi.o g/10.15128/
2k643b125 .
Funding: This p ojec has ecei ed unding
om he ollowing ins i u ions: Ma i ime
Encoun e s P ojec , Uni e si y o Go henbu g
(Sweden), by Riksbankens Jubileums ond (RJ),
Uni e si y o Du ham (UK), Resea ch G oup
ATLAS (HUM-694) o he Uni e si y o Se illa
(Spain), Uni e si y o Sou hamp on (UK), Ci y
Council o Caña e al de León (Huel a, Spain).
The unde s had no ole in s udy design, da a
collec ion and analysis, decision o publish, o
p epa a ion o he manusc ip .
Compe ing in e es s: The au ho s ha e
decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis .
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080 Ap il 23, 2025 3 / 27
PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
e e ed o as ‘sepulch al’ by Roso de Luna), bu also a g oup om He nán Pé ez, El Ce ezal 1
(including La Co a and La Co oni a, bo h missing nowadays) in Cáce es, G anja de Céspedes
in Badajoz, E idel 2 in Beja, Ribe a Al a/Có doba 2, Co ijo de la Reina 1 and 2 and Ce o
Mu iano 2 in Có doba, Se e illa in Se ille o Haza de T illo-Toya in Jaén [9–22]. Due o he
lack o e i ied con ex ual e idence ( o bu ial ea u es o o he wise), in he 1990s, he ole o
wa io s elae as e i o ial ma ke s, in associa ion wi h pa hways, moun ain passes, o ds, and
o he geog aphically-signi ican loci, was highligh ed [23,24].
Two small exca a ions unde aken in s elae ind-spo s did no yield posi i e esul s [20,25].
In addi ion, he only ‘wa io ’ s elae wi h ecognisable con ex s p ope ly documen ed h ough
a chaeological me hods ( hose o Se e illa, Cancho Roano, Poci o Chico, and A oyo Man-
zanas) appea ed o ha e been ound in a seconda y posi ion esul ing om a euse, which
p e en ed a s aigh o wa d unde s anding o hei p ima y con ex o use [10]. The Cancho
Roano s ela was ound e-used as a doo s ep a he main en ance o a la e I on-Age building,
de ined a iously as a ‘palace’ o ‘sanc ua y’ [20,26]. Poci o Chico (Cádiz) is a agmen o a
s ela ha was ound e-used as pa o he ab ic o he wall o wha he exca a o s desc ibed as
a ‘hu ’. Acco ding o a adioca bon da e om a non-a icula ed animal bone and he assem-
blage ound as pa o he in ill, his hu was p esumed o ha e been decommissioned by he
8 h cen u y BCE [10,27,28]. The Se e illa s ela was ound co e ing a g a e con aining a ious
emains o unce ain age, mos p obably belonging o he ea ly and la e I on Age [13,29].
Finally, A oyo Manzanas was ound eused as pa o he loo o a la e I on Age house [30].
Thus, sugges ions we e made ha almos all Ibe ian s elae we e inhe en ly “decon ex u-
alized” [20,31–33] o ha , pe haps, hey possessed a ce ain ‘landscape se ing’ bu lacking
di ec a chi ec u al con ex [24]. Depa ing om “obse a ional de iciencies” de i ed om
he ac ha mos s elae had been ound by chance, hei “decon ex ualisa ion” became
accep ed by de aul [34]. As a esul , as new s elae we e disco e ed, almos always by chance,
hei iconog aphic de ails we e me iculously eco ded and sc u inized, bu he con ex and
se ing o hei ind spo s we e la gely igno ed: no geophysical su ey, in ensi e ield walking
o exca a ion o he s elae ind spo s (excep o he wo men ioned abo e) we e e e ca ied
ou . Such epis emological app oach o hese impo an monumen s would no expe ience
any signi ican changes un il he la e 2000s and 2010s, when high- esolu ion ieldwo k was
conduc ed wi hin he ind spo s o some newly disco e ed s elae wi h p omising, bu no ully
conclusi e esul s [35–40].
In his a icle, we p esen he Caña e al de León #2 s ela, he i s Ibe ian wa io s ela
o ha e been ound in a s a i ied posi ion wi hin i s po en ially p ima y con ex o use (a
nec opolis) and documen ed du ing a chaeological exca a ions. S ela #2 was disco e ed
wi hin a bu ial mound du ing scien i ic exca a ions ca ied ou in June 2022 a he si e o Las
Capellanías, whe e a i s s ela (designa ed as S ela #1) had been ound by chance in 2018 [12]
(Figs 1, 2, and 4), and a hi d ( o be desc ibed in a u u e publica ion) was ound as ecen ly as
Sep embe 2023. The disco e y o hese h ee newly ound s elae in associa ion wi h a majo
bu ial complex sheds comple ely new ligh on o he con ex , use, cha ac e and empo ali y o
Ibe ian p ehis o ic s elae.
The s ela
The Caña e al de León #2 s ela was i s disco e ed on Sa u day June 4 h 2022 as he walls
lanking he Las Capellanías pa hway, cu ing h ough he si e, and he sh ubs and op soil
a ound i we e emo ed by means o a machine in o de o clea he way o he exca a ion
wo k, which s a ed on Monday June 6 h. The s ela was acing down and he e o e i s g aphic
mo i s we e no isible (Fig 3A). Howe e , i s geology, size, shape and d essed su ace s ongly
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080 Ap il 23, 2025 4 / 27
PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
sugges ed i s sculp u al na u e igh om he s a . I emained in si u h ough mos o he
exca a ion campaign un il June 21s , when i was li ed and i s cha ac e as a s ela con i med
(see Figs 3C-D; 4). This ook place a nigh , as soil samples o OSL da ing we e e ie ed om
he laye o soil ound di ec ly benea h he s ela. The s ela was hen b ough o he Caña e al
de León Ci y Council, whe e i was kep un il July 20 h, a e which i was anspo ed o he
Huel a A chaeological Museum, whe e i is cu en ly kep . I is wo h no ing i s good s a e o
p ese a ion, as no signi ican po ion o i appea s o be missing. In addi ion, he s ela does
no seem o be in ensi ely wea he ed, which sugges s ha i was no in an open-ai con ex
(exposed o wea he ing by wind and ain), o a long pe iod o ime. No aces o lichens we e
ound on i s su ace ei he . I has a o al heigh o 1.23 m, wi h a wid h o 0.6 m and a hick-
ness o 20 cm. I s es ima ed weigh is 112.5 kg (Fig 4: S ela #2).
