Media and Communica ion (ISSN: 2183–2439)
2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X
h ps://doi.o g/10.17645/mac. 11i1.5991
A icle
8M Demons a ions, he Spanish Fa Righ and he Pandemic in a Hyb id
Media Sys em
Au o a Labio‐Be nal 1,* and Lau a Manzano‐Zamb uno 2
1Depa men o Jou nalism I, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain
2Depa men o Jou nalism II, Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain
* Co esponding au ho (au o [email p o ec ed])
Submi ed: 19 July 2022 | Accep ed: 29 No embe 2022 | Published: in p ess
Abs ac
Fo yea s, he cons uc ion o social subjec i i y has been condi ioned by he ole o he so‐called mass media, bu he
mul iplici y o media pla o ms oday con ibu es o he con igu a ion o eali y. In his con ex , his s udy analyses how
he discou se o he a igh in Spain e ec i ely c iminalised he In e na ional Women’s Day (8M) demons a ions in he
i s yea o he pandemic by linking hem o an inc ease in Co id‐19 in ec ions. To implemen his s a egy, Spain’s a ‐
igh pa y, Vox, used i s social media accoun s, bu i also had he suppo o ul a‐conse a i e digi al media ou le s o
legi imise i s discu si e dis o ions. Taking his in o accoun , his a icle p esen s a con en and c i ical discou se analysis
o he Twi e and Gab accoun s ope a ed by Vox and i s leade s, San iago Abascal and Rocio Monas e io, as well as h ee
ul a‐conse a i e newspape s, La Razón,OK Dia io, and Libe ad digi al. The pe iod co e ed is om 8 Ma ch 2020 o
8 Ma ch 2021.
Keywo ds
Co id‐19; a igh ; eminis demons a ions; hyb id media sys em; In e na ional Women’s Day; Vox
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Global Inequali ies in he Wake o Co id‐19: Gende , Pandemic, and Media Gaps” edi ed
by Ma g e h Lünenbo g (F eie Uni e si ä Be lin), Mi iam Siemon (F eie Uni e si ä Be lin), and Wol gang Reißmann (F eie
Uni e si ä Be lin).
© 2023 by he au ho (s); licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu‐
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
A e winning 24 sea s in he gene al elec ion o Ap il
2019, he a ‐ igh pa y Vox en e ed he Spanish
Pa liamen o he i s ime. Jus one mon h la e , i
also won h ee sea s in he Eu opean Pa liamen . In his
way, in a ma e o me e mon hs p io o he ou b eak o
he Co id‐19 pandemic, he Spanish a ‐ igh became an
ins i u ional o ce wi h a p esence in poli ical decision‐
making bodies. This would also make Spain ano he o
he Eu opean coun ies whe e he ul a‐conse a i e
populis and na ionalis discou se o he a igh had
gained a oo hold. Va ious au ho s (Goodwin, 2011;
Ma cha , 2001; Milne , 2021; Minkenbe g & Pe ineau,
2007; Wagne & Meye , 2017) ha e analysed he ise o
poli ical pa ies o his kind in coun ies such as Aus ia,
F ance, I aly, Denma k, No way, and he Ne he lands,
whe e in some cases hey ha e e en become pa ne s
in go e ning coali ions. The main easons o he suc‐
cess o a ‐ igh ideology wi h Eu opean o e s a e asso‐
cia ed wi h public disa ec ion wi h adi ional bipa isan
poli ics and he socioeconomic consequences o glob‐
alisa ion (Sand in, 2021). In a con ex o economic c i‐
sis and educed na ional so e eign y, hese a ‐ igh pa ‐
ies p omo e he idea o enemies o he people h ough
a na ionalis , xenophobic and an i‐es ablishmen dis‐
cou se (Da is & Deole, 2017; Edo & Giesing, 2020; Ha
& Win e , 2022) ha includes a ull on al a ack on
eminism (Ál a ez‐Bena ides & Jiménez Aguila , 2021;
Sp engholz, 2021).
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 1
This s udy analyses he case o Vox as a populis
a ‐ igh pa y. As Capde ila e al. (2022, p. 3) a gue,
Vox is cha ac e ised by “i s na ionalism (a cen alised,
monona ional S a e ounded on e hno‐na ional my hs),
i s au ho i a ianism (belie in an o de ed socie y in which
o ences agains au ho i y mus be se e ely punished)
and i s de ence o adi ional alues (an i‐ eminism,
an i‐abo ion, amily, adi ions and u al li e).” We also
d aw on he pe spec i e o au ho s like Ea well and
Goodwin (2019) o de ine his pa y as populis and adi‐
cally igh ‐wing.
Wi h he pa y’s inc easing in luence on na ional
poli ics, he public heal h c isis caused by he Co id‐19
pandemic in 2020 would p o ide Vox wi h a p e ex o
disc edi ing he In e na ional Women’s Day (8M) demon‐
s a ions in Spain. Since 2018, 8M has acqui ed much
g ea e signi icance in Spain, as i has in he es o
he wo ld, as he da e was ma ked by an In e na ional
Women’s S ike. Al hough he i s s ike was called on
8 Ma ch 2017, he e en ecei ed conside ably mo e
a en ion he ollowing yea , wi h a much la ge numbe
o women in many mo e coun ies aking pa (Mo iana
Ma eo, 2018).
