educa ion
sciences
A icle
GIS in A chi ec u al Teaching and Resea ch: Planning
and He i age
Be ha San os 1,2,* , Jo ge Gonçal es 1,3 , Ana M. Ma ins 1,4,5 , Ma ia T. Pé ez-Cano 6,
Edua do Mosque a-Adell 7, Despina Dimelli 8, Apos olos Laga ias 9and Ped o G. Almeida 1,10


Ci a ion: San os, B.; Gonçal es, J.;
Ma ins, A.M.; Pé ez-Cano, M.T.;
Mosque a-Adell, E.; Dimelli, D.;
Laga ias, A.; Almeida, P.G. GIS in
A chi ec u al Teaching and Resea ch:
Planning and He i age. Educ. Sci.
2021,11, 307. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/educsci11060307
Academic Edi o : James Alb igh
Recei ed: 27 May 2021
Accep ed: 15 June 2021
Published: 21 June 2021
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1Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing and A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Bei a In e io , 6200-358 Co ilhã, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed] (J.G.); [email p o ec ed] (A.M.M.); [email p o ec ed] (P.G.A.)
2CERIS, Ins i u o Supe io Técnico, Uni e sidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisbon, Po ugal
3CITTA, Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing, Uni e si y o Coimb a, 3030-788 Coimb a, Po ugal
4
Lab2PT, Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade do Minho, Campus de Gual a , 4710-057 B aga, Po ugal
5CIDEHUS, Uni e sidade de É o a, 7000-809 É o a, Po ugal
6Depa men o U banis ics and Land Managemen , School o A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Se ille,
41012 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
7
Depa men o His o y, Theo y and A chi ec u al Composi ion, School o A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Se ille,
41012 Se ille, Spain; [email p o ec ed]
8School o A chi ec u e, Technical Uni e si y o C e e, 73100 Chania, G eece; dimelli@a ch. uc.g
9Ins i u e o Applied and Compu a ional Ma hema ics, Founda ion o Resea ch and Technology,
70013 He aklion, G eece; [email p o ec ed]
10 GEOBIOTEC, Depa men o Ci il Enginee ing and A chi ec u e, Uni e si y o Bei a In e io ,
6200-358 Co ilhã, Po ugal
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
Geog aphical In o ma ion Sys ems (GISs) in a chi ec u e we e ini ially limi ed o egional
and u ban de elopmen applica ions. O e ecen yea s i s po en ial has been ecognized and i s use
has e ol ed o add ess u ban planning and a chi ec u al he i age managemen subjec s. Ne e heless,
e idence shows ha i s use in a chi ec u e eaching is sca ce and une en. Di ec i e 2007/2/EC,
es ablishing he in as uc u e o spa ial in o ma ion in he Eu opean Communi y (EU), is, in his
way, an oppo uni y o de elop a g ea e knowledge and applica ion o GIS in he amewo k
o highe educa ion. In a chi ec u e, his can be achie ed by p oblem sol ing based on eal case
scena ios, which can bene i om GIS-based echniques and analysis capabili ies. In his pape , he
au ho s aim o p esen a e iew o he use o GIS in eaching and esea ch in a chi ec u e o assess i s
le el in di e en Eu opean p og ammes. Expe iences om h ee Eu opean uni e si ies (Uni e si y o
Se ille, Spain, Uni e si y o Bei a In e io , Po ugal, and Technical Uni e si y o C e e, G eece), which
a e among he ew in hei espec i e coun ies ha p omo e he inclusion o GIS in a chi ec u al
educa ion, pa icula ly in he ields o u ban and egional planning and a chi ec u al he i age, a e
compa ed and amed wi hin he Eu opean scena io. The pape concludes wi h a e lec ion on he
h ee uni e si ies’ p ac ice compa ed o he leading Eu opean a chi ec u e p og ammes lis ed in
he main in e na ional uni e si y ankings. Main ends o u u e e olu ion on he use o GIS in
a chi ec u e eaching a e also p esen ed.
Keywo ds:
a chi ec u e; eaching and esea ch; geog aphical in o ma ion sys ems (GISs); he i age;
u ban and egional planning
1. In oduc ion
Acco ding o D ennon [
1
], non-geog aphe s a e p obably he as es -g owing g oup
o GIS use s. In he ield o a chi ec u e, some au ho s ha e shown [
2
] he ele ance o
pe sonali ies such as F ank Lloyd W igh (1867–1959), Richa d Neu a (1892–1970), Wa en
Manning (1860–1938) and Ian McHa g (1920–2001) as geodesigne s a an la le e when
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/educsci11060307 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/educa ion
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 2 o 20
conside ing geog aphic con ex s and exis ing en i onmen al condi ions o de elop some
o hei designs.
In a chi ec u e, GIS was ini ially used o egional and u ban de elopmen and hen
ex ended o u ban planning and managemen , o e ing a chi ec s mo e han jus base maps
and si e diag ams. I encompasses a ious scales o subjec s and space, inco po a ing
powe ul ools o he analysis, design, p oduc ion and managemen o a chi ec u e da a o
suppo in o med decisions [3,4].
P esen ly, he amoun o in o ma ion a ailable in geob owse s (such as Google Ea h)
and geoda a po als shi ed he mode n wo ld om a place whe e spa ial in o ma ion was
di icul o ind o one ha is o e whelmed wi h geog aphically e e enced da a. GIS can
be a powe ul ool o p ocess his da a o a chi ec u al pu poses.
Fo he las wo decades, GIS echnology has e ol ed as a wo king ool o a chi ec s
and spa ial planne s, speci ically by o e coming he di icul ies ela ed o he o ganisa ion
o a ailable digi al spa ial in o ma ion and da a om pho og amme y and 3D lase
scanning [
5
]. F om ano he pe spec i e, F ei e [
6
] also s essed he ela i ely low cos
as one o he main ad an ages o he use o GIS analysis on la ge-planning a chi ec u al
p ojec s, making i a undamen al ool o low-budge s udies in lowe -income coun ies
wi h high- alue in o ma ion ou pu .