Geological cha ac e iza ion
A small sample was aken om he back o he s one o ca y ou hin-sec ion pe og aphic
analysis. A Nikon Eclipse LV-100 POL pe og aphic mic oscope connec ed o a Nikon DS-Fi1
came a, wi h a 5.24 mega-pixel 2/3-inch senso was used o ob ain he images o he hin
sec ion. The came a was connec ed o an In el Pen ium 4 2.66 GHZ wi h he NIS-Elemen s
image cap u e so wa e.
Tha sample e ealed ha he s ela was sculp ed om a ema kably homogeneous, sligh ly
de o med, ine o medium-g ained musco i e-bea ing leucog ani e showing locally mia oli ic
ex u es ( his is a ype o g ani e, he e m which is used in he emainde o he a icle o
conciseness). I shows a massi e s uc u e and an iso opic ab ic. I has an hypidiomo phic,
inequig anula ex u e and he main p ima y cons i uen s a e K- eldspa , qua z, plagioclase
Fig 1. Geog aphic dis ibu ion o Ibe ian La e P ehis o ic s elae. P in ed unde a CC BY 4.0 wi h pe mission
om Ma a Díaz-Gua damino.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080.g001
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
(albi e) and mino musco i e and bio i e (Fig 5). Alkaline eldspa occasionally shows mic o-
cline winning and pe hi ic ex u es. Al hough hese ocks sha e many pe og aphic ea u es
wi h neop o e ozoic leucog ani es desc ibed in he Oli enza-Mones e io an i o m [41], abou
25 km no heas o Las Capellanías, he e is no ce ain y as o he exac p o enance o he ock
used o manu ac u e S ela #2 o Caña e al de León, which may, po en ially, come om mo e
dis an sou ces.
While di e en om he olia ed hyoli e po phy y o S ela #1, ound ba ely 12 m o he
sou h, he g ani e o s ela #2 is no a a e occu ence among Ibe ian ‘wa io ’ s elae. In o al,
abou 70 ou o 150 examples o which eliable li hological cha ac e isa ions a e a ailable,
we e made o he same ma e ial. Mos o hem occu in no he n-wes e n-cen al Ibe ia
(sou he n Galicia and no h Po ugal, he Po uguese Bei as, and he Spanish p o inces o Sal-
amanca and Cáce es), al hough some a e also known in he sou h, including Cancho Roano
and Quin ana de la Se ena (Badajoz, c. 130 km o he no heas o Las Capellanías), e y close
o each o he , and Bu guillos (Se ille, c. 80 km o he sou heas o Las Capellanías).
Fig 2. Loca ion o Las Capellanías and nea by si es. P in ed unde a CC BY 4.0 wi h pe mission om Timo eo
Ri e a-Jiménez.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080.g002

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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
Slab and ock a chaîne opé a oi e
Fo he s udy o he s ela mo phology, and he echnology and iconog aphy o i s ca ed
mo i s (Fig 6), close- ange, HD S M pho og amme y and Re lec ance T ans o ma ion Imag-
ing (RTI) we e applied, while Digi al Image Analysis (DIA) was used o pigmen de ec ion
[42,43]. Fo he c ea ion o a 3D model, 197, 24.5 MB pho og aphs we e p ocessed in Agiso
Me ashape using he High-Quali y se ings. The esul ing 3D model has 1 mm accu acy. The
con ol scale ba s’ o al e o is 0.757 mm. The mesh has mo e han 6 million e ices. PTM
and RTI iles we e p oduced om 108 HD pho og aphs, wi h he ee so wa e RTIBuilde
(h ps://cul u alhe i ageimaging.o g/). Bo h echniques, used o he s udy o slab mo phol-
ogy, ock ca ing echniques and sequence o manu ac u e, and iconog aphy, a e desc ibed
in a ious ecen pape s - e.g., [38]. Fo DIA [42,43] he images ob ained we e unco ela ed
by means o P incipal Componen s Analysis (PCA) using he Hype Cube so wa e package
(Robe Pazak, USACE, Alexand ia, VA, USA) in o de o pe o m digi al image analysis
(DIA) ollowing he p o ocols explained elsewhe e [42,43] and al eady implemen ed in
p e ious wo k by he same eam [12,36,38,39]. S M pho og amme y p oduced a HD 3D
Fig 3. Exca a ion p ocess o S ela #2 a Las Capellanías bu ial complex. A) O hoimage o he s ela and su ound-
ing s uc u es upon disco e y; B) and C) The s ela in he p ocess o being exca a ed and eady o li ing; D) Soil
deposi benea h he s ela; E) S uc u al elemen s o he mound a e emo al o he s ela and exca a ion o soil depos-
i s. Bo om le : Sec ion o he s ela con ex loca ed be ween S uc u e 1a and he slabs ou lining he pe is al ic ing o
he mound. O hoimage: Da id Whea ley. Pho og aphs, anno a ion and sec ion: Ma a Díaz-Gua damino.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080.g003
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
econs uc ion o he s ela ha shows he key mo phological cha ac e is ics o he slab and
he ma kings on i s su ace (Figs 6 and 7). A medium esolu ion e sion o he 3D model can
be explo ed he e: h ps://sk b.ly/oAPzq, and a high esolu ion 3D model can be downloaded
he e: h ps://doi.o g/10.15128/ 2sb397830 .
The s ela is a oughly ec angula -shaped slab, wi h p ese ed o iginal sides which a e
sligh ly i egula on he igh and uppe - igh , al hough hese i egula i ies seem o be ela ed
o he o iginal mo phology o he ex ac ed/collec ed g ani e block (Fig 7:A, see also 3D
model: h ps://sk b.ly/oAPzq). The e e se (i.e., plain side) o he s ela has a ew i egula i ies
wi h ma ks o ough le elling, while he ob e se, whe e he ock a ca ings a e ound, is la
and smoo h as a esul o in ensi e le elling and g inding wo k pe o med be o e he ca ed
deco a ion was made (Fig 7:A).