I is wo h cla i ying ha he a igh does no deny
he exis ence o inequali y en i ely, bu ha i appea s
in a ‐ igh discou se solely wi h e e ence o he pas ,
o non‐Wes e n socie ies, o o ques ions ha a e p e‐
sen ed as na u al o inhe en o each sex. I is hus com‐
mon o Vox o e e ence impo an his o ical igu es
in eminism while a he same ime a guing ha he
mo emen has “d i ed owa ds ex emism” in ecen
imes (Cas illo Ja a e al., 2019). The acknowledgemen
o inequali y also unde pins pa o he an i‐immig a ion
agenda o he a igh , based on he claim ha he men
who assaul “Spanish” women a e mig an s, p edomi‐
nan ly o A ab o igin (Be g, 2019; Blee, 2017; Wodak,
2015). In his espec , he ela ionship be ween he a
igh and an i‐ eminism has been explo ed in nume ous
s udies. Some o hese s udies place an emphasis on
an i‐immig a ion sen imen , as no ed abo e, bu hey
also highligh o he impo an issues, such as he delibe ‐
a e use o he ela i ely small numbe o women in he
pa y’s anks o ac as “ e u e s” o inequali y by i ue
o hei exis ence (Be g, 2019; Blee, 2017); he ede i‐
ni ion o mo he hood as a “ igh ” o women, ejec ing
he concep ion o i as a adi ionally imposed ole (Be g,
2019); “disiden i ica ion” p ocesses whe eby men a e
no ecognised as a p i ileged social g oup bu ins ead
a e dis anced om hose who ac i ely engage in io‐
lence agains women and depic ed as “ ic ims” o emi‐
nis pe secu ion (B idges, 2021); and he ep esen a ion
o eminism as a d i ing o ce o censo ship, whe eby
he exp ession o a ‐ igh ideas is ans o med in o he
epi ome o eedom o exp ession and “an i‐poli ical co ‐
ec ness” (T äbe , 2017).
These ea u es ecognised in a ‐ igh ideology in he
Wes a e also poin ed ou in s udies analysing he dis‐
cou se o Vox, whe e a dis inc ion can be made be ween
hose ha ocus on hei public s a emen s (Cas illo Ja a
e al., 2019; Ri as Venegas, 2021) and hose ha analyse
hei discou se on social media pla o ms (Be na dez‐
Rodal e al., 2022; Luque O iz & Cano Ala cón, 2021).
The la e o hese wo app oaches has become espe‐
cially popula in ecen yea s. D awing on he s udy
by Jo di Bone ‐Ma í (2020) o he cons uc ion o
an i‐ eminis discou se on Twi e , i seems clea ha he
“lexical ba le” (Ri as Venegas, 2021) waged by Vox aims
o disc edi eminism wi h ecou se o pos ‐ u h claims,
associa ed wi h he phenomenon o ake news and dis‐
cu si e agg ession in he con ex o he heigh ened sen‐
si i i y o public opinion due o he Co id‐19 pandemic.
Bone ‐Ma í (2020, p. 3) a gues ha an i‐ eminism is con‐
s uc ed as a “coun e mo emen eac ing agains he
a ious wa es o eminis mobilisa ion” and desc ibes
Vox’s eac ion as a esponse o he success o he 8M
demons a ions in 2018 and 2019. The an i eminis dis‐
cu si e p ac ices engaged in by Vox we e hus in ended
o link he eminis mobilisa ions on 8 Ma ch 2020 o he
sp ead o Co id‐19 in Spain. In his con ex , ou s udy
aims no only o speci ically explo e he ep oduc ion o
an an i eminis agenda in Vox’s discou se bu also o ana‐
lyse he in e ac ion be ween he dissemina ion o ha
discou se in adi ional media (whe e i is beyond he
con ol o he pa y i sel ), and i s social media messag‐
ing (which is di ec ly con olled by he pa y).
2. Discu si e Powe and Ideology in a Hyb id
Media Sys em
The mul iplici y o media channels oday is con ibu ‐
ing o he con igu a ion o eali y and o he way ha
humans expe ience he wo ld a ound hem, whe eby a‐
di ional media a e no longe he sole con ibu o s o he
cons uc ion o ou ideological amewo k. This hyb id
media sys em acili a es in e ac ion be ween “olde and
newe media logics—whe e logics a e de ined as ech‐
nologies, gen es, no ms, beha io s, and o ganiza ional
o ms—in he e lexi ely connec ed ields o media and
poli ics” (Chadwick, 2017, p. 4).
And eas Junghe e al. (2019) posi he possibili y o
in e dependence be ween he di e en ac o s in he dig‐
i al en i onmen oday who possess a discu si e powe
ha shapes key issues and how hey a e amed. These
au ho s sugges ha he e a e sys emic, o ganisa ional,
and indi idual ac o s ha de e mine discu si e powe
h ough communica ion dynamics in which co po a ions
also gi e a b oadcas ing ole o he gene al public ia
social media. In his complex media sys em, he sha ed
ideology is he p oduc o a di e se ange o in e ac ions
ep esen ing mul iple poin s o iew ha can o en esul
in a “cacophony o oices” (Waldhe , 2018, p. 292).
The pu pose behind analysing social media and mass
media con en was no o di e en ia e be ween hem
bu o iden i y hei complemen a y con ibu ions o
he cons uc ion o public deba e. As esea che s, we
belie e his ype o combined analysis acili a es “a mo e
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 2
comp ehensi e s udy o he e olu ion o poli ical com‐
munica ion” (Chadwick, 2017, p. 5). This cons i u es a
new o m o discu si e powe ha ne e heless s ill p o‐
mo es he legi imisa ion o alues and belie s h ough a
social and cul u al amewo k (Kollec, 2014).
One in e es ing aspec o hese new o ms o discu ‐
si e powe is ela ed o he concep o homophily. This
e m has been used by a ious schola s in ecen yea s
(Khanam e al., 2022; Vale a‐O daz e al., 2018) o e e
o he endency o people o in e ac wi h o he s wi h a
simila men ali y o hei own in he digi al en i onmen ,
ein o cing hei own ideology in online communi ies o
ne wo ks. The concep o homophily is ci ed in his s udy
o explo e how Vox and i s leade s, San iago Abascal
and Rocío Monas e io, make use o social media pla ‐
o ms o o e hei ollowe s a pa icula discou se while
also d awing on con en on Spain’s conse a i e digi al
news pla o ms. In his way, Vox expands i s a ‐ igh and
an i‐ eminis discou se on Gab and Twi e no only by
in e ac ing wi h i s ollowe s bu also h ough news s o‐
ies published by he h ee bigges conse a i e publica‐
ions in Spain. The condi ion o homophily be ween he
jou nalis s o hese publica ions and Vox’s pa y lead‐
e s hus ampli ies he discu si e powe o a pa y ha
has exploi ed he con ex o he Co id‐19 pandemic in
an e o o dispa age and c iminalise he eminis 8M
demons a ions h ough he use o disin o ma ion.