This pape aims o ca y ou a e iew o he use o GIS in eaching and esea ch in
a chi ec u e, wi h special emphasis on i s use in he ields o u ban and egional planning
and a chi ec u al he i age o assess he le el o GIS eaching in Eu opean a chi ec u e
p og ammes. The leading Eu opean uni e si ies in e e ence educa ion ankings a e
analysed, and he expe ience o he Uni e si y o Se ille (Spain), Uni e si y o Bei a
In e io (Po ugal) and Technical Uni e si y o C e e (G eece) is p esen ed and compa ed
wi h he Eu opean scena io. These h ee uni e si ies ha e a his o y o esea ch and E asmus
+ pa ne ship and a e among he ew ha each and use GIS in a chi ec u al educa ion
in hei espec i e coun ies. The pape concludes wi h a e lec ion on he GIS educa ion
le el in a chi ec u e p og ammes, lessons ob ained om eaching and esea ch expe ience,
highligh ing he main e olu ion ends in he use o GIS in a chi ec u e educa ion.
2. GIS in A chi ec u e Educa ion and Resea ch
Acco ding o Schulze e al. [
7
] in o ma ion-based socie y and inc eased wo k o ce
mobili y in globally compe i i e labou ma ke s shi ed he ocus o educa ional p ocesses
om an inpu o ien a ion o lea ning ou comes, de ining “compe ence” as a key concep o
wen y- i s -cen u y skills. The de elopmen o compe ence-based cu icula in Eu opean
highe educa ion was in luenced by he Bologna e o m and he c ea ion o a common
Eu opean highe educa ion a ea wi h compa able deg ees o unde g adua e and g adua e
s udy p og ammes. In his con ex , he Bologna p ocess has de ined “compe ence” as he
undamen al change owa ds a s uden -cen ed ocus and ou comes-based on a li elong
lea ning p ocess. This p ocess has also emphasized he s uden ’s p epa a ion o p o es-
sional en i onmen s. In Spain and Po ugal, his p ocess has al eady been adop ed; s ill, in
he G eek case, he Bologna e o m is no ye implemen ed, and hus G eek uni e si ies
only ha e one deg ee ha is no spli in o unde g adua e and g adua e s udy p og ammes
(4 yea s long o uni e si ies and 5 yea s o echnical uni e si ies).
In bo h scena ios, highe educa ion ins i u ions s uggle o make a di e ence dis in-
guishing hemsel es and hus compe ing o s uden s, pa ly because goals, ac i i ies and
cu icula a e o en qui e simila [8].
While he ede ini ion o gene ic skills was implemen ed mainly due o socie al
conce ns, he iden i ica ion o p o essional compe ences depends on he demands o
subjec -speci ic knowledge and skills in speci ic domains. Among hese speci ic skills, he
so-called wen y- i s -cen u y skills a e highligh ed, commonly e e ed o as ICT li e acy.
These skills gene ally equi e a li elong lea ning p ocess ha includes digi al and echnical
mas e y; p oblem sol ing; c i ical hinking; communica ion; and collabo a ion [7].
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 3 o 20
As s a ed by Sin on [
8
], GIS-based p ojec s and cou ses can be a esponse o his chal-
lenge suppo ing he educa ional goals and ac i i ies while being in eg a ed in o di e se
cu icula. GIS is an ICT ool ha allows s uden s o explo e eal-wo ld spa ial da a and
engage hem in he oolmaking p ocesses o e ising da abases, o mula ing modes o dis-
play and ep esen a ion and de eloping me hods o analysis and in e p e a ion ansla ed
in a lea ning en i onmen p o ed o be ac i e, lexible, esponsi e o s uden ques ioning
and, ul ima ely, empowe ing in c i ical spa ial hinking [
9
,
10
] and esea ch di ec ions [
11
].
Fu he mo e, acco ding o Hwang [
10
], he di e en pa hs o da a acquisi ion, o ganiza ion
and p esen a ion in GIS a e conduci e o p omo ing a common unde s anding o complex
p oblems among di e en s akeholde s.
Conside ing he a chi ec u e eaching cu icula, du ing he las wo decades, he
in eg a ion o digi al echnologies has inc eased h oughou he aining o hinking and
making o space, bo h in dedica ed cu icula uni s such as compu e -aided design (CAD)
and geog aphic in o ma ion sys em (GIS), o in coope a ion wi h la e yea cou ses, includ-
ing he inal disse a ion/p ojec [
12
,
13
]. Acco ding o Ka a [
14
], he a ious echnologies
o compu ing-aided d a ing, enume a ing, modelling and analysis s a ed o shape he
o e all cu icula s uc u e o a chi ec u e educa ion and need o be implemen ed as sup-
po cou ses in o de o compensa e o he lea ning cu e and he a ie y o so wa e
a ailable o a chi ec s.
Typically, GIS is augh as a compulso y pa o a wide s udy-skills module in he i s
yea s o he cou se. A e ha , i is p esen ed as a module, usually as an op ional subjec ,
aimed o de elop echnical skills associa ed wi h a speci ic GIS package. Howe e , i o en
lacks wide in eg a ion.
Despi e he many possible applica ions and ad an ages, a chi ec s adop ing GIS
echniques, ei he in p ac ice o esea ch, a e s ill sca ce. Monsu and Zakiul [
3
] and Pin o
Pue o e al. [
4
] s a ed ha mos o he a chi ec u e lea ning cu icula all a ound he wo ld
ha e li le o no GIS con en s, and mos o hose ha inco po a e GIS cou ses lack he
concep ual connec ion wi h adi ional a chi ec u al subjec s. This connec ion is c ucial o
es ablish he use o GIS in a chi ec u e educa ion and o p omo e a “p oblem-e alua ion
-solu ion” loop eaching app oach [
6
,
12
]. In his con ex , Fe ei a-Lopes [
15
] poin ed ou
ha he eason o he limi ed use o GIS capabili ies in cul u al he i age may be ela ed
o he lack o aining and p o essional upda ing, which was also co obo a ed by Bliš ’an
e al. [
16
] o he eaching o GIS in gene al. The need o new esea ch is also highligh ed,
especially ocused on he GIS analysis ool po en ial.
