An in e na ional collabo a i e in es iga ion
o beginning se en h g ade s uden s'
unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y:
Es ablishing a baseline
Judi h Lede man (
Illinois Ins i u e o Technology
), No man
Lede man (
Illinois
Ins i u e o Technology
), Selina
Ba els (Uni e sidad de Valpa aíso), Juan
Jimenez
(
Illinois Ins i u e o Technology
),
Ma k Akubo (Flo ida S a e Uni e si y); She een
Aly (Ame ican Uni e si y in Cai o); Chengcheng Bao (Zhejiang No mal
Uni e si y); Es elle Blanque (Uni e si é De Bo deaux & ESPE d'Aqui aine); Ron
Blonde (Weizmann Ins i u e o Science); Ma iana Bologna Soa es de And ade
(Uni e sidade Es adual de Lond ina); Ca he ine Bun ing (The Uni e si y o
Waika o); Mus a a Caki (Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Heba EL-Deghaidy (Ame ican
Uni e si y in Cai o); Ahmed ElZo kani (Ame ican Uni e si y in Cai o); Es elle
Gaighe (Uni e si y o P e o ia); Shuchen Guo (Beijing No mal Uni e si y); A i
Hakanen (Helsingin Yliopis o); So aya Hamed Al-Lal (Uni e sidad de Se illa);
Cigdem Han-Tosunoglu (Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Annema ie Ha ingh (Uni e si y o
Cape Town); Anne Hume (The Uni- e si y o Waika o); Se ha I ez (Ma ma a
Uni e si esi); Gillian Kay (Uni e si y o Cape Town); Ozgu Ki ilcan Dogan
(Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Ke s in K eme (IPN, Kiel); Pi-Chu Kuo (Na ional Ping ung
Uni e si y); Ja i La onen (Helsingin Yliopis o); Shu-Fen Lin (Na ional Changhua
Uni e si y o Educa ion); Cheng Liu (Beijing No mal Uni e si y); Enshan Liu
(Beijing No mal Uni e si y); Shiang-Yao Liu (Na ional Taiwan No mal
Uni e si y); Bin L (Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Rachel Mamlok- Naaman
(Weizmann Ins i u e o Science); Ch is ine McDonald (G i i h Uni e si y); I ene
Neumann (IPN, Kiel); Yaozhen Pan (Zhejiang In e na ional S udies Uni e si y);
E ic Picholle (Uni e si é de Nice Sophia An ipolis); Ana Ri e o Ga cía
(Uni e sidad de Se illa); Ca l-Johan Rundg en (S ockholm Uni e si e ); Da id
San ibáñez-Gómez (Uni e sidad Ca ólica Sil a Hen íquez); Ka hy Saunde s (The
Uni e si y o Waika o); Renee Schwa z (Geo gia S a e Uni e si y); F auke Voi le
(IPN, Kiel); Jakob on Gyllenpalm (S ockholm Uni e si e ); Fangbing Wei
(Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Jocelyn Wisha (Uni e si y o B is ol); Zhi eng
Wu (Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Huang Xiao (Zhejiang No mal Uni e - si y);
Yalcin Yalaki (Hace epe Uni e si esi); Qiaoxue Zhou (Shanghai Jingyang Middle
School)
Abs ac
Al houg unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y (as opposed o conduc ing inqui y) a e
included in science educa ion e o m documen s a ound he wo ld, li le is known
abou wha s uden s ha e lea ned abou inqui y du ing hei elemen a y school yea s.
This is pa ially due o he lack o any assessmen ins umen o measu e
unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y. Howe e , a alid and eliable assessmen has
ecen ly been de eloped and published, Views Abou Scien i ic Inqui y (VASI;
Lede man e al. [2014], Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 51, 65–83). The
pu pose o his la ge- scale in e na ional p ojec was o collec he i s baseline da a
on wha beginning middle school s uden s ha e lea ned abou scien i ic inqui y du ing
hei elemen a y school yea s. Eigh een coun ies/ egions spanning six con inen s
including 2,634 s uden s pa icipa ed in he s udy. The pa icipa ing coun ies/ egions
we e: Aus alia, B azil, Chile, Egyp , England, Finland, F ance, Ge many, Is ael,
Mainland China, New Zealand, Nige ia, Sou h A ica, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan,
Tu key, and he Uni ed S a es. In many coun ies, science is no o mally augh un il
middle school, which is he a ionale o choosing se en h g ade s uden s o his
in es iga ion. This baseline da a will simul aneously p o ide in o ma ion on wha , i
any hing, s uden s lea n abou inqui y in elemen a y school, as well as hei beginning
knowledge as hey en e seconda y school. I is impo an o no e ha collec ing da a
om all o he app oxima ely 200 coun ies globally was no humanly possible, and i
was also no possible o collec da a om e e y egion o each coun y. The esul s
o e -whelmingly show ha s uden s a ound he wo ld a he beginning o g ade se en
ha e e y li le unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y. Some coun ies do show
easonable unde s andings in ce ain aspec s bu he o e all pic u e o unde s andings
o scien i ic inqui y is no wha is hoped o a e comple ing 6 yea s o elemen a y
educa ion in any coun y.