F om his c i ical pe spec i e, his s udy akes up
John Co ne ’s (2016) p oposal o a new app oach o
he analysis o he ela ionship be ween ideology and
powe in he media ha akes in o accoun he in e ac‐
ion be ween cogni i e and a ec i e dimensions.
In his con ex , he aim o his s udy is o demon‐
s a e ha Vox blamed 8M p o es s o igge ing a ise in
Co id‐19 in ec ions in he i s yea o he pandemic, and
o which end i used discu si e s a egies o ac ual dis‐
o ion on i s Twi e and Gab accoun s. In addi ion, we
analyse how his discou se was ein o ced by news s o‐
ies appea ing on a ‐ igh digi al media pla o ms, esul ‐
ing in a wo‐p onged an i‐ eminis homophilic s a egy in
a hyb id media sys em.
Fo ou analysis in he con ex o a hyb id media sys‐
em, in addi ion o h ee digi al newspape s, we selec ed
he social media pla o ms Twi e and Gab. The la e
i s eme ged as an al e na i e o he a igh in he
Uni ed S a es (Jasse e al., 2021), and we we e in e ‐
es ed in de e mining whe he i had also been e ec i e
o Vox in Spain. As he esul s show, Vox has con inued
o use Twi e as i s main social media pla o m, while
Gab has emained a ma ginal op ion in he p ojec ion o
i s discou se.
To his end, we analyse he connec ions made
be ween 8M and Co id‐19 in con en pos ed on he Vox
pa y accoun s on Twi e and Gab, and on he accoun s
o he pa y’s na ional leade , San iago Abascal, and
he p esiden o i s Mad id b anch, Rocío Monas e io.
We also conduc he same analysis on h ee o he
mos impo an ul a‐conse a i e digi al media ou ‐
le s in Spain: La Razón,OK Dia io, and Libe ad Digi al.
The h ee media ou le s we e selec ed on he basis o
hei edi o ial line, which is cha ac e ised by a bias ha
is skewed u he o he igh han adi ional igh ‐wing
iews. As has been ecen ly con i med by he indepen‐
den o ganisa ion Poli ical Wa ch (n.d.), he newspa‐
pe s La Razón,OK Dia io, and Libe ad Digi al a e all
posi ioned on he a igh o he poli ical spec um in
Spain, close o o wi hin wha is ca ego ised as hype ‐
pa isan igh . This asse ion is suppo ed by p e ious
esea ch, including a s udy by Labio‐Be nal (2006) on pa ‐
isan bias in he Spanish media, and ano he by Pineda
and Almi ón (2013) on he ise o he ul a‐conse a i e
online news media.
3. Me hodology
This s udy hus expands he analysis o public communi‐
ca ions on adi ional media o include new digi al o ms,
aking in o accoun he complex na u e o he media sys‐
em oday. The pe iod s udied co e s he i s yea o he
Co id‐19 pandemic, om 8 Ma ch 2020 o 8 Ma ch 2021.
In he case o Twi e (see Table 1), a o al o
2,873 wee s by Vox, 772 by Monas e io, and 649 by
Abascal we e p ocessed o his s udy. To download he
da a, Twi e ’s Applica ion P og amming In e ace (API)
was accessed using Py hon cus om so wa e ha acil‐
i a es he iden i ica ion o accoun s (@San i_ABASCAL,
@monas e ioR, and @ ox_es), he speci ica ion o ime
anges, and he selec ion only o hose wee s pos ed o
quo ed by he accoun holde s, i.e., excluding e wee s.
In he case o Gab (see Table 1), we ound ha
Rocío Monas e io has no accoun on his social media
pla o m, so only he accoun s @San iago_Abascal_ and
@VOX_Espana_ we e analysed. The pos s we e e iewed
manually as hei ela i ely small numbe made his pos‐
sible (21 pos s by Abascal and 127 by Vox, excluding
epos s). I was ound ha he Vox leade pos ed no hing
ela ed o he 8M demons a ions in his pe iod, while
he pa y’s accoun dedica ed wo pos s o he subjec .
Table 1. To al numbe o messages analysed on social media.
Twi e (no. o wee s) Gab (no. o pos s)
@San i_ABASCAL @monas e ioR @ ox_es @San iago_Abascal_ @VOX_Espana_
649 772 2,873 21 127
To al: 4,442 messages
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 3
Al hough only a limi ed numbe o messages we e ound
on Gab, hey ha e been included in his s udy due o his
pla o m’s epu a ion as a social media se ice o he
a igh .
Fo he analysis o he h ee digi al news ou le s,
a icles we e downloaded using he sea ch unc ions o
each pla o m in wo s eps: an ini ial sea ch wi h “man‐
i es ación eminis a del 8M” (8M eminis demons a‐
ion), which yielded a o al o 295 a icles om OK Dia io,
202 om Libe ad Digi al, and 234 om La Razón; and
“Co ona i us” and “pandemia” (pandemic) as a il e
(see Table 2), esul ing in 164 hi s on OK Dia io (55%
o he o al), 90 on Libe ad Digi al (44.5%), and 91 on
La Razón (38.8%). These a icles we e sc eened o elim‐
ina e en ies whose co e con en is audio isual, esul ‐
ing in 160 ex s on OK Dia io, 91 on La Razón, and 61 on
Libe ad Digi al.
The di e ences in he way ha in o ma ion can be
downloaded om social media pla o ms as opposed o
egula media ou le s s em om he ac ha he o ‐
me ha e no sea ch mechanism ha would make i pos‐
sible o di ec ly iden i y pos s abou 8M, while in he
case o he digi al newspape s, his ype o e ined sea ch
was possible. I was o his eason ha Twi e pos s
we e downloaded au oma ically ( his was done manually
on Gab), and he con en had o be il e ed in he sec‐
ond s ep, in oducing he key concep s o ele ance o
ou s udy.