Simul aneously, he e has been a endency o use GIS o sol e mo e speci ic p oblems
o a chi ec u al he i age, u ban design and planning h ough i s use in conjunc ion wi h
o he ools and echniques such as BIM [
4
,
17
]; 3D and pho og amme y [
18
–
21
]; i ual
eali y [
22
]; mul i-c i e ia assessmen [
23
]; and web applica ions. The educed in es men
in so wa e and main enance cos s and b oade accessibili y and in e ac ion be ween use s
and GIS a e some o web applica ions’ cha ac e is ics ha enhance he dissemina ion o
GIS use in a chi ec u al p ac ice, esea ch and educa ion.
3. The Role o GIS in U ban and Regional Planning
U ban and egional planning can be ega ded as a means o sys ema ically an icipa -
ing and achie ing adjus men s in he physical en i onmen o a own o u al se ing, which
mus be consis en wi h social alues and sound p inciples o ci ic design [
24
]. Acco ding
o Faludi [
25
] and suppo ed by he cybe ne ic heo y, which conside s in o ma ion as o
majo impo ance, planning can be cons ained as a esul o insu icien in o ma ion. Fo
u ban and egional planning, in o ma ion is a basic ool ha de ines decision making.
The di e en s ages in he u ban and egional planning p ocess can be gene alised
as he de e mina ion o objec i es, esou ce in en o y, analysis o exis ing si ua ions,
modelling and p ojec ion, de elopmen and selec ion o planning op ions and plan imple-
men a ion, e alua ion, moni o ing and eedback. In hese p ocedu es, GIS can p o ide
some o he da a and echniques ha a e needed in di e en s ages o he p ocess. In ecen
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 4 o 20
decades, GIS has been widely used in u ban and egional planning o handling spa ial
da a and suppo ing decision making. Some examples o he applica ion o GIS in his ield
a e he analysis o de elopmen plans, e iew o en i onmen al impac s, p ese a ion o
his o ic si es, mapping o u ili y ne wo ks and planning o se ice in e up ions.
Many planning depa men s ha e shi ed o GIS in lieu o mapping so wa e as i
is an ope a ional in o ma ion sys em o planning wi h da a isualisa ion and in e ne
po en iali ies. Howe e , he si ua ion is no homogeneous despi e Eu opean egula ions
(Di ec i e 2007/2/EC [
26
]). In he case o Spain, i is possible o ind communi ies such
as Ex emadu a whe e he e a e no schools o a chi ec u e bu a GIS was implemen ed
o he manda o y managemen o u ban planning wi h open public access (Ex emadu a
Spa ial Da a In as uc u e IDEEX). In Andalusia, whe e he e a e h ee public schools o
a chi ec u e, i is no manda o y o planning ins umen s o be de eloped on GIS, no
did he Andalusian Communi y de elop a ool o i s own. Howe e , some municipali ies
such as Se ille ha e de eloped open geopo als o public u ban and planning in o ma ion.
Conside ing Po ugal, se e al public na ional and a signi ican po ion o municipal en i ies
ha e al eady adop ed GIS o suppo u ban as well as egional planning p ocesses. Geo-
po als ha can be accessed by ci izens p omo e he use o in o ma ion p oduced by o icial
en i ies and municipali ies and allow o pe o m ope a ions such as que ying geog aphic
da a, accessing municipal plans and issuing loca ion cha s. SNIG, SIG Po al Regional
do Médio Tejo, Geodados (Lisbon Municipali y) and Geopo al (Co ilhãMunicipali y)
a e examples o Po uguese geopo als accessible o ci izens. In G eece, du ing he pas
en yea s, many la ge ci ies (Thessaloniki, He aklion, T ikala, La isa) along wi h se e al
smalle municipali ies ha e adop ed GISs ha suppo u ban and egional planning. All
ci izens can access municipal geopo als and pe cei e land uses, building egula ions and
his o ic si e in o ma ion as de ined in plans and laws. The G eek s a e has also launched a
na ional geopo al aiming o make all spa ial da a a ailable h ough open access sou ces.
Table 1p esen s some examples o Spanish, Po uguese and G eek geopo als ha can
be used o suppo u ban and egional planning.
Acco ding o S auskis [
27
], as a i ual u ban simula ion me hod o ep esen ing,
analysing, e e ing and imp o ing u ban design p ojec s, GIS can enhance public pa ici-
pa ion. GIS, and WebGIS (geopo als and geob owse s) in pa icula , is especially use ul
o pa icipa o y planning p ocesses (PPGIS: Public Pa icipa ion GIS), helping a ec ed
social sec o s o become empowe ed by in e ac ing mo e di ec ly wi h documen s and
in o ma ion p oduced using GIS.
Table 1. Examples o Spanish, Po uguese and G eek geopo als.
Geopo al Le el Te i o ial Co e age Web Link (All Accessed on Janua y 11
2021)
IDEE—Spa ial Da a In as uc u e (SDI) o
Spain
Na ional Spain h ps://www.idee.es/web/gues
IDEEX—Ex emadu a Spa ial Da a
In as uc u e
Regional Ex emadu a (Spain) h p://ideex emadu a.com/Geopo al/
IDE Se illa—Spa ial Da a In as uc u e o
Se illa
Municipal Se ille (Spain) h ps://sig.u banismose illa.o g/
SNIG—Na ional Geog aphic In o ma ion
Sys em
Na ional Po ugal h ps://snig.dg e i o io.go .p /
SIG—Regional Po al o Médio Tejo Regional Médio Tejo Region (Po ugal) h ps:
//medio ejo.p /index.php/sig-public
Geodados—Lisbon Ci y Council Pla o m Municipal Lisbon (Po ugal) h p://geodados.cm-lisboa.p /
Geopo al—Co ilhãCi y Council Municipal Co ilhã(Po ugal) h p://plan asonline.cm-co ilha.p /
Geoda a—Open geospa ial da a and se ices
o G eece
Na ional G eece h ps://geoda a.go .g /
e-ΠOΛEO∆OMIA—Elec onic u ban
planning GIS
Na ional G eece h p://gis.epoleodomia.go .g /
WebGIS—Thessaloniki Municipal Thessaloniki (G eece) h ps://gis. hessaloniki.g /
WebGIS—He aklion Municipal He aklion (G eece) h p://gis.he aklion.g /
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 5 o 20
The e olu ion o GIS and u ban and egional planning is hus ma ked by he in e dis-
ciplina y ields o knowledge in ol ed (an h opology, a chi ec u e, economics, geog aphy,
poli ical sciences and sociology, among o he s) and by he use o compu e enginee ing,
geodesy, geog aphy and pho og amme y, being commonly augh in mos coun ies unde
geog aphy o geoma ics enginee ing s udies [28].