Keywo ds: in e na ional, li e acy, scien i ic inqui y
1. INTRODUCTION
Scien i ic inqui y (SI) has been a pe ennial ocus o science educa ion o he pas
cen u y and i gene ally e e s o he combina ion o gene al science p ocess skills wi h
adi ional science con en , c ea i i y, and c i ical hinking o de elop scien i ic
knowledge (Lede man, 2010). Pe haps he mos in luen ial ad ocacy o he
impo ance o unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y can be ound in he concep ual
pape by Showal e (1974) in which he ou lines he c i ical componen s o scien i ic
li e acy (Welch, 1979). Few would a gue ha scien i ic li e acy is no he p ima y goal
o science educa ion. Consis en wi h Showal e 's wo k, ecen e o m documen s
ha e emphasized ha s uden s
should de elop he abili ies necessa y o do inqui y and/o
science p ac ices as well as ha e an unde -
s anding abou inqui y (e.g. Benchma ks o
Science Li e acy, Ame ican Associa ion o he Ad ancemen o Science, 1993; A
F amewo k o K-12 Science Educa ion: P ac ices, C osscu ing Concep s, and
Co e Ideas, Na ional Resea ch Council [NRC], 2011). The Na ional Science
Educa ion S anda ds (NRC, 2000) we e explici in hei di e en ia ion be ween he
abili ies o do inqui y and knowledge abou SI. This dis inc ion also con inues o be
e iden in he Nex Gene a ion Science S anda ds (NGSS, 2013). Al hough, he NGSS
e e s o science p ac ices as opposed o he inqui y. The NGSS conside s “p ac ices”
as ex ending well beyond simply being in ol ed in science p ocesses. In ei he case,
“inqui y” o “p ac ices” e e s o he engagemen o s uden s in beha io s simila o
hose o scien is s. Simila dis inc ions a e becoming mo e p ominen in e o m
documen s h oughou he wo ld. Qui e simply, i seems logical ha s uden s will
imp o e hei abili y o do inqui y/p ac ices i hey ha e an unde s anding abou wha
hey a e doing and his knowledge, combined wi h knowledge o science, will enable
s uden s o make mo e in o med decisions abou scien i ically based pe sonal and
socie al decisions. The posi ion he e is no ha he doing o science is unimpo an . I is
impo an o s uden s o be engaged in inqui y p ac ices. Indeed, hese expe iences
p o ide he bes ins uc ional pla o m o s uden s o e lec back upon how scien i ic
knowledge is de eloped. Howe e , despi e he con inued emphasis on unde s andings
o SI wo ldwide, he e has ne e been a sys ema ic assessmen o how well his
educa ional ou come is being accomplished.
Resea ch indica es ha nei he eache s no s uden s ypically hold in o med
iews o SI (Lede man & Lede man, 2004; Schwa z e al., 2002). Howe e , he
esea ch base is small p ima ily due o he lack o a ailabili y o alid and eliable
assessmen s o SI. Now wi h he de elopmen o he Views o Scien i ic Inqui y,
[VASI] (Lede man e al., 2014) he esea ch base o SI can begin o
g ow. The e a e
hose ha ha e conce ns wi h ins umen s ha pu po o assess s uden s' unde s and
ings
abou cons uc s such as inqui y and NOS (Hamme & Elby, 2009; Hamme , Elby,
Sche , &
Redish, 2005). Thei a gumen s p ima ily e ol e a ound he idea ha con ex
impac s s uden s' abili ies
o
exp ess
wha
hey
unde s and
abou
NOS
and
his
has
been
ex ended
o
he
inqui y.
The
esul s
o his in es iga ion show o he wise as he VASI
clea ly p o ides s uden s wi h a a ie y o con ex s wi hin which o exp ess wha hey
unde s and abou he inqui y. Addi ionally, p io esea ch also would call in o
ques ion he claims made by Hamme and colleagues (Ba els & Lede man, 2017;
among o he s).
While knowing abou SI is in ui i ely linked wi h he doing o SI, wha is no able is
he lack o a obus esea ch base cen e ed on s uden s' unde s andings abou he inqui y.
Wha is e iden is he p eponde ance o esea ch ocused on he doing o inqui y, which
o en imes is assumed o imply an unde s anding o inqui y. The belie ha doing
inqui y is a su icien condi ion o de eloping unde s andings abou SI, un o una ely,
is a misconcep ion. (Wong & Hodson, 2009, 2010).
The in en o his collabo a i e p ojec was o epo on s uden s' unde s andings o SI
ac oss he globe wi h a alid and eliable assessmen ool; we can begin o see wha
s uden s o he same g ade le els know abou SI in a ious coun ies/ egions. The
pu pose is no o ocus on compa isons ac oss coun ies (especially since ins uc ion,
cu icula, and cul u es a y widely ac oss na ions), bu a he
o de elop a baseline o
unde s andings wo ldwide. Reade s a e u ged o esis he emp a ion o com-
pa e he
indings om hei coun y/ egions wi h he indings om he o he
coun ies/ egions.
Al hough
one
o
one
compa isons
be ween
coun ies/ egions
a ound
he
wo ld
a e
no
app op ia e,
i
is clea ha he e a e simila i ies ac oss coun ies/ egions
ha can help explain he a he consis en indings. These explana o y ac o s a e
elabo a ed on in he conclusions.
1.1
Why should s uden s unde s and scien i ic inqui y and wha should hey know?
S uden s should be able o unde s and how scien is s do hei wo k and how scien i ic
knowledge is de eloped, c i iqued, and e en ually accep ed by he scien i ic
communi y. SI is his p ocess. The NSES con en s anda ds o Science as Inqui y o
g ades K-12 ad oca ed he me i o s uden s de eloping (a) he abili ies necessa y o
do inqui y and (b) unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y (NRC, 2000).
In he US, a ela i ely new se o science s anda ds de ine wha s uden s should
be lea ning. Al hough s uden s should be engaged in conduc ing scien i ic inqui y
he “doing” o scien i ic inqui y is emphasized in he new s anda ds (NGSS, 2013),
wi hin he ca ego y o “P ac ices.” The NGSS expec s eache s o ha e s uden s;
asking ques ions, planning and ca ying ou in es iga ions,
and cons uc ing explana ions.
Thus in he Uni ed S a es, eache s a e encou aged o engage hei s u
den s in conduc ing
scien i ic in es iga ions in hei class ooms. Howe e , he explici eaching o
unde s andings abou SI/P ac ices is missing om he NGSS. Al hough conduc ing an
inqui y, o he
p ocess skills o science, is impo an , s uden s can o en do inqui y wi hou knowing
how and why scien is s go abou hei wo k. The e icacy o such implici app oaches o
de eloping unde s andings o SI, and o ha ma e NOS, ha e been called in o

ques ion by a g owing body o esea ch (Abd- El-Khalick & Lede man, 2000;
Ake son, Abd-El-Khalick, & Lede man, 2000; Lede man, Ba els, Liu, & Jimenez,
2013; Lede man & Lede man, 2004; Schwa z e al., 2002; Schwa z, Lede man, &
C aw o d, 2004). The e o e, i is impo an o iden i y and explici ly each he aspec s
o SI ha can se e, in he end, o de elop in o med iews o SI. And, o cou se, he
majo endpoin desi ed is he de elopmen o a scien i ically li e a e ci izen y. I is
impo an o no e ha “explici ’ does no mean lec u e o eache -cen e ed ins uc ion,
as misunde s ood by some esea che s (Duschl & G andy, 2013). Explici / e lec i e
ins uc ion engages s uden s in e lec ions upon wha hey ha e done in an in es iga ion
and he implica ions his has o how scien is s do hei wo k and he knowledge ha is
p oduced. Such unde s andings a e c i ical o he de elopmen o a scien i ically li e a e
public, con- side ing ha ou ci izen y is con on ed wi h scien i ically based issues
upon which decisions mus be made, ye ew ci izens engage in scien i ic in es iga ions
a e hey ha e g adua ed high school o college.