Once he co pus had been downloaded, he esea ch
p ocess was conduc ed in wo s ages, in acco dance wi h
he wo me hodologies adop ed o he s udy.
The i s s age in ol ed an au oma ed con en
analysis. Acco ding o A cila‐Calde ón e al. (2016,
p. 625), ools like hese o e come he “limi a ions o
adi ional con en analysis…and p omo e inc easingly
di e se esea ch wo k.” In ou case, we de eloped his
app oach wi h a p og am designed in Py hon o acili a e
he analysis o he wee s and news a icles, which made
i possible o conduc a gene al inspec ion o he da a.
Following a equency analysis, we compiled he wo ds
used he mos o en in each case (Figu es 1 and 2), and
hen e iewed he esul s in o de o pu ge hose ha
we e no ele an and o iden i y concep s ela ed o he
esea ch. Based on his app oach, he uni s ha would
o m pa o he nex s age o analysis we e selec ed.
In he case o Gab, his p ocess was manual because, as
no ed abo e, he small numbe o messages ende ed an
au oma ed echnique unnecessa y.
Table 2. To al numbe o ex s analysed on digi al news media.
OK Dia io La Razón Libe ad Digi al
164 91 90
To al: 345 ex s
Figu e 1. Wo ds used mos o en on Twi e . No e: Fo mo e in o ma ion see h ps://www.d opbox.com/scl/ i/3 5931
qb 0dbz 9ucyhae/F equencyAnalysis_Twi e .xls?dl=0& lkey=llhe 1 c1 7 h l o05 39
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 4
Figu e 2. Wo ds used mos o en in news media. No e: Fo mo e in o ma ion see h ps://www.d opbox.com/scl/ i/kg1
gu9xpg2sqh87haoda8/F equencyAnalysis_P ess.xls?dl=0& lkey= 8 2nxd7sq mes on e1a6l
In he second s age, we conduc ed a c i icaldiscou se
analysis. This ype o analysis “ ocuses on social p ob‐
lems, and especially on he ole o discou se in he p o‐
duc ion and ep oduc ion o powe abuse o domina‐
ion” ( an Dijk, 2001, p. 96). We should cla i y, in line
wi h an Dijk himsel , ha C i ical Discou se Analysis is
no a me hodology pe se, no does i in ol e he applica‐
ion o any speci ic me hods; a he , i uses “any me hod
ha is ele an o he aims o i s esea ch p ojec s, and
such me hods a e la gely hose used in discou se s ud‐
ies gene ally” (2009, p. 2). In ou case, we op ed o
he ca ego isa ion p oposed by Sande an de Linden
and Jon Roozenbeek (2020), as discussed below, o pe ‐
o m he c i ical discou se analysis. In con as o he p e‐
ious s age, his s age in ol ed a quali a i e app oach
ha made i possible o del e mo e deeply in o he mes‐
sages om a c i ical pe spec i e and ex ac mo e om
he in o ma ion.
In he cases o Twi e and Gab, all o he messages
ha linked he 8M demons a ions o Co id‐19 we e
analysed (20 on Twi e , wo on Gab). Fo he digi al
news a icles, i was necessa y o apply an addi ional
il e , as i was no possible o conduc a c i ical dis‐
cou se analysis o such a la ge sample (312 ex s). The e‐
quency analysis ca ied ou in he i s s age iden i ied a
p e alence o wo concep s associa ed wi h ou hypo h‐
esis: “con agio(s)” (in ec ion[s]) and “mue es” (dea hs).
In addi ion o hese, o he ela ed e ms ex ac ed om
public speeches by Vox membe s we e also consid‐
e ed: “guan es” (glo es), “p opaganda/p opagandis a”
(p opaganda/p opagandis ), “in ec ód omo” (in ec o‐
d ome), “aquela e” (wi ches’ co en), and “Día Nacional
de las íc imas de Co ona i us” (Na ional Day o he
Vic ims o Co ona i us). A lis was hus c ea ed o o de
he news a icles hie a chically acco ding o hei e e ‐
ences o hese concep s and he op h ee a icles we e
selec ed om each publica ion, making o a o al o nine
a icles o he c i ical discou se analysis.
The c i ical discou se analysis ocused on ake news
s a egies, applying i e o he ca ego ies used by Sande
an de Linden and Jon Roozenbeek (2020). The i s o
hese is emo ional con en , which basically e e s o con‐
en ha “is no necessa ily ‘ ake’ o ‘ eal’ bu delibe ‐
a ely plays in o people’s basic emo ions, such as ea ,
ange , o empa hy” ( an de Linden & Roozenbeek, 2020,
p. 158). I hus in ol es elici ing an emo ional eac ion
ou o he ecei e , wi h he use o o ensi e language,
insul s, and ha e speech. The second ca ego y explo ed
he e is he impe sona ion o a eliable news sou ce,
which in ol es gi ing he con en c edibili y by con ey‐
ing he imp ession o a p o essional sou ce o he pub‐
lic. Also included in his ca ego y a e news s o ies ha
lack an o icial sou ce and con ain baseless o un e i ied
in o ma ion. In his s udy, special a en ion is gi en o he
use o appa en ly scien i ic app oaches and e e ences
o supposedly au ho i a i e sou ces. The hi d a iable
in ol es he no ion o disc edi ing, which e e s o he
de lec ion o accusa ions “by a acking he sou ce o he
c i icism…o denying ha he p oblem exis s” ( an de
Linden & Roozenbeek, 2020, p. 160). Disc edi ing hus
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 5

en ails a di ec a ack on any in o ma ion, indi iduals,
o sou ces ha migh call he ake con en in o ques‐
ion. Speci ically, his analysis will ocus on a emp s
o disc edi he eminis mo emen and i s suppo ‐
e s. The ou h ca ego y is pola iza ion, de ined as an
inc eased dis ance be ween he le and igh sides o
he poli ical spec um. O pa icula in e es o his
s udy is he ques ion o how he ela ionship be ween
8M and Co id‐19 is used o ein o ce he iden i y o
Vox as a pa y, and, in u n, he iden i y o i s o e s.