To es whe he he in ensi e su ace p epa a ion wo k had been complemen ed wi h
colou ea men , as i was ound on s ela #1 [12], DIA was used. The o iginal images showed
a high co ela ion among he di e en bands (Table 1), anging om 92 o 98%. In cases
like his, PCA is he bes i ed echnique due o i s huge capabili ies o unco ela ing highly
co ela ed images. PCA o he s udied images yielded e y good esul s as he dis ibu ion o
a iance was ypical o hese kinds o highly co ela ed image da ase s (Table 2), clus e ing
abou 97% a ound he axis o he i s P incipal Componen and lea ing he emaining less
han 0,1% on he Thi d P incipal Componen . Typically, i he emains o pain ing do exis
(e en i hey a e di icul o isualize), hey a e g aphically e lec ed in he band co esponding
o he hi d P incipal Componen . No g ea di e ence among he h ee bands o he PCA can
be app ecia ed (Fig 8A-C). The di e en combina ions o bands employed o p oduce alse
colou images show a g ea homogenei y on he su ace, no allowing he de ec ion o ele-
men s ha could be in e p e ed as in en ionally pain ed (Fig 8:D). Only some black pixels can
Fig 4. Pho og aphs o s elae #1 and #2, once cleaned. S ela #1, is missing he bo om pa and measu es 0.95 m
high, while s ela #2 is comple e and is 1.23 m high. Pho og aphs: Ma a Díaz-Gua damino.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080.g004
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
be app ecia ed when ex ac ing he pixel alues o PC2 band o PC1 band (Fig 8:E), bu he
implemen a ion o a Fe ic Pigmen s Index (FPI) [44] is clea ly nega i e (Fig 8:F). Al oge he ,
his e idence shows ha colou ea men was no applied o he Caña e al de León #2 s ela.
Fig 5. Pho omic og aph o he hin sec ion o he s ela. Mine als: A s, K‐ eldspa ; Ms, musco i e; Pl, plagioclase
and Qz, qua z. P in ed unde a CC BY 4.0 wi h pe mission om Teodosio Donai e Rome o.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080.g005
Fig 6. Syn hesis and in e p e a ion o he mo i s depic ed on he s ela. Design: Ma a Díaz-Gua damino.
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
Fig 7. A) 3D ende ings o he slab, on all i s sides; B) Enhanced isualiza ions o he ca ed a ea h ough
he applica ion o TVT (h ps:// .dh.gu.se/); C) In e p e a ion o he ca ings gene a ed h ough in e ac i e
semi-au oma ic colo iza ion. Design: Ma a Díaz-Gua damino.
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Table 1. Band co ela ion o images o Caña e al de León s ela #2.
Image id. PC1 PC2 PC3
PC1 1 0,98373681 0,92881127
6905 PC2 0,98373681 1 0,97600379
PC3 0,92881127 0,97600379 1
PC1 1 0,98476849 0,92994222
6909 PC2 0,98476849 1 0,97503699
PC3 0,92994222 0,97503699 1
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The columns indica e he name o he s uc u e, he azimu h in deg ees, he al i ude o he
ho izon in ha di ec ion and he as onomical declina ion co esponding o ha di ec ion in
he ho izon. All da a is gi en in deg ees (°)
I is in e es ing o no e ha all declina ion alues a Las Capellanías a e be ween 24° and
−24°, which co esponds o he ex eme posi ions o he sun a he sols ices o he epoch, bu
no ha o s ela #2 (S uc u e 1c) (Fig 12). The o ien a ion o he possible socke ea u e ound
unde nea h he uppe ip o s ela #2 is mo e han 40° away om ha o he wo ombs loca ed
in S uc u e 1. The alues o all he ombs in he nec opolis (including s uc u es 1a and 1b)
a e consis en wi h sun ise a di e en momen s along he yea , wi h an in e es ing p e alence
o imes du ing au umn/win e . In ac , S uc u es 1a and 1b do ha e qui e simila o ien a-
ions. In his sense i is in e es ing o no e ha he o ien a ion o he po en ial pi documen ed
benea h he uppe ip o s ela #2(S uc u e 1c) is a odds wi h his gene al pa e n ollowed in
he nec opolis, and ha he sun would no be isible in his di ec ion in he ho izon. I is also
ele an ha his o ien a ion would no be consis en wi h any posi ion o he moon in he
ho izon. The co esponding declina ion (−37.1°) would nei he be consis en wi h he ising
o any b igh s a a he ime o use o he nec opolis (assumed o span a leas one and a hal
housand yea s, be ween he la e 3 d and mid-1s millennia BC). In iew o hese esul s, i is
possible o conclude ha while he e a e clea indica ions ha he Las Capellanías ombs ol-
low an o ien a ion pa e n possibly ela ed o he ising o a hea enly body, mos p obably he
sun, he o ien a ion o he po en ial socke o he s ela #2 does no seem o ollow any as o-
nomical ela ion, indica ing ha his ea u e was p obably un ela ed o he cis s and he s ela,
as he OSL ages o he deposi s unde nea h he s ela (and co e ing his ea u e) sugges .
Al oge he , combining all he con ex ual e idence ga he ed as pa o his s udy, some el-
e an in e ences can be made ega ding he spa ial posi ion o s ela #2: i) he s ela was ound
as pa o a bu ial mound (S uc u e 1), on whose no he n limi i was embedded; ii) a e
pe haps s anding up o an unde e mined (bu no e y long) pe iod o ime, on his pa icula
loca ion o elsewhe e in he nec opolis, he s ela was ca e ully deposi ed head down (and ace
down) as an in en ional ac o closu e, e mina ion o , pe haps, damna ion. Gi en he lack o
wea he ing and lichens on i s su ace, i is no possible o disca d he idea ha he s ela was
Fig 12. Pano amic iew o he a ea o he nec opolis owa ds he eas , included in he S ella ium so wa e. The
ed lines abo e he ho izon indica e he mo emen o he sun in he summe (le ) and win e ( igh ) sols ices. The
whi e line indica es he pa h o he sun a he equinoxes. The g een lines indica e he pa h o he moon a he lunas-
ices. The solid whi e s okes indica e he o ien a ion o he eigh ombs, while he dashed s oke ma ks he o ien a-
ion o he ea u e ini ially hough o be he socke o s ela #2. Design: A. Césa González-Ga cía.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080.g012

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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
bu ied in o he mound soon a e i s manu ac u e (o e en immedia ely a e ); iii) he s ela
was in en ionally bu ied close (c. 30 cm) o he NE edge o S uc u e 1a (la ge cis ), adjacen
o a la ge block o milky qua z, which is likely o ha e held a s ong symbolic signi icance; i )
The wo OSL age de e mina ions ob ained om soil samples lying di ec ly benea h he s ela
albei wi h limi ed p ecision (i.e., 2670–1350 BC ± 2σ o 2340–1680 BC ± 1σ,), indica e ha i s
deposi ion was no ea lie han c. 2700 BC (2σ) o 2340 (1σ).