The ini ial o mal eaching o SI begins in p ima y school. The age a which a child
en e s p ima y school is di e en depending on he coun y o egion. The NGSS Lead
S a es (2013) begins wi h kinde ga en and, he e o e, he o mal eaching o SI in he US
is supposed o begin in kinde ga en. The o mal s a o science ins uc ion also di e s
a ound he wo ld. S udies ha e been con- duc ed on young child en's unde s andings o
SI. These s udies ha e ound ha young child en ha e he abili y o unde s and ce ain
aspec s o SI ha a e de elopmen ally app op ia e (e.g., science begins wi h a ques ion,
no single scien i ic me hod, and conclusions a e consis en wi h da a collec ed
and
p io
knowledge)
(Lede man,
2012).
S uden s
in
g ades
Kinde ga en
h ough
i h
g ade
ha e
he abili y o unde s and some aspec s o SI (Sodian, Zai chik, & Ca ey, 1991;
Ty le & Pe e son, 2003). Two s udies ha e looked a elemen a y s uden s who spoke
English and o he languages a home ound ha a e ins uc ion in hei na i e
language s uden s had an unde s anding o SI o hei age le el ega dless o
language spoken (Cue as, Lee, Ha , & Deak o , 2005; Lede man e al., 2013). I is in
i h g ade and beyond ha , he in oduc ion and eaching o he addi ional aspec s o SI
a e de elopmen ally app op ia e.
1.1.1
Aspec s o SI
The aspec s o SI ha ollow a e empi ically shown o be app op ia e in he con ex
o K-12 class- ooms (Ba els & Lede man, 2017; Lede man, 2012; Lede man e al.,
2013), bu can also be app op ia ely applied o college le el s uden s. Fo a mo e in-
dep h elabo a ion o each o hese aspec s, see Lede man e al. (2014). Speci ically
s uden s should de elop an in o med unde s anding o he ollowing aspec s.
1.2
Scien i ic in es iga ions all begin wi h a ques ion, bu do no
necessa ily es a hypo hesis
“Scien i ic in es iga ions in ol e asking and answe ing a ques ion and compa ing he
answe wi h wha scien is s al eady know abou he wo ld” (Na ional Resea ch
Council [NRC], 2000, p. 20). In o de o scien i ic in es iga ions o occu he e has o
be a ques ion asked abou he na u al wo ld. T adi ional expe imen al designs ypically
include a o mally s a ed hypo hesis, bu his is no necessa y o ypical o o he designs
(e.g. desc ip i e and co ela ional).
1.3
The e is no single se o sequence o s eps ollowed in all in es iga ions
Clea ly, he e a e o he ways ha scien is s pe o m in es iga ions such as obse ing na u al
phenom
ena. Mos o en, desc ip i e and co ela ional esea ch me hodologies a e
employed o ga he da a in his ield. S uden s need o de elop no only an
unde s anding o he a ie y o esea ch me hodologies employed bo h ac oss and
wi hin he domains o science bu ha , in gene al, “scien is [s] use di e en kinds o
in es iga ions depending on he ques ions hey a e ying o answe ” (NRC, 2000, p.
20).
1.4
Inqui y p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked
While scien is s may design di e en p ocedu es o answe he same ques ion, hese
in a iably need o be capable o answe ing he ques ion p oposed. Simila o he
a o emen ioned aspec o SI, s u- den s need o unde s and he necessi y o his
alignmen be ween he esea ch ques ion and me hod, in ha he o me d i es and
ul ima ely de e mines he la e . In gene al, s uden s should unde s and
ha he ques ion
de e mines he app oach, wi h he app oaches di e ing bo h wi hin and be ween sci
en i ic
disciplines and ields (Lede man, An ink, & Ba os, 2012).
1.5
All scien is s pe o ming he same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s
S uden s need o unde s and ha “scien i ic da a does no s and by i sel , bu can be
a iously in e p e ed” (Osbo ne, Collins, Ra cli e, Milla , & Duschl, 2003, p. 708).
As such, scien is s who ask simila ques ions and ollow simila p ocedu es may
each di e en conclusions, owing in pa o
hei
heo e ical
commi men s,
wha
scien is s
conside
as
e idence
and
how
hey
handle
anomalous
da a also in luence he
esul s o a scien i ic in es iga ion. Because o his, scien is s who examine he same
da a may jus i iably come o di e en conclusions.
1.6
Inqui y p ocedu es can in luence esul s
The p ocedu e selec ed o a scien i ic in es iga ion in a iably in luences i s ou come.
The ope a ionaliza ion o a iables, he me hods o da a collec ion, and how a iables
will be measu ed and analyzed all in luence he conclusions eached by he esea che .
1.7
Scien i ic da a a e no he same as scien i ic e idence
Da a and e idence se e di e en pu poses in a scien i ic in es iga ion. Da a a e
obse a ions ga e ed by he scien is du ing he cou se o he in es iga ion, and hey
can ake a ious o ms (e.g. numbe s, desc ip ions, pho og aphs, audio, physical
samples, e c.) E idence, in con as , is a p oduc o da a analysis p ocedu es and
subsequen in e p e a ion and is di ec ly ied o a speci ic ques ion and a ela ed claim.