In his way, he pa y seeks o s eng hen g oup cohe‐
sion by dis inguishing i sel om adi ional bipa isan
poli ics. The las o he i e a iables o be analysed is
he ca ego y o conspi acy heo ies, whe eby e en s a e
explained by claiming ha hey ha e been o ches a ed
o “sinis e ” pu poses. The analysis o his ca ego y will
ocus on he heo y ha he go e nmen knew abou he
public heal h ale ye s ill allowed he 8M demons a‐
ions o go ahead, al hough o he conspi acy heo ies
will also be iden i ied.
We selec ed he ca ego ies p oposed in Sande an
de Linde and Jon Roozebeek’s (2020) s udy as an
analy ical echnique because we conside ed i o be a
p o en me hod o de ec ing disin o ma ion. The s udy
by hese au ho s was p esen ed as an expe imen in ol ‐
ing he pa icipa ion o a ound 15,000 people o iden‐
i y ake news. Thei s udy is also based on he epo
Digi al Hyd a: Secu i y Implica ions o False In o ma ion
Online, di ec ed by Gio gio Be olin (2017). We belie e
ha in he con ex o he pandemic and gi en ha
an i‐ eminism is a key elemen o Vox’s ideology, an de
Linden and Roozenbeek’s ca ego ies o e ed an excellen
analy ical app oach o ou case s udy.
4. Resul s
Based on he applica ion o he empla e o ca ego ies
p o ided by an de Linden and Roozenbeek (2020) o
iden i y ake news s a egies, he analysis yielded he
esul s ou lined in his sec ion.
4.1. Emo ional Con en
All o he messages pos ed on Gab and Twi e make use
o his s a egy. The emo ion hey mos o en aim o
elici is ange , ollowed by dis us and suspicion, wi h
he clea objec i e o inci ing ha ed ha is di ec ed
especially a he go e nmen coali ion o he le is pa ‐
ies Unidas Podemos and PSOE, bu also some imes
a he adi ional conse a i e pa y, Pa ido Popula .
“Id al in ie no ya” (Go o hell al eady) and he in en ed
wo d “C iminalas” (Vox, Ma ch 23, 2020), which idicules
inclusi e language by applying a eminine o m o he
gende ‐neu al noun c iminal, a e some o he exp es‐
sions di ec ed a he uling PSOE pa y, and mo e speci ‐
ically a he women on he go e nmen ’s Equali y and
S a e Pac agains Gende ‐based Violence Commi ee,
in wha cons i u es a clea ly an i‐ eminis a ack. This
app oach is also e lec ed in he sugges ions o “sec‐
a ianism” and “poli ical obsession” in ela ion o he
demons a ions (Vox, Sep embe 30, 2020).
This s a egy is also adop ed widely by he news
se ices analysed, speci ically wi h he epea ed use
o pejo a i e e minology in hei headlines, such as
“in ec ód omo del 8M” ([8M in ec od ome] OK Dia io,
Feb ua y 24, 2021), which allegedly igge ed an inc ease
in “in ec ions by 2,000%,” while he Spanish go e nmen
is labelled he “socialis ‐communis execu i e.” This e ‐
minology is complemen ed wi h o he exp essions such
as “ he eminis s I ene Mon e o and Ca men Cal o—
minis e s—will be allowed o cong ega e o shou hei
misand is p oclama ions,” and he kind o language ha
Vox is known o is echoed in e e ences o he “aque‐
la e” (wi ches’ co en) ha sen “ housands o women
o hei dea hs” and desc ip ions o he demons a ions
as “one o he da kes momen s in his o y” o jus i y
he p oposal o designa e 8 Ma ch as he “Na ional Day
o Rememb ance o Vic ims o Co ona i us” (OK Dia io,
Feb ua y 23, 2021). The emo ional one is u ned up in
o he a icles ha make e e ence o “ma chas de las
muje es de ex ema izquie da” (ma ches o he women
o he a le ), “aquela es sec a ios” (sec a ian wi ches’
co ens), and “mani eminazi” ([ eminazi demons a ions]
Libe ad Digi al, Ma ch 10, 2020), which a e linked o
a “bomba í ica” ( i al bomb). The 8M p o es s o bo h
2020 and 2021 a e hus depic ed as “mani es aciones
asesinas” (kille demons a ions) whe e “once again, he
le sends housands o people o hei dea hs” (Libe ad
Digi al, Sep embe 22, 2020).
4.2. Impe sona ion o a Reliable News Sou ce
On social media pla o ms, he e a e i e no able cases
ha d aw on di e en sou ces o au ho i y. The i s
is he use o nume ical da a o highligh he size o
he c owds ha ga he ed o 8M, ocusing on a emi‐
nis demons a ion (wi hou speci ying he loca ion) o e
o he ga he ings (Vox, Ma ch 13, 2020). The second is an
asse ion o supposed “in o ma ion” abou he go e n‐
men ’s awa eness o he public heal h eme gency p io
o 8 Ma ch ea u ing a sc eensho image (Vox, Ap il 9,
2020). The hi d case is he use o scanned copies o o i‐
cial documen s, pa icula ly a memo om he Minis y o
Heal h (Monas e io, June 11, 2020), while he las wo
examples in ol e a ideo ea u ing Spain’s Minis e o
Equali y, I ene Mon e o, used in one case wi h minimal
edi ing (Vox, June 1, 2020) and he o he as pa o an
elabo a ely p oduced mon age (Vox, June 4, 2020) ha
e okes he idea o a “candid came a” ha “ca ches ou ”
someone who is lying.