Discussion
The Caña e al de León #2 s ela is ema kable on accoun o bo h i s con ex , g aphic mo i s
and ch onology. As no ed in he in oduc ion, he con ex and unc ion o ‘wa io ’ s elae
ha e been ho ly deba ed o decades. Up un il now, only enuous, doub ul and poo ly unde -
s ood e idence, o cases in ol ing o he ypes o s elae, connec ed hem wi h une a y a chi-
ec u es and passageways. The bes documen ed case is he s ela o Al a obei a, loca ed by he
i e A ade in he Po uguese egion o he Alga e [51]. This s ela is o he ‘Alen ejan’ ype,
deco a ed wi h ‘ancho -like’ objec , and con en ionally a ibu ed an Ea ly/Middle B onze
Age ch onology [10]). This s ela was ound in he 1950s laying by a small cis wi hin an Ea ly/
Middle B onze Age (EBA) une a y complex, Al a obei a 1, composed o a se ies o ec angu-
la cai ns con aining one cis each. The exca a ion o he nec opolis in he la e 1980s e ealed
a socke on he no h side o one o he mos ecen and pe iphe al cis s (#2) whe e he s ela
would ha e been placed. Un o una ely, he s ela was no s a i ied, and no human bone was
documen ed in he whole nec opolis (now co e ed by a dam), so he in o ma ion a ailable
abou he communi y bu ied he e and he biog aphy o he monumen is e y limi ed.
Ano he case is he wa io s ela o E idel 2 (in he Lowe Alen ejo), ound nea by wo
cis s in He dade do Poma , one con aining a emale inhuma ion yielding a adioca bon da e
wi hin he Ea ly B onze Age (Table 5: ICEN-87) and wo ce amic essels, while he second had
been loo ed [17]. Finally, i is wo h no ing he s ela wi h ‘headd ess’ o El Ce ezal 1 (Cáce es),
which o al epo s indica e was ound up igh , nex o a cis con aining an u n, and also he
‘wa io ’ s ela and he s elae wi h ‘headd ess’ o He nán Pe ez 3–6 (Cáce es), which, again,
o al es imony indica es ha we e ound up igh in an a ea whe e he e we e cis s [16,18,22].
The nec opolis o He dade do Poma is loca ed in he middle o an ex ensi e plain, close o
an impo an coppe mining a ea du ing la e p ehis o y (Mina da Juliana), wi h no appa en
Table 5. Radioca bon da es o bu ial complexes men ioned in he ex .
SITE STRUCTURE DATED MATERIAL DATE DATE BP DATE BC 2σ REFERENCE
A alaia Pi 33, Bu ial Complex II CM KN-I-200 4240 ± 50 3020-2620 Schuba , 1975
La T a iesa Cis 20 CM RCD-2110 3520 ± 95 2150-1650 Ga cía Sanjuán, 1998
He dade do Poma Cis 1 HB ICEN-87 3510±45 1954-1693 Ba celó, 1991
La T a iesa Cis 20 CM RCD-2111 3420 ± 60 1890-1520 Ga cía Sanjuán, 1998
Pesseguei o II G a e 16 HB ICEN-867 3270 ± 45 1690-1430 Ta a es da Sil a & Soa es, 2009
Pesseguei o II G a e 16 HB ICEN-868 3030± 40 1408-1129 Ta a es da Sil a & Soa es, 2009
Vale da Telha Cis 10 CM Be a-232901 2920± 40 1258-1004 Gomes, 2015
A alaia Ou side Bu ial Complex V CM KN-I-204 2870 ± 40 1192-922 Schuba , 1975
A alaia G a e 7, Bu ial Complex IV CM KN-I-201 2770 ± 50 1020-810 Schuba , 1975
No a Velha Bu ial VIIIA CM ICEN-1102 2720 ± 50 976-800 Monge Soa es and Ma ins, 2013
Vale da Telha Cis 13 ( euse?) CM Be a-345366 2620 ± 30 827-772 Gomes, 2015
No a Velha Bu ial VIIIB CM ICEN-1103 2520 ± 90 827-408 Monge Soa es and Ma ins, 2013
Da ed Ma e ial: CM (Cha ed Ma e ial), HB (Human Bone).
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spa ial ela ion o na u al pa hways. None heless, he si es o Ce ezal 1 and He nán Pé ez a e
loca ed wi hin an impo an passage zone connec ing he no he n and sou he n hal es o he
Ibe ian Cen al Pla eau h ough he Ga a moun ain ange. Also in e es ing is he ecen ly pub-
lished s ela o Al o de la C uz de Pied a (Badajoz), ound a ound 50 me es away om cis s
ha a e hough o da e o he B onze Age bu ha e no ye been exca a ed [47].
The e a e also o he cases o s elae in o mally epo ed o ha e been ound in connec ion wi h
c ema ion u ns (e.g., Co ijo de la Reina, Ce o Mu iano), bu hese ha e no been con i med
by a chaeologis s. An excep ion is he Se e illa s ela, documen ed du ing a chaeological ield-
wo k in he 1920s. This was ound co e ing a g a e wi h u ns, c ema ions and an inhuma ion,
wi hin he so-called ‘O ien alizing’ nec opolis [13,27]. In his con ex , his s ela has been in e -
p e ed as ha ing been eused due o he unce ain y o he da ing o he une a y con ex , bu
he possibili y emains ha he s ela could ha e been posi ioned he e as pa o i s p ima y
use (see below).