1.8
Resea ch conclusions mus be consis en wi h he da a collec ed
Each esea ch conclusion mus be suppo ed by e idence. S uden s need o
unde s and ha he s eng h o a scien is 's claim is a unc ion o he p eponde ance o
he e idence ha suppo s i . The alidi y o he claims is u he s eng hened by he
alignmen o he esea ch me hod wi h he esea ch ques ion. I ollows as well hen,
ha claims mus be e lec ed in he da a collec ed which a e analyzed o p o ide he
e idence o said claims. Scien i ic knowledge is empi ically based, hus any
explana ions o he phenomena explo ed in in es iga ions a e ancho ed by he da a ha
acili- a es scien is s' de elopmen o hose explana ions.
1.9
Explana ions a e de eloped om a combina ion o collec ed da a and wha is
al eady known
Bomba die , & Bea on, 1993; Hamble on, 2002; Hamble on & Pa sula, 1998;
Manee s iwongul & Dixon, 2004; O ganiza ion o Economic and Coope a ion and
De elopmen (OECD), 2017).
3.4
T aining Sessions o Sco ing he VASI
The selec ion and aining o he con ac people o his s udy we e di ec ed by he US
esea che s. This p ojec o mally began wi h an ini ial mee ing a he Eu opean
Science Educa ion Resea ch Associa ion (ESERA) mee ing. The ini ial imeline o he

s udy was de e mined when he pe sonne a each esea ch si e was able o speci y hei
local cons ain s. Indi idual mee ings we e a anged and conduc ed ia Skype be ween
each si e and he p ima y US si e. Depending on he esea ch eam, he e we e wo o
h ee mee ings. The i s mee ing in ol ed lea ning o adminis e and sco e he VASI.
A e he adminis a ion o he VASI in each coun y/ egion, each si e was equi ed o
send ou o i e comple ed (bu unsco ed) VASI ques ionnai es om hei sample. The
esponses we e ansla ed in o English by each local eam. Then, each ques ionnai e was
independen ly sco ed by a g oup o ou o i e esea che s om he US eam. Once he
ques ionnai es we e sco ed, a second mee ing wi h he in e na ional local eam was
scheduled o explain how he ques ionnai es we e sco ed and how he ques ions
a ge ed he aspec s o SI. Du ing his mee ing, each local eam discussed he quali y
o he answe s, sco ing, eliabili y, and in e - a e ag eemen . Any issues o cul u al
impac s on he meaning o s uden s' esponses we e discussed and econciled. This
mani es ed i sel in some si ua ions whe e he US sco ing eam de e ed o he
in e p e a ion o he in e na ional eam because o he impo ance o a po en ial cul u al
in luence on he meaning o s uden 's esponses. In a hi d mee ing, each eam sco ed
a new se o ques ionnai es o hemsel es and hen compa ed hei sco es wi h he US
eam. This mee ing allowed he local eams o “calib a e” he sco ing p ocess in o de o
ge 80% o g ea e in e - a e ag eemen . I addi ional mee ings we e needed, hey we e
scheduled on a case by case basis. Once eams could eliably sco e he VASI wi h he
US eam, hey hen p oceeded o es ablish eliabili y wi h hei local eam be o e
sco ing he en i e se o ques ionnai es. They sco ed hei en i e sample and me wi h
hei local eam o ensu e 80% o g ea e in e - a e ag eemen o each aspec o he
VASI. The in e a e ag eemen es ablished o each esea ch si e can be ound in Table
1.
3.5
Da a
collec ion
This s udy ook place a he s a o he g ade se en school yea which a ied in iming
depending on
he beginning o he school yea in he a ious con inen s and hemisphe es.
Coun ies in he No he n
hemisphe e collec ed da a in Augus /Sep embe and he Sou he n
hemisphe e coun ies collec ed da a
in Janua y). Each s uden was gi en a VASI
ques ionnai e (Figu e 1) o comple e in a 45–60 min ime pe iod. In Figu e 1, below
is he ull VASI ins umen . The e sion dis ibu ed o he s uden s con ained mo e
han adequa e space o he s uden s o p o ide hei esponses a e adminis a ion o he
VASI, he esponses we e sco ed by he p ima y con ac pe son (and colleagues) in
each coun y. Each s uden was gi en a sco e o ; No Answe , Naï e (s uden s'
esponses con ained all inaccu a e unde s andings), Mixed (s uden s' esponses con ained
some accu a e and some inaccu a e unde s andings) o In o med (s uden s' esponses a e
comple e and accu a e)
o each aspec o SI. Please e e o Table 1 o examples o
esponses and how hey we e coded. Nume ical sco es a e no used wi h he VASI,
s uden 's esponses a e ca ego ized wi h espec o how accu a ely hei esponses align
wi h he measu ed aspec o SI. I a esponden p o ided a esponse
consis en ac oss he
en i e ques ionnai e ha is wholly cong uen wi h he a ge esponse o a gi en
aspec o SI
hey we e sco ed as “in o med”. I , in con as , a esponse was ei he only pa ially p o-
ided, and hus no o ally consis en wi h he a ge ed esponse, o i a con adic ion in
he esponse is e iden , a sco e o “mixed” was gi en. A esponse ha is
con adic o y o accep ed iews o an aspec o SI, and p o ides no e idence o
cong uence wi h accep ed iews o he speci ic aspec o SI unde examina ion, was
sco ed as “naï e”. Re e Table 1 o examples o how VASI esponses a e sco ed. A
leas 20% o he s uden s we e in e iewed o ensu e ha he sco ing o he VASI
was accu a e in ep esen ing wha he s uden s' w i en esponse mean . This insu ed ace
alidi y o he
ques ionnai e. The in e iews we e eco ded and ansc ibed. The in e - a e
ag eemen epo ed o
he VASI was 80% o be e o each si e.
4
OVERALL FINDINGS
In gene al, his s udy ound ha g ade se en s uden s' unde s andings o SI a e poo .
Howe e , i was appa en ha , o each coun y o egion in he s udy, he e we e some
s uden s who held mo e mod
e a e unde s andings han o he s. These a ia ions di e ed
om place o place depending on he cu
iculum, ins uc ion, and he my iad o o he
ac o s ha in luence wha s uden s lea n. Again, he eason da a om each
coun y/ egion we e no compa ed wi h o he coun ies/ egions is ha such compa isons
would be inapp op ia e and is ce ainly no in line wi h he in ended ocus o his
in es
iga ion. The ollowing pa ag aphs highligh he indings om each coun y/ egion.