4. The Role o GIS in A chi ec u al He i age
U ban he i age is widely ega ded as a p ima y conce n bo h o oday’s ocused
he i age communi y and o he communi ies ha inhabi hese mul i- ace ed spaces [
29
,
30
].
The knowledge and he use o he i age a e essen ial elemen s o hei sa egua ding, sus-
ainabili y and e alua ion as well as ac o s o p og ess in a ious aspec s o de elopmen ,
in pa icula , when unde lining he in e dependence be ween cul u e and communi y qual-
i y o li e [
31
–
34
]. The ans o ma ion o his o ic buildings and hei subsequen adap a ion
o con empo a y li ing needs a e one o he majo conce ns in he ield o con empo a y
ci y cons uc ion [33–35].
Due o he he e ogenei y o handled in o ma ion, managemen o a chi ec u al he -
i age di e s om o he ields. One o he main p oblems encoun e ed in he ield o
his o ical and a chi ec u al esea ch is he absence o a global ision mapping his o ical
phenomena wi h clea spa io empo al coo dina es [
36
]. Mos municipali ies ace p oblems
conce ning da a dispe sion among se e al municipal o ices and adminis a i e en i ies.
In mos cases, he e is no coo dina ion among he di e en o ices, which ha e di e en
a chi e sys ems and lack o digi al a chi es. As a consequence, public en i ies a e no
awa e o he collec ed o a ailable da a o allow hei sys ema ic o ganiza ion [37].
GIS can be used in di e en ways o unde s and a chi ec u e in all i s complex-
i y connec ing i o he cul u al, social and his o ical aspec s o a spa ial en i onmen ,
highligh ing he use ulness and as po en ial o analysing and managing he i age in
a mul i-disciplina y ye cohe en ision [
4
,
38
]. Such sys ems can manage, isualize and
con inuously moni o a as amoun o da a and in o ma ion om se e al sou ces and
p oduce spa ial analyses ha can suppo he iden i ica ion o a eas whe e ehabili a ion is
essen ial [3,18,20,39,40].
Fe ei a-Lopes e al. [
36
] p esen ed ou main applica ions o GIS in he ield o cul u al
he i age: as suppo o c ea e a he i age in en o y; o disco e pa e ns o spa ial, physical
and empo al cha ac e is ics o de e mine u u e ac ions in he i age asse managemen ; o
de elop con ol and p edic ion o he i age conse a ion; and as aid in he de ini ion o
s a egic plans o na u al and/o cul u al he i age managemen . Two mo e applica ions
can be added o he p e ious: he moni o ing and e alua ion o managemen policies and
he dissemina ion o in o ma ion. In addi ion, a wide ange o a chi ec u al and he i age
spa ial s udies depend on mul i-c i e ia analyses o simpli y o he wise complex spa ial
s udies [
39
,
41
]. These ypes o analysis, o e laying di e en cha ac e izing spa ial a iables,
a e a he co e o geop ocessing GIS p ocedu es.
Pe onela e al. [
42
] epo ed ha , in ecen yea s, his echnology was used o de elop
se e al impo an na ional p og ammes in many coun ies (Aus ia, Cyp us, Czech Re-
public, Ge many, G eece, I aq, I aly, Japan, Kazakhs an, Mal a, Mo occo, Russia, Slo ak
Republic, Spain, Sy ia, Tu key, Uni ed Kingdom, among o he s) which we e ocused on
collec ion, p ocessing, e i ica ion and cen aliza ion o necessa y da a in he p ocess o
managing and p ese ing immo able cul u al he i age (p ese a ion, ac i e o passi e
es o a ion, eco e y and hoa ding).
In his line, La enie e e al. [
43
] ad oca ed he o mula ion o his o ical geog aphic
in o ma ion sys em (HGIS) o his o ical spa ial da a in as uc u e (HSDI). Acco ding o
his au ho , he e is an in en ion o p omo e he use o a collabo a i e consensus model
o e i y classi ica ions and inc ease accu acy o manual ansc ip ions o map da a. The
ha moniza ion o public collec ed da a wi h he o icial his o ical spa ial da a in GIS such as
he HSDI and PPGIS inc eases awa eness o ci izen pa icipa ion in he i age p ese a ion.

Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 6 o 20
Examples o GIS models and ools o aid he decision-making p ocess associa ed
wi h in e en ion in a chi ec u al he i age, in i s a ious applica ions, can be ound a he
esea ch le el, mainly in he las decade (see Table 2).
The se o applica ions lis ed and a ecen li e a u e e iew pe o med by Fe ei a-
Lopes [
15
] o how GIS has been used in he ield o cul u al he i age, shows ha he
applica ion o GIS ocuses mainly on he in en o y and ca alogue o a chaeological and
a chi ec u al he i age, lea ing aside hei eno mous analysis po en ial.
Table 2. GIS applica ions in a chi ec u al he i age esea ch.