Bu ial complexes da ing o he B onze Age and I on Age analogous o hose o Al a -
obei a and Las Capellanías including cis s o cai ns wi h one o mo e cis s inside delim-
i ed by s one ings o ec angula s uc u es, a e known ac oss he Ibe ian Sou h-wes
[46–48,52–54]. As well as Al a obei a, he e a e o he examples a A alaia [55,56], Fe não
Vaz [52], P o ença [57,58], Pesseguei o and Qui ei a [58–61], Vale da Telha [62], La
T a iesa [46], and No a Velha [63]. In gene al, he adioca bon ch onology a ailable o
hose nec opolises is a he poo , wi h ew da es mos ly ob ained om samples o cha ed
ma e ial due o he dea h o human bone (Table 5). On he basis o he a ailable adio-
ca bon da es and ma e ial cul u e, A alaia, Al a obei a and La T a iesa a e da ed o he
Ea ly/Middle B onze Age, whe eas P o ença, Co e Cab ei a, Pesseguei o, Vale da Telha
and Qui ei a appea o da e o he Middle/La e B onze Age (LBA) and A alaia and No a
Velha o he La e B onze Age (LBA) and I on Age (IA). Howe e , he e a e se ious doub s
as o he ine de ail o he empo ali y o hese complexes, sugges ing he possibili y ha
hey expe ienced pe sis en mul i-pe iod use [64]. A A alaia, he only h ee da es a ailable
sugges a empo ali y be ween he ea ly 3 d and la e 2nd-ea ly 1s millennia BC, al hough
he ea lies o hose da es is widely accep ed as con adic o y wi h he ma e ial con ex
o he nec opolis [56]. A La T a iesa, wo da es se he use o he bu ials in he i s hal o
he 2nd millennium BC, which is in keeping wi h he mo phology o he cis g a es ound
he e. In Pesseguei o II, da es on human bone p o ided an age be ween he 17 h and 12 h
cen u ies BC o wo bu ials deposi ed in a cis . In Vale da Telha ma e ial cul u e and
adioca bon da es on cha ed ma e ial indica e possible use o he nec opolis be ween he
15 h and 11 h cen u ies BC, wi h some possible (bu unce ain) euse du ing he 9 h-8 h cen-
u y. A No a Velha, wo da es ob ained o cha ed ma e ial se he use o his nec opolis
be ween he 10 h and 5 h cen u ies BC.
The mos geog aphically close analogue o Las Capellanías S uc u e 1 is La T a iesa, loca ed
some 50km o he Eas as he c ow lies. Cis #5 a La T a iesa, measu ing 3.2 m by 1.3 m (and
he e o e o much bigge size ha he es o he cis s su ounding i ), was placed on a opog aph-
ically p ominen loca ion and co e ed by a cai n o s ones 6.7 m ac oss suppo ed by a ing o
e ical slabs [46], and he e o e no e y much unlike S uc u e 1 a Las Capellanías. Howe e , in
e ms o a chi ec u e, complexes like A alaia, Al a obei a, Vale da Telha, P o ença o No a Velha
appea o be mo e simila o Las Capellanías han La T a iesa, inso a hey include mul iple cai n
s uc u es (a La T a iesa he e is only one) a ached o each o he , some imes o ming g oups o
clus e s. Compa able nec opolises da ed o he Ea ly I on Age, like Mealha No a and He dade do
Pego, ha e yielded epig aphic s elae wi h so-called Sou hwes e n sc ip , one o he ea lies exam-
ples o alphabe ic sc ip known in Wes e n Eu ope (da ed om c. 8 h/6 h cen u ies BC depending
on he au ho s) [65,66]. I is in he pe iphe y o his ype o nec opolises oo whe e a new ype o
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
une a y s uc u e appea s a ound he 5 h cen u y BC, he so-called monumen s in π, which a e
e y simila o s uc u e 7 a Las Capellanías, usually holding c ema ions in u ns [52,67,68].
Las Capellanías no only o e s a chi ec u es ha a e akin o he bu ials and nec opolises
desc ibed abo e, bu also, in he Sep embe 2023 s ill-unpublished season, i yielded a subs an-
ial amoun o c ema ed human emains (cu en ly unde s udy) con i ming, indispu ably,
hei une a y use. The b oad ange o simila i ies ha Las Capellanías’ une a y s uc u es
sha e wi h hose da ed o he B onze Age and he I on Age, as well as he ma e ial cul u e
unea hed in 2023 and he OSL da es o s ela #2, embedded in he mound o S uc u e 1
epo ed he e, sugges ha he use o he si e and he wa io s ela in i spanned se e al cen u-
ies om he la e 3 d and h ough he 2nd and i s hal o he 1s millennia BC. The exca a ions
ca ied ou in Sep embe 2023, which ha e in ol ed se e al o he bu ial ea u es, and subse-
quen pos -exca a ion analyses will g ea ly con ibu e o p oduce a be e unde s anding o
he si e in his and o he espec s.
No wi hs anding, he Caña e al de León #2 s ela is also no ewo hy on accoun o i s
g aphic con igu a ion. Fi s ly, i s ca ings a e e y schema ic and ha e a a he sloppy man-
u ac u e. This is somewha su p ising, as i does no ma ch he e o in es ed in he p ocu e-
men o he aw ma e ial, a leucog ani e which was b ough , p obably, om some dis ance.
Wa io s elae made o g ani e in ha egion a e no abundan bu he e a e wo known cases,
namely Fuen e de Can os (Badajoz), c. 44 km o he no h-eas and Bu guillos (Se ille), c. 80
km o he sou h-eas . These wo s elae also esemble he Caña e al de León #2 s ela in he way
he human igu e was depic ed, including how he an h opomo ph was placed as he cen al
igu e o he composi ion, and simila s ylis ic ai s (e.g., cu ed a ms) (syn he ic images
o hese and o he s elae men ioned in his discussion can be ound in [10]. The simila i y
be ween he Caña e al de León #2 s ela and ha o Fuen e de Can os is pa icula ly s a k. I is
ele an o no e ha he la e includes he depic ion o a cha io , an elemen whose knowl-
edge in Ibe ia is a ibu ed o he La e B onze Age. As no ed abo e, he Caña e al de León
#2 s ela sha es some echnical ai s wi h o he ‘wa io ’ s elae (e.g., la ‘can as’) bu was,
none heless, made wi h an idiosync a ic echnical app oach. This was pe haps he esul o
limi ed skill/expe ience in ca ing, as well as he adap a ion o ha wo k o he a o dances o
his speci ic li hology and boulde ( o o he examples see [45]).