Resea che s om
each we e asked o w i e a b ie summa y o hei si e-speci ic
indings. They w o e abou he mos
in e es ing indings om hei coun y/ egion. They
also explained he possible easons o hese pa
icula esul s. See Tables 2 and 3 o a
comple e se o da a om each coun y/ egion o each aspec o SI.
Wha ollows is coun y/ egion speci ic explana ions (in alphabe ical o de ) o indings
and possi-
ble ac o s in luencing SI unde s andings based on local s anda ds,
cu iculum, and eaching p ac ice. The lead esea che o each coun y/ egion w o e he
si e-speci ic indings sec ion, his esul ed in some une en language. Thus, some
edi ing was done, bu subs an i e we e no made and e e y a emp was made o
allow each con ibu o o con ey hei own indings om hei own dis inc place in
he wo ld. Addi ionally, ei e a ions o he same da a ound in he p e ious ables we e
omi - ed in an e o o conse e space.
TABLE 2 The wo ldwide a e age o
indings o each aspec o SI
Aspec
Naï e %
Mixed %
In o med
%
S a s
wi h
a
ques ion
43.9
29.9
20.7
Mul iple me hods
54.4
33.8
6.0
Same
p ocedu es
may
no
yield
same
esul s
54.0
25.5
14.0
P ocedu es
in luence
esul s
40.7
33.1
15.9
Conclusions
mus
be
consis en
wi h
da a
collec ed
39.7
20.6
33.3
P ocedu es
a e
guided
by
he
ques ion
asked
44.8
20.1
27.5
Da a
and
e idence
a e
no
he
same
48.5
32.1
10.4
Conclusions
a e
de eloped
om
da a
and
p io
knowledge
41.3
37.9
10.9

10982736, 2019, 4, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ ea.21512 by Uni e sidad De Se illa, Wiley Online Lib a y on [02/01/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License
4.1
Aus alia
Scien i ic inqui y (SI) is pa o he Aus alian na ional cu iculum. The Aus alian
cu iculum: Science F-10 (ACARA, 2015) is s uc u ed a ound h ee in e ela ed
s ands: Science unde s anding, Science as a human endea o , and Science inqui y
skills. Howe e , he e is no expec a ion ha SI is explici ly add essed in elemen a y
class ooms. Elemen a y eache s a e esponsible o eaching ac oss he en i e
cu iculum and ypically do no hold e ia y quali ica ions, o en esul ing in low
con idence in eaching science (McKenzie, KOS, Walke , & Hong, 2008). Fo his
s udy, a o al o 108 s uden s om wo Ca holic single-sex schools in Queensland,
Aus alia comple ed he VASI. A e accep ing he in i a ion o pa icipa e in he s udy,
s uden s comple ed he ins umen and hei esponses we e analyzed and sco ed by wo
esea che s. Finally, 21 s uden s comp ising a 20% sub- sample we e in e iewed,
ep esen ing a ange o iews abou SI aspec s. The esul s show ha Aus alian
se en h g ade s uden s ailed o exp ess in o med iews o he majo i y o he aspec s
o SI examined in his s udy. Mos s uden s held naï e o mixed iews o six o he
eigh aspec s, wi h hal o he s uden s exp essing in o med iews in only wo aspec s.
O e all, Aus alian se en h g ade s uden s en e high school wi h la gely unin o med
iews o SI. O e all, s uden s showed adequa e unde s andings o he need o
alignmen be ween he esea ch ques ion and me hod, and claims being suppo ed by
da a. Un o una ely, a lack o unde s anding o he ole o da a in e p e a ion and
p e ious scien i ic knowledge was ound in he g ade se en s uden s. A majo i y o he
s uden s also had an inabili y o desc ibe mul iple me hods used by scien is s. These
indings a e conce ning as e idence sugges s ha inadequa e iews o SI may hampe
s uden s' abili ies o app ecia e how he scien i ic en e p ise ope a es, and may lead o
disengagemen in science in he pos compulso y yea s o schooling.
4.2
B azil
Two o icial documen s guide eaching in B azil: The Na ional Cu icula
Pa ame e s (BRAZIL, 1998) and he Na ional Educa ion Plan (BRAZIL, 2014).
Un o una ely, none o he documen s p o- mo e and p io i ize SI in science
class ooms h ough ac i i ies. In mos B azilian elemen a y class- ooms, science is
augh using a eache -cen e ed app oach wi h ew o no p ac ical ac i i ies. In his
s udy, 169 s uden s om i e public and p i a e co-educa ional schools we e selec ed o
pa icipa e. As a way o ep esen he majo i y o B azilian schools, s uden s ha e
di e en socioeconomic le els. A e he ques ionnai es we e answe ed, hey we e
sco ed by wo esea che s. Then a sub-sample o
20% o s uden s we e in e iewed. The
esul s show ha he majo i y o B azilian s uden s' esponses
we e classi ied as naï e Fo
all aspec s o SI. O e all, a e analyzing he esponses o B azilian s u- den s, i can be
seen ha hey can concep ualize some SI aspec s, bu canno iden i y hem in eal si -
ua ions. This esul e lec s he lack o na ional cu icula emphasis o SI o elemen a y
school and he absence o expe ience in doing inqui y in science class ooms.
4.3
Chile
The Chilean na ional science cu iculum o elemen a y school (MINEDUC, 2012)
es ablishes lea n- ing objec i es ela ed o science con en , scien i ic skills, and
a i udes. Mo eo e , he idea o SI appea s o be conside ed as a esea ch skill ha
e e s o he ac ions o doing science and no o he e lec ion on he meaning o inqui y
i sel . This emphasis is s eng hened in all he o icial documen s sugges ed o
ins uc ion. In spi e o he cu icula p esc ip ions, he science classes in mos cases a e
eache -cen e ed wi h ew oppo uni ies o de elop scien i ic hinking o skills. Fo his
s udy, a sam- ple o 142 s uden s om wo co-educa ional public and one unded
school om San iago, Chile answe ed he ins umen . The schools we e chosen
because public schools (44%) and unded schools (51%) comp ise 95% o he school
sys em in Chile. These schools p o ide educa ion o low-income s uden s wi h simila
academic backg ounds. A e s uden s answe ed he ques ionnai es, hey we e
analyzed
and sco ed by wo esea che s. Then, 20% o s uden s we e in e iewed conside ing he
di
e en s uden s' iews o SI aspec s. The esul s show ha mos o he se en h g ade
Chilean s uden s demons a ed a naï e o mixed knowledge o SI. The mos in o med
iews we e o conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed whe e only 26.1% o he
s uden s we e able o ead he cha and ex ac in o ma ion. Fo se en SI aspec s,
50% o he Chilean s uden s demons a ed naï e iews. Wi h espec o Mul iple
me hods (75.4%) we e ca ego ized as “naï e.” The idea o “one scien i ic me hod”
is
no
new
in
he
Chilean
con ex .