Field o Resea ch Sou ce
Buil he i age and ene gy e iciency [37,44,45]
A chi ec u al cul u al he i age conse a ion and managemen (e.g., cas les, eligious
he i age, his o ical buildings, se lemen s)
[4,18–20,36,42,46–49]
T adi ional u al buildings [39,50]
Con empo a y he i age [51]
Ci y he i age managemen [13,47,52–55]
5. Case S udies om Th ee Eu opean Uni e si ies
5.1. Eu opean F amewo k
The g owing ele ance o GIS is clea and consensual. Based on his assump ion, an
analysis was pe o med a an in e na ional le el (unde g adua e (bachelo ) and g adu-
a e (mas e and doc o al) p og ammes) on a chi ec u e p o essionals aining on he use
o GIS. Fo his pu pose, he mos impo an in e na ional classi ica ion ankings we e
conside ed, and in e na ionally ecognized ins i u ions in a chi ec u e eaching we e se-
lec ed as e e ences. Ranking o ganisa ions add ess quali y o eaching and employabili y
in di e en ways. The Times Highe Educa ion (THE) Wo ld Uni e si y Rankings uses
indica o s ha show e idence o eaching quali y bu does no di ec ly add ess he issue
o employabili y (ha de o compa e ac oss coun ies). The Quacqua elli Symonds (QS)
Wo ld Uni e si y Rankings uses a su ey o employe s o de e mine which uni e si ies
ha e he bes epu a ion o p oducing skilled g adua es. Ano he app oach is ha o
he Academic Ranking o Wo ld Uni e si ies (Shanghai Rankings), which does no claim
o measu e ei he eaching quali y o employabili y, bu i ocuses mainly on indica o s
su ounding esea ch excellence (Awa d indica o ). The unde aken analysis e ealed ha
he la e does no di e en ia e a chi ec u e as an academic subjec , es ic ing he analysis
o he emaining wo indexes.
Bo h QS and he THE a e in e na ional wo ld ankings o uni e si ies, bu hey use
di e en me hodologies o hei compu a ion, ei he in he numbe o used indica o s o
hei weigh s in he inal classi ica ion. Table 3p esen s indica o s and weigh s used in
bo h ankings.
Table 3. Indica o s and weigh s used in QS and THE Wo ld Uni e si y Rankings.
QS—Quacqua elli Symonds
Wo ld Uni e si y Rankings
THE—Times Highe Educa ion
Wo ld Uni e si y Rankings
Indica o s Weigh Indica o s Weigh
Academic Repu a ion 40% Teaching ( he lea ning en i onmen ) 30%
Employe Repu a ion 10% Resea ch ( olume, income and epu a ion) 30%
Facul y/S uden Ra io 20% Ci a ions ( esea ch in luence) 30%
Ci a ions pe Facul y 20% In e na ional Ou look (s a , s uden s and esea ch) 7.5%
In e na ional Facul y Ra io 5% Indus y Income (knowledge ans e ) 2.5%
In e na ional S uden Ra io 5%
O he op 10 Eu opean uni e si ies wi h A chi ec u e classi ied in each anking, six
appea simul aneously in he QS and THE ankings (see Table 4).
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 7 o 20
O hese, he op i e in bo h ankings we e conside ed in an analysis o cu icula
p og ammes o assess he o e o compulso y and elec i e cou ses in GIS, as well as i s
use in o he cou ses and in esea ch. The analysis was conduc ed by collec ing he o icial
in o ma ion a ailable in English on each o he ins i u ional web pages in Sep embe 2020
(see Table 5).
F om he analysis, i is clea ha he majo i y o he a chi ec u e unde g adua e and
g adua e p og ammes ha e in oduced he use o GIS a di e en le els. Mos o GIS
aining is pe o med unde elec i e cou ses wi hou a p e ious compulso y GIS cou se.
Se e al cou ses p esen GIS a he unde g adua e le el, and mos ha e doc o a e cou ses
o s udios/labs whe e GIS is used in esea ch. Mos o GIS usage in elec i e cou ses is
applied o u ban and e i o ial planning, and dedica ed GIS cou ses essen ially ocus on
undamen al concep s ha unde lie he use o a GIS.
Table 4. Rankings o Eu opean Uni e si ies in A chi ec u e p og ammes o 2019.
QS—Quacqua elli Symonds Wo ld Uni e si y Rankings
Rank Uni e si y S a us Coun y
1 UCL
(Uni e si y College London)
Public UK
2 Del Uni e si y o Technology
(Technische Uni e si ei Del )
Public Ne he lands
3 ETH Zu ich—Swiss Fede al Ins i u e o Technology in Zu ich
(Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zü ich)
Public Swi ze land
4 Uni e si y o Camb idge Public UK
5 Manches e School o A chi ec u e Public UK
6 Poli ecnico di Milano Public I aly
7 EPFL Fede al Ins i u e o Technology in Lausanne (École
Poly echnique Fédé ale de Lausanne)
Public Swi ze land
8 The Uni e si y o She ield Public UK
9 KTH Royal Ins i u e o Technology
(Kungliga Tekniska högskolan)
Public Sweden
10 Technical Uni e si y o Munich
(Technische Uni e si ä München)
Public Ge many
THE—Times Highe Educa ion Rankings
Rank Uni e si y S a us Coun y
1 Uni e si y o Camb idge Public UK
2 ETH Zu ich—Swiss Fede al Ins i u e o Technology in Zu ich
(Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zü ich)
Public Swi ze land
3 UCL
(Uni e si y College London)
Public UK
4 Uni e si y o Edinbu gh Public UK
5 EPFL Fede al Ins i u e o Technology in Lausanne
(École Poly echnique Fédé ale de Lausanne)
Public Swi ze land
6 Technical Uni e si y o Munich
(Technische Uni e si ä München)
Public Ge many
7 KU Leu en
(Ka holieke Uni e si ei Leu en)
Public Belgium
8 Del Uni e si y o Technology
(Technische Uni e si ei Del )
Public Ne he lands
9 RWTH Aachen Uni e si y
(Rheinisch-Wes älische Technische Hochschule Aachen)
Public Ge many
10 Uni e si y o Glasgow Public UK
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 8 o 20
Table 5. Top 5 Eu opean Uni e si ies and GIS eaching and esea ch.