Secondly, om an iconog aphic poin o iew, he p esence and cen ali y o he body o
he wa io ela e his s ela o cases known om o he egions whe e wa io s elae a e known.
These include he middle Tagus (Aldeanue a de San Ba olomé in Toledo) and Guadiana
(Espa agosa de La es 1, Magacela, and Fuen e de Can os in Badajoz) basins, especially he
la e , as well as he lowe (El Co onil, Écija 5/El Be aco, Écija 2 in Se ille) and middle Gua-
dalqui i basin (Mon emayo , Co ijo de la Reina 1 in Có doba). In e es ingly, and pe haps
no by chance, all his compa anda include ho ned headgea , like he Caña e al de León #2
s ela. Ano he ai o he Caña e al de León #2 s ela is ha i does no depic a shield, which
is o he wise he mos equen mo i among Ibe ian wa io s elae [38], o a cha io bu i
does include he image o bow and a ow(s). The la e a e no e y common in he iconog-
aphy o wa io s elae. They appea in a small numbe o cases, mos ly wi hou shields, such
as São Ma inho 2 in he middle Tagus basin, Capilla 3, Alamillo, El Viso 1 (w/shield) and six
ins ances loca ed in he middle Guadiana basin, o To es Alocaz (w/shield), Cua o Casas/
Ca mona (w/shield), Mon emolín, and Écija #3 in he lowe Guadalqui i basin. I is no by
chance ha some o he closes iconog aphic pa allels o he s ela #2 o Caña e al de León a e
ound, p ecisely, in he lowe Guadalqui i and he middle Guadiana i e s, as Las Capellanías
is loca ed wi hin one o he mos impo an co ido s connec ing hese wo egions. The idea
o he ‘wa io ’ ep oduced by hese locally manu ac u ed isual displays includes a iable bu
s anda dized combina ions o a wide ange o mo i s ela ed o wa a e (swo d, shield, spea ,
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
headgea , cha io ), hun ing (bow and a ow, dog), bodily ca e and d ess (b ooch, mi o ,
comb, azo , weeze s), o al adi ions (ly es). Mo e gene ally, he depic ed pe sonages and
a e ac s associa ed wi h hem we e likely associa ed wi h he (´globally´ sha ed) wo ld iew
o hose communi ies, including ideas abou he o he wo ld, ounda ional my hs o eso e ic
knowledge acqui ed h ough he in ol emen o local eli es in long-dis ance connec ions wi h
he A lan ic and he Medi e anean du ing he B onze Age and he beginning o he I on Age
(c. 1400/1250–750 BC) [11,69,70].
Thi dly, he ac ha he pe sonage depic ed in s ela #2 displays six oes on each oo is
highly signi ican , as i lends suppo o he hypo hesis ha s elae we e in ended o p o-
ide g aphic accoun s o o ally ansmi ed my hs, which included special cha ac e s, such
as he oes [11,34]. Indeed, s ela #2 a Las Capellanías migh no be he only case whe e his
ana omical ea u e is ound. O he wa io s elae, such as Ped o Abad o Mon emolín in he
Guadalqui i alley show possible cases o polydac yly in he hands and ee , espec i ely,
al hough his will equi e con i ma ion h ough high- esolu ion digi al ende ings o he
mo i s. The ca e s o a signi ican g oup o wa io s elae and s elae wi h headd ess paid
g ea a en ion o he depic ion o inge s and oes. These we e o en depic ed in de ail and
o e sized, sugges ing ha hey we e impo an and meaning ul ea u es in he cha ac e isa ion
o he pe sonages depic ed. Polydac yly is a a e occu ence in he a chaeological eco d, bu
he e is sugges i e e idence ha among p ehis o ic socie ies i was conside ed a ai associ-
a ed wi h ‘special’ people. To ou knowledge, he oldes such case documen ed in Eu ope is a
emale indi idual ound in he ichly u nished Coppe Age holos o Mon eli io, loca ed in
he Valencina mega-si e [71,72], ba ely 90 km o he sou h-eas o Caña e al de León. This
ai may well ha e ma ked his indi idual as a special pe son du ing he li e [72]. E idence
o he signi icance o polydac yly as a ‘sac ed’ physical ai is ound in se e al egions o he
wo ld, pa icula ly in Cen al and No h Ame ica [73–79].
Finally, he e is he ma e o he ch onology yielded by he wo OSL da es ob ained om
samples o soil lying di ec ly below s ela #2. These a e he i s di ec nume ical ages e e
ob ained o da e hese s elae, wi h he possible excep ion o a adioca bon da e om Poci o
Chico [27,28] ob ained om non-a icula ed animal bone ound as pa o he in ill o a hu ,
whe e he s ela had been eused as pa o he ab ic o a wall. Be o e he exca a ion o Las
Capellanías, he con en ional iew abou he ch onology o ‘wa io ’ s elae, placing hem
la gely be ween he end o he Middle B onze Age and he beginning o he EIA [28], was
d awn om he in e p e a ion o he mo i s eng a ed on hem (which, in some cases a e ec-
ognisable while in o he s ske chy and un ecognisable), and om he hin (and ague) in o -
ma ion ha was a ailable as o hei con ex . S ela #2 om Caña e al de León b oadens and
en iches his old deba e, as he OSL ch onology p o ides maximum ages o i s decommis-
sioning, which could ha e aken place any ime be ween c. 2340 and 1680 BC o la e . While
unning in pa coun e he con en ional wisdom ega ding hese monumen s, an EBA/MBA
( i s hal o he 2nd millennium BC) bu ial o his s ela canno be uled ou . Fi s ly, he mo -
phology o he mound in o which i was embedded and he cis i was laid nex o (S uc u e
1) a e compa ible wi h an EBA ch onology. Secondly, i s iconog aphy lacks some o he mos
clea ly de inable LBA mo i s o ‘wa io ’ s elae: he wo-wheeled cha io and he shields. These
a e, on he o he hand, absen om o he wa io s elae da ed by some o he LBA o he IA
(e.g., Capilla 3, Mon emolín) [10]. The only clea ly ecognisable i ems in he panoply o s ela
#2 a e a swo d and a bow (possibly including a second bow). Swo ds a e a well-known ea u e
o ‘Alen ejan’ s elae, which a e da ed o he EBA/MBA [10,51], and hey also appea in EBA
bu ials, pa icula ly in El A ga cul u e o he Ibe ian sou h-eas , s a ing om c. 1800/1700
BC. The e o e, he esea ch unde aken a Las Capellanías opens he possibili y ha some
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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
‘wa io ’ s elae o he Ibe ian sou h-wes may ha e been c ea ed ea lie han p e iously
hough , hus expanding he ime ange o hese ema kable monumen s.