E en
science
ex books
and
eache s
con inue
ansmi ing
ha
idea
o s uden s. O e all he esul s sugges ha s uden s a e commi ed o a s epwise
single scien i ic me hod ha hey ha e lea ned in science, and hey assume ce ain
le els o in ui i e cohe ence among he s eps. Simul aneously, hey a ely ha e
oppo uni ies o de elop hei own esea ch ques ions and design in es iga ions o
answe hose ques ions. As a esul , hey a e no explici ly awa e o he ela ionship
be ween esea ch esul s and he p ocedu es u ilized.
4.4
Egyp
In he science s anda ds in Egyp (Cen e o Cu icula and Ma e ial De elopmen ,
2016) he e a e
some
s anda ds
ela ed
o
“doing”
SI
ye
i
is
a e
ha
eache s
engage
s uden s
in
inqui y
in
p ac ice
The sample was s uden s o eache s who pa icipa ed in p o essional de elopmen wo k-
shops in Weizmann Ins i u e. Once he su eys we e collec ed, wo esea che s
analyzed hem. S u- den s om he sample we e selec ed o in e iews (20%)
acco ding o he eache s´ ecommenda ions. The esul s show ha se en h g ade
Is aeli s uden s showed naï e iews in six o eigh aspec s o SI. S uden s held
in o med iews o wo aspec s: P ocedu es guided by he ques ion asked (44.9%) and
conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed (44.2%). Du ing he in e iew p ocess,
s uden s we e asked i hey e e ed o “Da a collec ed” o “Da a analysis”, howe e ,
hey did no know how o di e en ia e be ween he wo. The mos naï e aspec s
acco ding o he analysis o s u- den answe s we e mul iple me hods (47.8%), same
p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (46.4%), explana ions a e de eloped om
da a and wha is al eady known (46%), p ocedu es in luence esul s (45.7%), and
begin wi h a ques ion (44.2%). Some s uden s said ha scien is s may do a ious
expe i
men s in hei labo a o ies wi h he ma e ials and ins umen s which hey ha e, and see
wha hey ge .
They do no necessa ily de elop a ques ion. Da a does no equal
e idence also showed ha 39% o
he s uden s' held naï e iews. Addi ionally, du ing he
in e iews, s uden s ied o explain he mean-
ing o da a/e idence, bu hey we e qui e
con used abou i . I appea s ha s uden s, in gene al, lea ned hese concep s, bu
hey did no eally assimila e hem co ec ly. Fu he mo e, he inqui y app oach o
eaching and lea ning is no done in a ho ough manne . The inqui y p ocedu es we e
somehow “ ansmi ed” in a decla a i e way, and he inqui y concep s we e somehow
neglec ed. In ha case, he eache s' p epa a ion is he key o wha happens in he
class oom, and o how hei s u- den s pe cei e he scien i ic p ocess as well as science
phenomena. Finally, he science cu iculum o six h o eigh h g ades includes mainly
biology opics and emphasizes he na u e o science as well as inqui y p ocedu es and
skills. We, he e o e, belie e ha qui e a ew s uden s we e co ec abou
some
ca ego ies, bu when in e iewing s uden s, we ound ou ha hey jus epea ed wha hey
we e
old in class, a he han eally unde s anding he issue.

4.10
4.11
Mainland China
4.11.1
Beijing
Lea ning science h ough inqui y is ad oca ed in he na ional science cu iculum s anda ds
o an ele
men a y school in Mainland China (Minis y o Educa ion o he People's
Republic o China [MOE], 2001). Based on he s anda ds, SI is one o he h ee
dimensions a ound which na ional science cu iculum o p ima y educa ion is buil . In
his dimension, p ocess skills a e he main ocus. Howe e ,
wo
aspec s
o
unde s anding
abou
inqui y,
“ he
inqui y
me hods
a e
guided
by
he
ques ion
asked”
and “e idence and
logical deduc ion a e impo an o scien i ic inqui y” a e men ioned. Since he
na ional science cu iculum s anda ds o elemen a y school we e issued, mo e and mo e
eache s in Beijing ha e ied o in eg a e hands-on ac i i ies and lab wo k in o hei
science class oom eaching. In spi e o much e o o p o iding s uden s oppo uni ies
o do inqui y, eache s do no ac i ely help s uden s e lec abou na u e o scien i ic
inqui y. In his s udy, samples came om wo public middle schools. One is loca ed a
5 km away om he cen e o he ci y and he o he is 11 km away. Mos o he s uden s
a e en olled in schools nea hey li e. Public schools a e selec ed because mos o he
elemen a y and middle schools a e un by he go e nmen in Mainland China
(Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China, 2017a, 2017b). Two
classes in each public school a e in ol ed in his s udy. Th ee esea che s analyzed and
sco ed he ques ionnai es and a class om he school close o he ci y cen e was
selec ed o he indi idual in e iews. Thus, i is impo an o no e ha al hough 20% o
he s uden s we e in e iewed, all hose who we e in e iewed we e om he same
school o logis ical easons. The esul s show ha Chinese s uden s om Beijing hold
mos ly mixed iews o he SI aspec s. The aspec s o which s uden s iews we e
in o med: p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion
asked, wi h 57.2% o he s uden s p o iding explici co ec explana ions; conclusions
consis en wi h da a collec ed, wi h 36.7% holding in o med iews, and 46.4%
demons a ing mixed iews o his same aspec . One possible eason o hese
in o med iews is ha hese pa icula aspec s o SI a e men ioned o some ex en in
he na ional cu iculum s anda ds. Teache s in his egion p o ide oppo uni ies o
s uden s o iden i y a iables ela ed o a esea ch ques ion, con ol a iables, and
de elop a conclusion based on he da a collec ed. The mos naï e iews epo ed
we e o same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul (57.8%), whe e mos s uden s
men ioned only he “e o ” o jus i y di e ences among esul s. Addi ionally, mo e
han hal o he s u- den s held mixed iews o he o he i e aspec s. These esul s
may ha e occu ed because he e is no emphasis on explici unde s anding abou hese
aspec s o SI in he na ional s anda ds (Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic
o China [MOE], 2001). Fu he mo e, he aspec s o which s uden s did no do well
a e no men ioned in he s anda ds. These esul s also migh be ela ed wi h he eas e n
philosophies o educa ion, such as Con ucianism (Lee & S iaman, 2013). I is a
common belie ha Chinese s uden s a e o e lea ne s and choose a passi e app oach o
lea ning. Lau, Ho, and
Lam (2015) poin ed ou ha s uden s om Wes e n coun ies a e
ela i ely be e a unde s a ing he
scien i ic p ocess and na u e o science, while Eas
Asian s uden s a e ela i ely be e in science con- en han science p ocess. Las bu
no leas , he g ade one h ough six na ional science cu iculum s anda ds in Mainland
China we e jus e ised in 2017. Since he s uden s in ol ed in his s udy only had
lea ning expe iences guided by he p e ious s anda ds issued in 2001, he ocus o he
e ised
s anda ds ha e no had enough longe i y o ha e any impac on s uden s'
unde s andings o scien i ic
inqui y.