Uni e si y GIS Cou ses/Use
UCL Bachelo : Elec i e GIS cou se, use o GIS (in compulso y cou ses)
Mas e : Use o GIS (in compulso y and elec i e cou ses and esea ch)
Doc o a e: Use o GIS (lab and esea ch)
ETH Zu ich Bachelo : Use o GIS (in elec i e cou ses)
Mas e : Use o GIS (in elec i e cou ses)
Doc o a e: Use o GIS ( esea ch)
Uni e si y o Camb idge Bachelo : No cou se
Mas e : No cou se
Doc o a e: Use o GIS
Del Uni e si y o Technology Bachelo : *
Mas e : Elec i e GIS cou se, use o GIS (in compulso y cou ses). O he mas e s o
he Facul y o A chi ec u e and he Buil En i onmen wi h impo an GIS con en :
1. Geoma ics (compulso y and elec i e cou ses)
2. Geog aphical In o ma ion Managemen and Applica ion (compulso y cou ses)
Doc o a e: Use o GIS ( esea ch)
EPFL Bachelo : Use o GIS (in compulso y cou ses)
Mas e : Use o GIS (in compulso y and elec i e cou ses)
Doc o a e: *
* no e e ence was ound o cou ses o use o GIS in he in o ma ion p o ided in English.
The ollowing subsec ions p esen pa icula aspec s o GIS in eg a ion in he a chi ec-
u e eaching–lea ning p ocess and esea ch pe o med in unde g adua e and g adua e
p og ammes, wi h pa icula ocus on egional and u ban planning and a chi ec u al he -
i age, a h ee Eu opean uni e si ies: Uni e si y o Se ille (Spain), Uni e si y o Bei a
In e io (Po ugal) and Technical Uni e si y o C e e (G eece). The sec ion closes wi h a
compa a i e analysis o GIS eaching app oaches adop ed a he h ee uni e si ies and
hose o he i e e e ence uni e si ies p esen ed in Table 4.
5.2. Uni e si y o Se ille
As a consequence o he Bologna p ocess, he eaching o a chi ec u e in Spain has
su e ed a clea dec ease in he numbe o c edi s. In he p e-Bologna amewo k, o be able
o exe cise he p o ession, a g adua e needed he equi alen o 450 ECTS. Cu en ly, wi h
he homogeniza ion o he s udies’ s uc u e in bachelo + mas e , s uden s mus comple e
a 5 + 1 yea p og amme, co esponding o a 300 ECTS bachelo deg ee, usually called in
public Spanish uni e si ies Fundamen als o A chi ec u e o S udies in A chi ec u e, and
a 60 ECTS mas e ’s deg ee in a chi ec u e. The mas e ’s deg ee includes a inal p ojec
exclusi ely o a p o essional na u e. A e app o ing he enabling p o essional es , he
p o essional ac i i y can be s a ed, and he new a chi ec may join he di e en e i o ial
p o essional associa ions.
The loss o 90 c edi s is e y ele an because he adi ional p o essional a ibu ions
o he a chi ec in Spain we e main ained. Howe e , hey a e wide han in he es o
Eu ope. Spanish a chi ec s can execu e and di ec wi hou he suppo o enginee s in
all le els o u ban and e i o ial planning and calcula e s uc u es o building wi hou
limi a ion o ex ension, heigh o cons uc i e ypology. This loss esul ed in a ans e -
ence o c edi s o mas e and doc o a e p og ammes o specializa ion, mo e di ec ed o
p o essional applica ions and esea ch. Among hese, i is possible o ind he use o GIS in
u banism and he i age. Cou ses ela ed o g aphic exp ession and cons uc ion ha e only
main ained he use o CAD and spa sely BIM.
The bachelo ’s and mas e ’s deg ees in a chi ec u e ecognised in Spain [
56
] include
lea ning by compe ences. Among hese, and ela ed o u ban and e i o ial planning
and he i age, he e a e essen ially i e compulso y compe ences: abili y o ca alogue he
buil and u ban he i age and plan o i s p o ec ion; o in e ene, p ese e, es o e and
ehabili a e he buil he i age; o implemen u ban s anda ds and o dinances; o de elop
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 9 o 20
en i onmen al landscape s udies and en i onmen al impac co ec ions; and o d a and
manage u ban plans a any scale.
In Se ille, unde g adua e s udies comp ise 12 modules including Basic sciences;
G aphic exp ession and d awing echniques; His o y and c i icism o a chi ec u e and he
ci y; A chi ec u al, u ban and in e en ion in he i age p ojec s; Building, s uc u al and
en i onmen al condi ioning sys ems; U ban planning; Land managemen and landscape
planning; Execu ion p ojec s and cons uc ion; and a inal deg ee hesis, which may be
o ien ed o p o essional o esea ch pu pose. The mas e ’s deg ee is composed o a echnical
module, a p ojec module and he a o emen ioned inal p ojec (enabling p o essional es ).
Fo mo e han a decade, he 1998 cu iculum o he Highe Technical School o A chi-
ec u e a Se ille Uni e si y, he las p e-Bologna unde g adua e p og amme, allowed o
compulso y, elec i e and eely con igu ed subjec s including “Spa ial analysis echniques
o he planning s udy o he e i o y by means o GIS”. In addi ion, du ing wo edi ions,
a cou se o he eaching s a was o e ed. This ac i i y was linked o he i s eaching
plan a Se ille Uni e si y (2008 and 2009). Bo h subjec s we e excluded om he Bologna
cu iculum o he a chi ec u e unde g adua e p og amme. A p esen , in he subjec
“U ban planning o p o ec ion” eaching is based on GIS philosophy. Collec ion o u ban
da a is execu ed wi h GIS me hodology, al hough s uden s do no wo k di ec ly on he
GIS en i onmen . In his sense, only h ough he acquisi ion o op ional compe ences is i
possible o ha e awa eness o GIS use. A he Uni e si y o Se ille, GIS is compulso y in
he Geog aphy and Te i o y Managemen unde g adua e p og amme. Howe e , in he
A chi ec u e p og amme, i depends on he will o eache s o de elop s uden ’s knowl-
edge o spa ial da abases. S ill, a chi ec u e s uden s ha e con ac wi h o he so wa e
o ep esen a ions linked o he a chi ec u e p ojec h ough he Depa men o G aphic
Exp ession (image edi ing, 2D/3D CAD and BIM in oduc ion).