This s a egy is also used by he news publica‐
ions, along wi h quo ing celeb i ies o alida e he posi‐
ion exp essed in he a icle. One news s o y con ains
he claim ha a judge has launched a “judicial in es‐
iga ion in o he na ional go e nmen ’s delega e o
he Mad id egion o misconduc in allowing he 8M
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 6
(demons a ions)’’ (OK Dia io, Ma ch 25, 2020) while
neglec ing o men ion ha he judge he sel had no ini‐
ia ed he in es iga ion bu was me ely hea ing a com‐
plain iled wi h he cou , o ha he in es iga ion did
no mean ha he delega e had been cha ged wi h he
alleged o ence. In ano he a icle, e e ence is made o
a “ epo ” ha blames he demons a ions o “causing
a leas 1,500 in ec ions” (La Razón, Janua y 22, 2021),
wi hou men ioning ha his epo was dismissed by
a Mad id cou in he complain iled agains Fe nando
Simón, he o icial esponsible o Spain’s pandemic
esponse, on he g ounds ha i lacked a scien i ic basis.
Celeb i ies quo ed in he news a icles analysed
include a o me baske ball playe , Al onso Reyes
(La Razón, June 10, 2020), and a Spanish socce playe ,
Pepe Reina, bo h o whom we e highly c i ical o he
go e nmen ’s handling o he pandemic, who a e p e‐
sen ed as legi ima e sou ces o opinion on he issue.
In he i s case, he a icle ci es a wee by Reyes in
which he asse s ha “i has also been demons a ed
ha mos o he people who ha e died ( om Co id‐19)
a e men bu we don’ accuse i o misand y,” wi h e ‐
e ence o I ene Mon e o’s sugges ion ha he a acks
agains 8M we e an i‐ eminis . The second a icle simply
highligh s he ac ha Pepe Reina liked a wee pos ed
by he spokespe son in he Cong ess o Pa ido Popula ,
Ma ga i a P ohens, o I ene Mon e o, and adds ha i
“is he mos o ce ul esponse o I ene Mon e o and he
eminism.” The inclusion o hese celeb i ies adds no h‐
ing new o he in o ma ion bu se es me ely o ein o ce
he s ance aken by he publica ion.
4.3. Disc edi ing
While Spanish p ime minis e Ped o Sánchez is men‐
ioned only once on Gab, on Twi e we can ind a ull
on al a ack on I ene Mon e o, Ca men Cal o (who
was depu y p ime minis e a he ime) and o a lesse
ex en , Isabel Ayuso (p esiden o he Communi y o
Mad id). Al hough he e a e e e ences o Sánchez,
he c i icism wi h e e ence o he Spanish go e n‐
men o he uling pa y (PSOE) is mo e dilu ed, i.e.,
he a emp s o disc edi hem a e less pe sonal. This
e eals a consequence o he machismo o Vox, which
ese es i s ha shes a acks o women e en when
he go e nmen ’s leade is a man. In his espec , he
s udy ound a conside able numbe o hash ags a ‐
ge ing Mon e o (#I eneCie aAlSali ) and he pa y,
Podemos (#PodemosCiao), bu mos we e aimed
a disc edi ing he go e nmen (#ApoyoALaMoción,
#Mo i osPa aLaMoción, #Gobie noDimisión and
#Gobie noDelBulo). I is epea edly claimed ha he go ‐
e nmen and i s membe s lied o concealed in o ma ion,
aising doub s abou hei us wo hiness and sugges ‐
ing ha hey a e guil y o negligence and o pu ing he
public a isk. In ac , on Gab he e a e e en pho o mon‐
ages in which he pa y name, Unidas Podemos (Uni ed
We Can), is ew i en as “Unidas Pandemias” (Pandemics
Uni ed) and he hea icon ha o ms pa o he PSOE’s
logo is eplaced wi h he co ona i us icon (Vox, Ma ch 20,
2020) o elici an emo ional esponse.
In he news publica ions analysed, he e o s o dis‐
c edi he go e nmen e iden in he emo ional con en
desc ibed abo e a e ampli ied in o de o a ack em‐
inism i sel o hose who ep esen i , wi h a ixa ion
on Mon e o in pa icula and emale go e nmen min‐
is e s in gene al. The a icles make sensa ional claims
agains Mon e o, sugges ing ha she is “hea ing up
he s ee s as 8M app oaches, despi e he co ona i us
h ea ” (OK Dia io, Feb ua y 23, 2021), o desc ibing
he pa y, Podemos, as a “mo emen o adicals” who
suppo he “a is Pablo Hásel a e he was sen enced
o glo i ying e o ism” (OK Dia io, Feb ua y 24, 2021).
In hese a icles, he demons a ions a e concep ualised
as a pa isan s a egy, di ec ed by “I ene Mon e o and
he eminism” (La Razón, June 10, 2020), an a gumen
main ained o he co e age o he 2021 p o es s, as
e iden in he headline “I ene Mon e o calls ano he
8M mass demons a ion despi e he ise in Co id in ec‐
ions” (La Razón, Janua y 22, 2021). The associa ion
o he 8M p o es s in 2021 wi h Mon e o is combined
wi h Vox’s call o ha e he da e decla ed he “Na ional
Day o Vic ims o Co ona i us,” a call ejec ed by
Mon e o, who is u he disc edi ed as a esul (OK Dia io,
Feb ua y 23, 2021).
4.4. Pola iza ion
On he social media accoun s analysed, and especially on
Twi e , Vox could be said o p esen i sel as “agains
he wo ld.” Al hough i places he blame o he ise
in Co id‐19 in ec ions chie ly on he go e nmen , and
especially on i s emale minis e s, i also seizes he
oppo uni y o a ack he adi ional conse a i e pa y,
Pa ido Popula , in i s ole as he go e ning pa y o he
Communi y o Mad id, o encou aging he 8M demon‐
s a ions. The pola ising logic sepa a es hose who ha e
been negligen and i esponsible by suppo ing 8M ga h‐
e ings om hose who ha e been cau ious and p o ec‐
i e by ejec ing hem, wi h Vox placed all alone on he
la e side and all he o he poli ical pa ies placed on
he o me . The “Na ional Day o Vic ims o Co ona i us”
(Vox, Feb ua y 22, 2021) cons i u es he co e o Vox’s
pola iza ion e o s, ma king a clea dis inc ion be ween
hose who a e conce ned o he public and seek o p o‐
ec hem and e en ake e enge on hose who do no ,
and hose who suppo ed he 8M demons a ions and
he e o e do no suppo Vox’s p oposal o a day hon‐
ou ing he “ ic ims.”