4.11.2
Shanghai
As he es o mainland China, Shanghai science educa ion ollows he na ional
science cu iculum s anda ds o elemen a y school (Minis y o Educa ion o he
People's Republic o China [MOE], 2001). In his con ex , SI is p esen in he
s anda ds mos ly ela ed o esea ch skills. In o he wo ds, he ocus is on “doing”
inqui y. Fo his s udy, 106 s uden s om one co-educa ional p i a e school comple ed
he VASI. The school se es s uden s om middle socioeconomic le els. Once he
ques
ionnai es we e answe ed by he s uden s, hey we e analyzed and sco ed by wo
esea che s. Finally,
20% o s uden s we e selec ed acco ding o he di e si y in hei
answe s o be in e iewed. The esul s showed ha s uden s om Shanghai showed
low le els o unde s anding o SI in all he aspec s conside ed in he VASI
ques ionnai e. A bes , no mo e han 30% o he s uden s showed in o med iews o
some aspec s. Many possible ac o s can explain he esul s. Fi s , in Shanghai, SI is no
su icien ly used in science class ooms. Se en h g ade s uden s lea n science h ough
lec u es ins ead o inqui y ac i i ies because eache s eel ha inqui y ac i i ies equi e
mo e ime and longe ime o he eache s o p epa e. Second, i was no un il 2001
ha he e o m o basic educa ion s a ed in China and SI began o be p omo ed. Thi d,
science eache s ha e di e en unde s andings o SI and his con ibu es o s uden s'
misunde s anding o scien i ic inqui y. Finally, high s akes pape and pencil
examina ions a e s ill e y impo an wi h espec o assessing s uden s' science
achie emen .
These
examina ions
do
no
s ess
highe
le el
hinking,
and
as
long
as
s uden s
con inue
o ecei e high sco es he e is li le e o Thus, as long as s uden s ge good
sco es, he e is li le ins uc ional e o o equi e s uden s o unde s and scien i ic
inqui y.
Zhejiang
The Science cu iculum S anda d o Full-Time Schools o Compulso y Educa ion
[2011] empha-
sizes
he
impo ance
o
SI.
“Doing”
and
“unde s anding”
inqui y
a e
bo h
s essed
and
desc ibed
as
objec i es o he con en o he science cu iculum, as well as a
eaching me hod. This e ised cu iculum also s esses he idea o an in eg a ed
cu iculum, howe e , Zhejiang p o ince has been implemen ing i o nea ly 20 yea s
wi h mixed esul s. Because p ima y school science has ecei ed mo e and mo e
a en ion, some schools ha e begun o ec ui science eache s majo ing in science.
P e iously i was common o p ima y science eache s o majo in o he subjec s, such
as Chinese, Ma hema ics, o Music. Fo his s udy, he sample (n = 106) was selec ed
om wo u ban and one u al school o di e en socioeconomic le els in h ee ci ies in
Zhejiang p o ince. S uden s answe ed he
ques ionnai es and ou esea che s pa icipa ed
du ing he sco ing p ocess. La e , 20% o he s uden s
we e in e iewed o ensu e he
accu acy o he sco ing o he VASI. The s uden s we e chosen andomly based on he
a ious le els o unde s anding o SI. In gene al, s uden s om Zhejiang showed
in o med iews in ou aspec s o SI. They also held mixed iews o wo SI aspec s
and naï e iews o ano he wo SI aspec s. In pa icula , he mos in o med iews we e
o P ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked (60.4%), begin wi h a ques ion
(59.4%), explana ions a e de eloped om da a and wha is al eady known (50%),
and conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed (41.5%). One o he possible easons
o hese esul s is ha SI is desc ibed as bo h objec i es and con en o he science
cu iculum in he s anda ds. These ou aspec s a e also s essed in he in eg a ed
science ex - book. Aspec s ha showed he mos naï e esponses we e: Same
p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (50%) whe e hal o he s uden s p o ided
inadequa e answe s and easons. The same esul s a e seen wi h espec o P ocedu es
in luence esul s (36.8%), howe e , in his case, he pe cen age o naï e answe s is
simila o he in o med answe s (32.1%). Addi ionally, mul iple me hods (70.8%), and
da a does no equal o e idence (64.1) e ealed mos ly mixed iews. The possible
eason was ha hese wo aspec s a e no explici ly men ioned by science cu iculum
s anda ds o he in eg a ed science ex book.