In he las i een yea s, he mas e ’s deg ee s udy p og amme in a chi ec u e and
his o ical he i age dedica es a day o he use o GIS applied in he i age esea ch and
in e en ion, whe e GIS esea ch is p esen ed and he p o i abili y o using his ool is
explained o s uden s. I was also augh in he Ci y and Sus ainable A chi ec u e mas e ’s
deg ee in 2007–2009.
Conside ing 3D-model gene a ion o he i age si es, a numbe o echniques o model
gene a ion a e a ailable and can be used indi idually o collabo a i ely, as se e al au ho s
indica e [
57
]. Acco ding o hem, di e en he i age ypologies (a chi ec u al, u ban, a chae-
ological and e hnological cul u al p ope ies, among o he s) can demand an in eg a ed
app oach o o e come he limi a ions o indi idual me hods and p oblems wi h spa ial
da a ans e ence/exchange. This app oach has been de eloped in ecen a chi ec u e
esea ch o he mas e and doc o al deg ees a he Uni e si y o Se ille.
Since 2011, he doc o al p og ammes a e ully inse ed in he Eu opean Highe Educa-
ion A ea [
58
,
59
]. Consequen ly, collabo a ions wi hin he Ibe ian space, namely be ween
he Uni e si y o Se ille and he Uni e si y o Bei a In e io , ha e been possible and include
he p omo ion o GIS use in a chi ec u al he i age esea ch.
An example o doc o al deg ee s udy collabo a ions is he de elopmen o an associ-
a ed digi al in o ma ion model. Fo ins ance, he s udy o wa e mill adi ional a chi ec u e
o Ribei a do Vascão using GIS [
60
]; a digi al GIS model o he ca aloguing o Po uguese
Cis e cian monas e ies and i s con empo a y ehabili a ions [
61
]; applica ion o GIS in he
s ic ly Se illian a ea dealing wi h he hyd aulic mills, as Alcaláde Guadaí a [
62
], and
echnical cha ac e iza ion o he medie al chu ches [63].
O he examples om he ield o esea ch a e p ojec s ha s udy he de elopmen o
inno a i e he i age p ac ices in u ban en i onmen s ha esis he p essu e o ou ism
using GIS, namely “U ban pa imonial cha ac e iza ion and ou is cul u al model in
medium-sized ci ies. Po en ials and challenges o in e na ionaliza ion: Inne Be ica”
(Figu e 1) [50].
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 16 o 20
A compa a i e analysis o ci ies, aking ad an age o 3D in o ma ion, is applied in o de o
measu e and e alua e he compac ness o u ban a eas and add ess he p oblem o u ban
sp awl. The analysis o u ban o m is linked o quali y o li e indica o s, accessibili y o
u ban g een a eas, e alua ing policies and suppo ing planning decisions.
An example o he solu ions ob ained by s uden s is p esen ed in Figu e 5. This s udy
aimed o iden i y he accessibili y o an u ban a ea, es ima ed a an u ban block le el, by
combining da a ela ed o geome ic dis ance om me o s a ions, public buildings, and
comme cial acili ies, using a weigh ed exp ession based on map algeb a.
Educ. Sci. 2021, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 o 22
Cu en Me hods in he Analysis o Ci y Space Using GIS Technologies and aims o di-
ec ly add ess he issues o u ban planning o sus ainable de elopmen in he Eu opean
con ex . A compa a i e analysis o ci ies, aking ad an age o 3D in o ma ion, is applied
in o de o measu e and e alua e he compac ness o u ban a eas and add ess he p oblem
o u ban sp awl. The analysis o u ban o m is linked o quali y o li e indica o s, accessi-
bili y o u ban g een a eas, e alua ing policies and suppo ing planning decisions.
An example o he solu ions ob ained by s uden s is p esen ed in Figu e 5. This s udy
aimed o iden i y he accessibili y o an u ban a ea, es ima ed a an u ban block le el, by
combining da a ela ed o geome ic dis ance om me o s a ions, public buildings, and
comme cial acili ies, using a weigh ed exp ession based on map algeb a.
Figu e 5. Es ima ion o combined accessibili y o di e en poin s o in e es wi hin an u ban sec o o A hens using map
algeb a: (a) Dis ance om comme cial acili ies, (b) Dis ance om public buildings, (c) Dis ance om me o s a ions, (d)
Combined accessibili y.
5.5. Findings
Table 6 p esen s a summa y o he GIS eaching and esea ch o he h ee Eu opean
Uni e si ies desc ibed in Sec ions 5.2–5.4.
Table 6. GIS eaching and esea ch in Se ille, Bei a In e io and C e e Uni e si ies/Technical Uni e si y.
Uni e si y
GIS Cou ses/Use
Uni e si y o Se ille
Bachelo : No cou se (GIS- ela ed compulso y and elec i e cou ses
in p e-Bologna p og amme—use o GIS)
Mas e : Use o GIS ( esea ch), day dedica ed o he use o GIS
Doc o a e: Use o GIS ( esea ch)
Uni e si y o Bei a In e io
Bachelo : Compulso y GIS cou se
Figu e 5.
Es ima ion o combined accessibili y o di e en poin s o in e es wi hin an u ban sec o o A hens using map
algeb a: (
a
) Dis ance om comme cial acili ies, (
b
) Dis ance om public buildings, (
c
) Dis ance om me o s a ions, (
d
)
Combined accessibili y.
5.5. Findings
Table 6p esen s a summa y o he GIS eaching and esea ch o he h ee Eu opean
Uni e si ies desc ibed in Sec ions 5.2–5.4.
The summa y p esen ed shows ha wo o he h ee uni e si ies (Bei a In e io and
C e e) cu en ly o e a compulso y and compulso y-elec i e GIS cou se a he unde -
g adua e le el. Howe e , i is s ill impo an o no ice ha he Uni e si y o Se ille had
inco po a ed, in p e ious p e-Bologna unde g adua e p og ammes, compulso y and elec-
i e GIS- ela ed cou ses.
A he pos g adua e le el (mas e and doc o a e) all uni e si ies show he use o GIS
in esea ch, e ealing he cu en endency o explo e GIS po en ial o cadas e and spa ial
analysis, in pa icula in u ban and egional planning and a chi ec u al he i age.