Howe e , while a ch onology o he decommissioning o s ela #2 du ing he i s hal o
he 2nd millennium BC canno be uled ou , i is impo an o no e ha he in ill o soil unde
he s ela was mode a ely loose and may ha e been a ec ed by pos -deposi ional al e a ions.
Also, as no ed abo e, because o he na u e o he sampling conduc ed, he samples analysed
may ha e con ained g ains wi h di e en deg ees o op ical ese ing. I is impo an o ei e -
a e ha he OSL esul s indica e ha he p ocess o bu ial o he soil su ace esul ing om he
deposi ion o he s ela occu ed du ing o ollowing he da e ange ob ained (i.e., 2340–1680
BC; +/- 1σ). Fu u e scien i ic da ing (OSL o o he wise) will be able o e ine he empo ali y
o hese monumen s. This unde lines he need o u he high- esolu ion exca a ion and
scien i ic da ing o con ex s associa ed wi h such s elae, pa icula ly in hose cases whe e clea
LBA mo i s, such as he wo-wheeled cha io , a e absen .
Conclusion
The disco e y o s ela #2, o he ‘wa io ’ ype, a he Las Capellanías bu ial complex, in
Caña e al de León, in June 2022, and i s subsequen s udy, ep esen s a g ound-b eaking
push in he hund ed-yea -old s udy o Ibe ian s elae. Fo he i s ime e e , one such s ela
has been disco e ed in a p ima y con ex in he cou se o an a chaeological exca a ion,
which g an s he possibili y o con olled, high- esolu ion and well-con ex ualised scien i ic
obse a ions ega ding i s posi ion, ch onology and socio-cul u al con ex . In summa y, s ela
#2 was embedded inside he mound o a la ge bu ial s uc u e akin o hose da ing o he
B onze Age ac oss he egion, in close associa ion wi h a la ge cis and a la ge block o milky
qua z. In addi ion, i s ood on he e ge o wha oday is, as was in ecen his o ical pe iods,
a pa hway connec ing he lowe Guadalqui i alley and he middle Guadiana basin, one o
he mos impo an communica ion ou es in p e-mode n Ibe ia. The e o e, he Caña e al
de León #2 s ela se les once and o all he decade-old deba e conce ning he con ex o hese
monumen s: his example sugges s ha hey ope a ed bo h as bu ial and landscape ma ke s.
In Ibe ia, he associa ion be ween bu ial monumen s and pa hways in Ibe ia is well a es ed
since he La e Neoli hic and Coppe Age [80,81], and he e idence e ie ed a Las Capellanías
sugges s ha his was also he case in B onze Age and I on Age.
In addi ion o his, he s elae now disco e ed a Las Capellanías ( h ee in o al, a e he
Sep embe 2023 exca a ion season) con i m he co-exis ence and synch onici y o a di e si y
o s elae o en ega ded as di e en ypes ep esen ing di e en social oles o e en adi ions
o pa ially di e ging ch onologies o /and social backg ounds. S elae which o en ha e been
seen as sepa a e in kind and empo ali y, such as he hose ‘wi h headd ess’ (o ‘diademadas’)
and hose e med ‘wa io ’ ones, a e ound ba ely a ew me e s apa a Las Capellanías (Fig 4),
nea , o in eg a ed in, bu ial monumen s ha a e adjacen o e en a ached o each o he . This
opens an en i ely new way o looking a hese monumen s, p esided by he luidi y o g aphic
concep s, hemes and na a i es. Those s elae p e iously e e ed o as ‘diadema ed’ and ‘wa -
io ’ can no longe be seen as sepa a e o opposi e. This was al eady sugges ed by he disco -
e y o he Almadén de la Pla a s ela #2 in 2005 [35] and is now con i med by he Caña e al de
León #1, #2 and #3 s elae. The so-called ‘wa io ’ and ‘diadema ed’ s elae we e pa o a wide
sys em o g aphic exp ession in eg a ing mul iple elemen s in a complex low o concep s and
meanings.
The de ailed analysis o he Caña e al de Leon s ela #2 and i s con ex a o ds new po en ial
ways o look a hese monumen s. Two signi ican obse a ions s and ou : i s , like s ela #1
ound in 2018, s ela #2 was ha dly wea he ed and showed no aces o lichens, which sugges s

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PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
ha i was ei he ne e placed on an open-ai loca ion o was so o a e y sho ime. Sec-
ondly, while he smoo hing o he slab was ho ough and ca e ul in bo h s elae (Fig 4), he
g aphic mo i s on s ela #2 appea o ha e been eng a ed a he has ily, hus esul ing in a
‘ske chy’ inish. Thi dly, he s ela was no ound in a ‘Pompeian’ posi ion, bu , ins ead, ca e-
ully placed upside down and bo om-up, and embedded inside he s ony in ill o he mound
which canno ha e happened by chance. Combined, hese h ee obse a ions sugges he pos-
sibili y ha some s elae we e ne e in ended o be e ec ed o long pe iods o ime as endu ing
monumen s bu , ins ead, ca ed oppo unis ically and used o e a ela i ely sho ime span,
as pa o he une al p ac ices [70]. Tha would ce ainly ha e been he case o he Caña e al
de León #2 s ela, pe haps aised side by side wi h S uc u e 1a, he cis s anding nex o i , and
hen, sho ly a e i s p ima y ( une a y) use, placed inside he bu ial mound whe e i was sub-
sequen ly ound. The same sequence could also be sugges ed o he Se e illa s ela, men ioned
abo e. This coun e s he la gely unchallenged no ion, held o mo e han a cen u y, ha all
Ibe ian ‘wa io ’ s elae we e ca e ully c ea ed, pe haps by specialis s, and placed in a s anding
posi ion, o be seen and kep as endu ing monumen s. Fu he mo e, his would i a b oade
pa e n ha is being e ealed by he ecen e-examina ion o ‘wa io ’ s elae, which shows
ha some s elae we e a he imp o ised c ea ions ha could be engaged wi h and e-ca ed
sho ly a e hei ini ial c ea ion [45,69], while o he s made o e y ha d li hologies (i.e.,
silica e qua z-sands one) om he Zúja egion could ha e been manu ac u ed in a planned
manne by specialis s du ing he la es phase o he wa io s elae phenomenon [82].