In he news a icles, he pola iza ion is simila ly
de ined based on he s ance on he 8M demons a ions;
howe e , he “Vox agains he wo ld” na a i e is no
e oked as o en, wi h a ocus ins ead on demons a ing
he dis ance be ween he p og essi e PSOE–Podemos
go e ning coali ion and he igh and a ‐ igh oppo‐
si ion pa ies, Pa ido Popula and Vox, espec i ely.
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 7
The a emp o lay blame o he ise in Co id‐19 in ec‐
ions is hus in ended o c ea e he idea o wo con‐
lic ing blocs, a no ion ein o ced by he publica ions
analysed. These news se ices seek o make clea ha
Vox dis ances i sel om he p e ailing bipa isan posi‐
ion, as s a ed in La Razón (Feb ua y 23, 2021), ejec ‐
ing he concep o “gende iolence” condemned in
he Ins i u ional Decla a ion by bo h he conse a i e
Communi y o Mad id go e nmen and he le is pa ies
on he occasion o 8M ha yea . They epea edly high‐
ligh his con lic h ough news s o ies abou a deba e
be ween Mon e o (Podemos) and Ma galida P ohens
(Pa ido Popula ), in which he la e claims ha “on
25 Feb ua y, he e we e s ong suspicions ha he co o‐
na i us was going o u n in o a public heal h ca as o‐
phe” (La Razón, June 10, 2020). Libe ad Digi al akes a
simila app oach when i places he pe mission g an ed
by he na ional go e nmen ’s delega e o Mad id, José
Manuel F anco, o 8M demons a ions o go ahead in
2021 in opposi ion o he s ance o he ci y’s mayo :
“F anco au ho izes demons a ions on 8 Ma ch o up o
500 people and [Mayo ] Almeida calls o none o be
allowed” (Libe ad Digi al, Feb ua y 24, 2021). The idea
is o place he heo ies ha he 8M e en s did no cause
he sp ead o he i us in opposi ion agains he heo y
o he conse a i es, suppo ed by he news publica ions
hemsel es, ha he e was a di ec cause‐e ec ela ion‐
ship be ween he wo and ha he e o e he go e n‐
men should “apologise” because he demons a ions
“ ep esen ed a se ious isk.”
4.5. Conspi acy Theo ies
The idea o a go e nmen conspi acy o allow he 8M
e en s o go ahead despi e he isk appea s in mos o he
messages on bo h Gab and Twi e . The e idence o e ed
includes he ac ha some go e nmen ep esen a i es
a ended he 8M demons a ions wea ing la ex glo es.
The e e en seems o be an in en ion o link he go e n‐
men o a kind o pu ge o ou side s, po aying i as
he enemy o he women i claims o s and up o . This
appea s o be he insinua ion behind accusa ions ha
he go e nmen minis e s we e “wea ing la ex glo es
while [ hey] exposed he people” (Vox, 23/03/2020),
o ha “ he minis e s we e wa ned du ing he demon‐
s a ion no o kiss each o he . Why wasn’ e e yone
else?” (Vox, 02/06/2020), o ha he go e nmen “wen
o a demons a ion wi h la ex glo es on while assu ing
Spania ds ha hey do no need o ake any measu es”
(Vox, 10/03/2020). Vox seeks o con ey he idea ha he
go e nmen has he objec i e o ex e mina ing people
ou side hei g oup: “Thei Spain is no he schools, o
social se ices o hospi als. Thei Spain is powe ” (Vox,
19/03/2020), wi h “powe ” e iden ly meaning domina‐
ion and ep ession. Such asse ions ul ima ely eed he
heo y ha he go e nmen “is un ouchable,” po aying
i as a kind o ma ia ha he cou s would no da e o hold
accoun able o wha happened (Vox, 26/06/2020).
Vox’s claim ha he go e nmen knew ha he 8M
demons a ions would inc ease he numbe o in ec ions
bu did no p ohibi hem because hey se ed as p o‐
paganda is also e lec ed in he news a icles analysed.
Fo example, in a s o y on a judicial in es iga ion in o
he na ional go e nmen delega e in Mad id o e alle‐
ga ions o misconduc (OK Dia io, 25/03/2020), he dig‐
i al news se ice highligh s he ac ha he complain
was based on he claim ha he delega e igno ed he
wa nings o he Eu opean Cen e o Disease P e en ion
and Con ol, bu i dis o s he in o ma ion by ailing o
cla i y ha hese wa nings applied o all ga he ings om
5 Ma ch o 14 Ma ch 2020, including he 8M demon‐
s a ions, bu also including a massi e ally held by Vox
ha was la gely o e looked by he media. The same idea
o a conspi acy is also p esen in a news a icle ha
claims ha “ he go e nmen ’s inac ion and i s obses‐
sion wi h allowing 8M cos li es,” along wi h he asse ‐
ion ha “we know oday ha i he lockdown had hap‐
pened se en days ea lie , 23,000 dea hs would ha e
been a e ed” (OK Dia io, 23/02/2021). This same a gu‐
men is aken up by La Razón when i claims ha he 2020
demons a ions we e encou aged o p omo e “ he ideo‐
logical agenda” o eminism, “p io i ising i o e heal h”
(22/01/2021). In sho , he claim is ha he go e nmen
knew o he isks bu did no p ohibi he demons a‐
ions because “i is commi ed o p opaganda” (Libe ad
Digi al, 10/3/2020).