Compa ed o he op i e Eu opean uni e si ies o e ing a chi ec u e p og ammes
(Table 5), he e is a g ea e ecogni ion o he need o GIS aining a he unde g adua e
le el a he h ee analysed uni e si ies. This shows an ad ance in he acquisi ion o digi al

Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 17 o 20
skills and he mode niza ion o he a chi ec u e p o ession con ibu ing o an imp o emen
o s uden s’ knowledge on he use o GIS in pos g adua e s udies.
Table 6. GIS eaching and esea ch in Se ille, Bei a In e io and C e e Uni e si ies/Technical Uni e si y.
Uni e si y GIS Cou ses/Use
Uni e si y o Se ille Bachelo : No cou se (GIS- ela ed compulso y and elec i e cou ses in
p e-Bologna p og amme—use o GIS)
Mas e : Use o GIS ( esea ch), day dedica ed o he use o GIS
Doc o a e: Use o GIS ( esea ch)
Uni e si y o Bei a In e io Bachelo : Compulso y GIS cou se
Mas e : Use o GIS ( esea ch)
Doc o a e: -
Technical Uni e si y o C e e Bachelo : Compulso y-elec i e GIS cou se
Mas e : -
Doc o a e: -
The ele ance o GIS in pos g adua e Eu opean a chi ec u e p og ammes is consensual,
e ealing an ex ended use in esea ch wo k.
6. Conclusions
A chi ec u al cu icula end o p io i ize he ield o cons uc ion, na owing he
possibili ies o enew skills. Cu icula uni s on e i o y and he i age a e p ac ically
es imonial, gene ally o analy ical na u e. Unde g adua e and pos g adua e deg ees
a e gene ally dedica ed o s ic ly oca ional aining and hese opics a e iewed in a
pu ely academic and o malis ic way. Rele an opics such as he i age o sus ainabili y a e
ans e ed o specializa ion p og ammes, wo king in a dimension close o eali y.
The use o digi al echnologies has expanded he possibili ies o gene a ing e en mo e
in e disciplina y p ojec s. A chi ec u e cu icula ha e g adually in oduced cons uc ion-
ela ed digi al echnologies such as compu e -aided design, i ual eali y, augmen ed
eali y o building in o ma ion modelling. The a ailabili y o spa ial ICT, ools and ech-
niques wi h mo e unc ional and use - iendly in e aces makes i possible o iden i y and
isualize p e iously in isible e idence, syn hesise and map empo al in o ma ion and
combine da a om a ious sou ces o gene a e new da a and hypo heses.
Findings om he in e na ional classi ica ion ankings analysis show ha GIS in e-
g a ion in o he a chi ec u e cu icula a a Eu opean le el is nei he homogeneous no
consensual and signi ican di e ences a e ound in GIS aining. This eali y con as s wi h
i s inc easing applica ion o esea ch and p o essional p ac ice.
In ac , some a chi ec s s ill do no use digi al spa ial analysis ools mainly because
o hei lack o skills conce ning analysis and e i o ial planning. This leads o a loss o
compe i i eness in he labou ma ke , despi e being p esen in he ield o a chi ec u e
esea ch. A be e in eg a ion o GIS in a chi ec u al design, he i age and u ban and egional
planning cou ses is c ucial. Mos a chi ec u e p og ammes al eady use GIS echnology bu
s ill ely on he s uden ’s willingness o lea n GIS undamen s.
Li e a u e e iew highligh s he exis ence o many applica ions in u ban, egional and
a chi ec u al he i age cadas e. Howe e , he e is a clea need o educa ional aining o
ake ad an age o he ull po en ial o in o ma ion analysis and decision suppo ha GIS
allows.
S uden s should be able o explo e he use o GIS ools om ea lie yea s in o de o
analyse case-s udy a eas and o be e unde s and how GIS echnology is able o suppo
he p ocess o planning and managemen . The h ee uni e si ies conce ned a e commi ed
o he unde g adua e aining o GIS in a chi ec u e as a way o p epa e and in eg a e
s uden s in cu en and u u e demands in esea ch and he job ma ke .
Fu u e de elopmen s mus include ea lie and wide eaching o GIS and he in e-
g a ion o o he ICT, ools and echniques in pos g adua e s udies and esea ch p ojec s
Educ. Sci. 2021,11, 307 18 o 20
(such as geoma ics, 3D GIS, BIM, i ual eali y, mixed eali y, open-sou ce ools and web
applica ions). This implies a p ope ans e o knowledge o he eaching communi y,
as i is common p ac ice in o he ields o knowledge. S uden s will hus bene i om
a comp ehensi e aining o become p o essionals o he u u e wi h a mo e inno a i e,
lexible and compe i i e p o ile.
Au ho Con ibu ions:
Concep ualiza ion, B.S., J.G., A.M.M., M.T.P.-C., E.M.-A., D.D. and A.L.;
me hodology, B.S. and J.G.; in es iga ion, B.S., J.G., A.M.M., M.T.P.-C., E.M.-A., D.D. and A.L.;
w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, B.S. and J.G.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, B.S., J.G., A.M.M.,
M.T.P.-C., E.M.-A., D.D., A.L. and P.G.A.; supe ision, B.S. and J.G. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed
o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding:
The APC is pa ially suppo ed by Po uguese na ional unds by FCT (Founda ion o
Science and Technology), I.P., wi hin he GEOBIOTEC—P ojec UIDB/04035/2020.
Acknowledgmen s:
The au ho s acknowledge he Uni e si y o Bei a In e io , Lab2PT—Landscapes,
He i age and Te i o y labo a o y (AUR/04509), CIDEHUS—In e disciplina y Cen e o His o y, Cul-
u es and Socie ies (HIS/00057), CITTA—Resea ch Cen e o Te i o y, T anspo s and En i onmen
(Mul i/04427), CERIS—Ci il Enginee ing Resea ch and Inno a ion o Sus ainabili y (ECI/04625) and
GEOBIOTEC—GeoBioSciences, GeoTechnologies and GeoEnginee ing (GEO/04035) o suppo ing
he pe o med s udy.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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