Finally, he OSL da es ob ained sugges ha his s ela was bu ied a e c. 2700 BC. This
opens up he possibili y o ea lie da es han p e iously assumed o he c ea ion and euse o
some wa io s elae. While cau ion mus be applied, as hese a e he i s di ec OSL da es o
such s elae, and, as no ed abo e, a possibili y emains ha he soil samples included qua z
g ains associa ed wi h an ea lie deposi ional p ocess, his opens up an en i ely new line o
hinking abou he empo ali y o hese ema kable monumen s, in which scien i ic da ing
e eals i sel o be o he essence. Gi en ha he empi ical basis on which he ch onology o
hese monumen s has been buil has adi ionally lacked scien i ic da ing, much a en ion
should be paid o his p oblem in he u u e.
Al oge he , he si e o Las Capellanías p o ides s iking new e idence ha is se o cause
a ue uphea al in how Ibe ian s elae ha e been app oached o his da e. S ela #2, oge he
wi h he new e idence e ie ed in he exca a ions unde aken in June 2022 and Sep embe
2023, cu en ly unde s udy, including s ela #3, ound on op o a bu ial pi wi h a subs an ial
amoun o c ema ed human bone and deco a ed wi h a s iking ‘combina ion’ o elemen s
om he (hi he o) di e en ia ed ‘diadema ed’ and ‘wa io s elae, is good p oo o how much
he long-s anding hinking abou hese monumen s is abou o be challenged.
Suppo ing in o ma ion
S1 Fig. O hoimage o S uc u e 1.
(JPG)
S2 File. Luminescence da ing epo .
(PDF)
Acknowledgmen s
We would like o exp ess ou hanks o se e al people who collabo a ed in he ieldwo k
ca ied ou as pa o his s udy, including Elena Collado Aguile a and Rosa O e o Béja , om
he Huel a Museum and Regional Cul u al Boa d, Ma a Cin as Peña, om he Uni e si y o
PLOS ONE | h ps://doi.o g/10.1371/jou nal.pone.0321080 Ap il 23, 2025 23 / 27
PLOS ONE Shedding new ligh on he con ex and empo ali y o Ibe ian wa io s elae
Se illa, Me cedes Go do Má quez and Miguel Muñoz Sánchez, om he Caña e al de León
ci y council, as well as Ángeles Na a o Sanchez, and Ramón Noya A ana o hei con in-
ued suppo h oughou . We also hank Judi P aena Ga cía and Manuel T is án Ma ín
Ruiz, unde g adua e s uden s a he Uni e si y o Se illa, and Kalliopi Hadjipa e as, Robe
Lanigan, Huang Qinghuan, Thea Lewin, Ellie New on, Ian Wong, Pandu Ilalang and Ame-
lia Holden, unde g adua e s uden s om Du ham Uni e si y. We also wish o acknowledge
he p o essional suppo o he CSIC In e disciplina y Thema ic Pla o m Open He i age:
Resea ch and Socie y (PTI-PAIS).
Au ho con ibu ions
Concep ualiza ion: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-
Gua damino, Da id Whea ley.
Da a cu a ion: Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-Gua damino, Da id Whea ley.
Fo mal analysis: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-
Gua damino, Da id Whea ley, Jose An onio Lozano Rod iguez, Teodosio Donai e
Rome o, An onio Césa González-Ga cía, Ja ie Be mejo Meléndez, Miguel Ángel
Roge io-Candele a, E ic And ieux, Ian Baili .
Funding acquisi ion: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-
Gua damino, Da id Whea ley, Johan Ling.
In es iga ion: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-Gua damino,
Da id Whea ley, Jose An onio Lozano Rod iguez, Teodosio Donai e Rome o, An onio
Césa González-Ga cía, Raquel Mon e o A ús, José Ruiz Flo es, Ja ie Be mejo Meléndez,
Miguel Ángel Roge io-Candele a, E ic And ieux, Ian Baili .
Me hodology: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-Gua damino,
Da id Whea ley, A. Césa González-Ga cía, Miguel Ángel Roge io-Candele a, E ic
And ieux.
P ojec adminis a ion: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a
Diaz-Gua damino.
Valida ion: Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, An onio Césa González-Ga cía, Miguel Ángel Roge io-
Candele a, E ic And ieux, Ian Baili .
Visualiza ion: Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-Gua damino, Da id Whea ley, Jose
An onio Lozano Rod iguez, Teodosio Donai e Rome o, An onio Césa González-Ga cía,
Ja ie Be mejo Meléndez, E ic And ieux.
W i ing – o iginal d a : Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-
Gua damino, Jose An onio Lozano Rod iguez, Teodosio Donai e Rome o, An onio Césa
González-Ga cía, Miguel Ángel Roge io-Candele a, E ic And ieux.
W i ing – e iew & edi ing: Leona do Ga cía Sanjuán, Timo eo Ri e a-Jiménez, Ma a Diaz-
Gua damino, Da id Whea ley, Jose An onio Lozano Rod iguez, Teodosio Donai e Rome o,
An onio Césa González-Ga cía, Raquel Mon e o A ús, José Ruiz Flo es, Ja ie Be mejo
Meléndez, Miguel Ángel Roge io-Candele a, Johan Ling, E ic And ieux, Ian Baili .
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