5. Conclusions
As no ed in he in oduc ion o his a icle, Jo di Bone ‐
Ma í (2020) conduc ed a s udy o di e en Twi e
accoun s ha had a emp ed o link he 8M demons a‐
ions o a ise in Co id‐19 in ec ions. His s udy ound
ha in he absence o scien i ic e idence, hese accoun s
used “pos hoc e go p op e hoc, also known as he
alse cause allacy” o suppo hei claim (Bone ‐Ma í,
2020, p. 10). As his au ho explains, his allacy “in ol es
a ibu ing a causal connec ion be ween wo e en s o
he me e ac ha one, he supposed cause, occu ed
p io o he o he ” (Bone ‐Ma í, 2020, p. 10). D awing
on Bone ‐Ma í’s indings, his a icle has explo ed his
mis ep esen a ion o he ela ionship be ween he 8M
demons a ions and he ise in Co id‐19 in ec ions, ocus‐
ing on Vox’s an i eminis discu si e p ac ices on Twi e
and Gab, which a e ein o ced in h ee o he bigges con‐
se a i e digi al news pla o ms in he coun y.
The analysis poin s o he ollowing conclusions.
While he co pus o news s o ies o his s udy makes
a quan i a i e connec ion be ween he ise in in ec ions
and he eminis demons a ions, ou discou se analy‐
sis has also e ealed he use o de oga o y e minology
p omo ed by he ep esen a i es o Vox o sway public
opinion. Al hough his speci ic e minology appea s o
ha e been used mo e in public speeches by Vox leade s
han in pos s on i s social media accoun s, i is clea ha
he news publica ions analysed ha e ep oduced he
Media and Communica ion, 2023, Volume 11, Issue 1, Pages X–X 8
a gumen s and ideas pu o wa d by he a ‐ igh pa y
on Twi e and Gab. The social media p o iles o Vox and
i s leade sha e exploi ed he pandemic o push hei p o‐
paganda and a ack he go e nmen , bu hei c i ique
has a ma kedly misogynis ic and an i‐ eminis dimension
in iew o hei obsession wi h bo h he emale cabine
minis e s and hei suppo o eminism: Fo example,
he e is no hash ag c ea ed o disc edi P ime Minis e
Ped o Sánchez as he e is o he Equali y Minis e , I ene
Mon e o (#I eneCie aAlSali ).
On he o he hand, he social media accoun s analy‐
sed all ha e he common denomina o o a o al lack o
anspa ency: he sou ce o he da a is no disclosed, no
is any link o e e ence p o ided o enable use s o e ‐
i y he in o ma ion. In he case o news publica ions, he
impe sona ion o a eliable sou ce is achie ed h ough
sel ‐se ing concealmen o in o ma ion and he use o
celeb i ies who a e used as “clickbai ,” es ing hem wi h
supposed au ho i y as opinion leade s.
To disc edi he eminis mo emen , he social media
p o iles es ablish a di ec ela ionship be ween he high
in ec ion a e o he i us and he (poo ) decisions o
he go e nmen , mos no ably, allowing he 8M demon‐
s a ions o go ahead. Mo e speci ically, bo h he social
media accoun s and he news ou le s di ec hei a acks
a I ene Mon e o, whom hey accuse o ins iga ing he
demons a ions o he pu poses o p opaganda o p o‐
mo e “he eminism,” in an e o o sugges ha she
does no ep esen women in gene al, as e lec ed in he
Vox hash ag #NoHablesEnMiNomb e (You Don’ Speak
o Me).
The ac ha he pola iza ion s a egy is mo e is‐
ce al on Vox’s social media p o iles han i is in he news
a icles is unde s andable i we in e p e i as pa o
an elec ionee ing campaign ha ejec s and c i icises
issues inso a as hey can be ein e p e ed in pa isan
e ms. This also explains why he an i‐ eminis discou se
is a icula ed a ound he objec i e o dis inguishing he
pa y om i s poli ical opponen s and le e aging his
s a egy o win mo e o es. The digi al news publica ions
echo he discou se o Vox, bu hei mo i es a e b oade
as hey e lec an ideologically d i en edi o ial line ha
does no ha e a di ec elec o al objec i e, e en hough i
may be o ien ed owa ds he p omo ion o ce ain poli ‐
ical ou comes.
Finally, conspi acy heo ies a e also mo e explici on
social media p o iles han in news a icles, as no only do
hey accuse he go e nmen o concealing and lying o
ideological easons, bu hey e en po ay i as a o ali‐
a ian dic a o ship ha seeks o elimina e i s opponen s.
This line o a gumen ob iously con adic s Vox’s hypo h‐
esis ha he go e nmen p omo ed he 8M demons a‐
ions due o i s ideological a ini y wi h eminism, as he
p omo ion o a eminis p og am is no compa ible wi h
he “ex e mina ion” o he e y women who make ha
p og am possible. Ne e heless, his con adic ion is eas‐
ily accommoda ed in he con ex o disin o ma ion and
ake news, which do no equi e logical igou o cohe ‐
ence. The a gumen ha he go e nmen knew he si ua‐
ion bu did no ac acco dingly is ein o ced wi hou he
need o con i ma ion in a cou o law. The pa y’s dis‐
cou se hus asse s he idea ha he powe s uc u e on
which he PSOE–Podemos go e nmen is ounded makes
i impossible o anyone o ind he cou age o challenge
i , excep o Vox, depic ed as a igh eous a enge ac ing
o he good o socie y.
The esul s o his s udy o e new insigh s in o he
use o ac ual dis o ion as an an i‐ eminis homophilic
s a egy adop ed on social media accoun s on Gab and
Twi e , and by conse a i e digi al news publica ions.
I has also been e ealed he e ha al hough Gab was c e‐
a ed as a social media pla o m o he a igh , in p ac‐
ice Vox’s discou se has no been dissemina ed on his
niche channel as e ec i ely as i has on he much mo e
mains eam Twi e pla o m.
Acknowledgmen s
We would like o hank Ca los Falgue as Ga cía o mak‐
ing he echnical de elopmen o his esea ch possible.
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
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