4.12
New Zealand
New Zealand has a na ional cu iculum ha includes science as one o he eigh
lea ning a eas (Minis y o Educa ion, 2007). These a eas a e e y b oadly de ined,
and i is up o each school o de elop a se o lea ning expe iences conside ed
app op ia e o hei s uden s and communi y. The cu iculum, he e o e, is e y
nonp esc ip i e. Elemen a y eache s a e gene ally esponsible o eaching all eigh
lea ning a eas and he majo i y o hese eache s do no ha e science-speci ic aining
beyond hei own school expe iences and a single science educa ion cou se included in
hei p e- se ice eache educa ion. The science lea ning a ea has a i s hea
s uden s' de elopmen o a ibu es ha e lec hose o a scien i ically li e a e ci izen
and a he p ima y le el, he expec a ion is ha s uden s unde s and some aspec s o SI
such as, he impo ance o asking ques ions o scien is s. Howe e , despi e he
cu iculum guidelines, he e is a gene ally widesp ead lack o p io i y placed on
science, and a numbe o na ional ini ia i es ha e ecen ly been implemen ed o suppo
school science. O pa icula ele ance o his s udy was he publica ion o i e
“science capabili ies
o
ci izenship”
(Minis y
o
Educa ion,
2015)
wi h
a
ange
o
suppo ing
esou ces
p o ided
o
suppo eache s o de elop p og ams ha will con ibu e
o s uden s' “ unc ional knowledge o science”.
Fo his s udy, 87 s uden s om wo co-
educa ional s a e seconda y schools loca ed in small owns in he mid-No h Island
egion o New Zealand we e selec ed. School selec ion was no only con enien bu also
pu pose ul. The schools ep esen ed “ ypical” schools om a mid-socio-economic a ea
wi h 21% ep esen a ion om indigenous people and mixed academic abili ies. A e
answe ing he ques
ionnai e, ollow-up in e iews we e conduc ed wi h 18 o he s uden s
(21%) o check ha he su ey
da a sco ing
had been
accu a e.
These s uden s
we e selec ed
o ensu e
a widesp ead ac oss
he ange
o esponses. The esul s show ha New Zealand

se en h g ade s uden s end o hold naï e iews in almos e e y aspec o SI. S uden s
p o ided mo e in o med answe s in ela ion o begin wi h a ques ion (26.4%) and
p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion (25.3%). Howe e , he same SI aspec s
showed 37.9% and 48.3% o naï e answe s espec i ely. This esul sugges s ha while
s uden s may ha e some unde s anding o he pu pose ul na u e o scien i ic
in es iga ions, his unde s anding is no always modeled in science class ooms. On he
con a y, wo aspec s showed o e 70% naï e iews. Explana ions a e de eloped
om da a and wha is al eady known (78.2%) and same p ocedu es may no ge he
same esul s (71.3%), whe e mos s uden s sugges ed ha di e en conclusions
would
esul om he same p ocedu es because o expe imen al e o and/o expe imen al a ia ion.
O e all, al hough he New Zealand Cu iculum in science se s expec a ions ela ed o
unde s anding key aspec s o SI, science o en has low s a us in he cu iculum o many
p ima y schools. The causes a e mul iple bu con ibu ing ac o s include he lack o
sys emic suppo o eaching science by way o inse ice p o essional de elopmen ;
as a esul , p ima y eache s possess a low sense o sel - e icacy in science eaching.
The in oduc ion o na ional s anda ds in nume acy and li e acy, wi h a consequen shi
in ocus on hese a eas, has esul ed in less emphasis on o he a eas, including sci-
ence. The New Zealand go e nmen has esponded o conce ns abou s uden s'
engagemen and achie emen in science, as measu ed by na ional and in e na ional
es ing, wi h a numbe o ini ia i es including a na ion-wide ‘Plan o Science in
Socie y’.
4.13
Nige ia
Recen ly in Nige ia, he e has been a e iew o he Uni e sal Basic Educa ion
Cu iculum (Fede al Minis y o Educa ion, 1999) by he Nige ian Educa ion
Resea ch and De elopmen Council (Igbokwe, 2015), howe e , despi e ha he e is a
cu iculum in place, he e is no a eadily accessible de ailed oadmap o eache s.
Addi ionally, “unde s anding” o inqui y is no included in wha s u- den s a e expec ed
o know o lea n in Elemen a y class ooms. The e is, howe e , some e o owa d he
inclusion o he “doing” o inqui y, bu e en his is no s ongly ollowed in e e y
school. Elemen a y science eache s a e p o ided wi h schemes o wo k and s ipula ed
ex books om he S a e Minis ies o Educa ion, which in u n d aw om he Fede al
Minis y o Educa ion. S uden s a e augh as a whole class wi h ew ins ances o
small g oup ac i i ies, and e y a e ield ips. They ead om he ex s, he
blackboa d, and some imes, he eache asks s uden s o epea wha he/she eads aloud
and equi es hem o w i e down wha is said in hei no ebooks. Fo he VASI s udy,
102 s uden s we e selec ed om se en geopoli ical egions in Nige ia. This sample was
con enien and co-educa ional p i a e and public schools a e ep esen ed. A e
comple ing he VASI, s uden s' esponses we e analyzed and sco ed, and in e - a e
ag eemen was es ablished wi h a eam o six expe s. A e wa d, 20% o he s uden s
we e pu pose ully selec ed o in e iews. The esul s show ha Nige ian s uden s om
se en h g ade mos ly hold naï e iews on six aspec s o SI. They also showed an
in o med unde s anding in wo aspec s. Fo he mos in o med aspec s, 54.9% showed
in o med iews on p ocedu e in luence esul s and 36.3% o da a does no equal
e idence. S uden s showed mos naï e iews on same p ocedu es may no ge he
same esul s (77.5%), mul iple me hods (68.6%) p ocedu es a e guided by he
ques ion asked (61.8%), explana ions a e de eloped om da a and wha is al eady
known (60.8%), begins wi h a ques ion (57.8%), and conclusions con- sis en wi h
da a collec ed (42.2%). One possible explana ion o he esul s could be ha he
ins uc- ional sys em is one ha emphasizes di ec and s ic ly guided ins uc ion.
In hei lea ning expe iences, s uden s ha e some amilia i y wi h ollowing laid down
s eps and s uc u es o o gani- za ion o scien i ic ideas. Conside ing he aspec same
p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (77.5%) nai e, i is possible o in e
cohe ence be ween his and hei la gely o mal iew o he in lu-
ence
o
p ocedu es
on
esul s.
S uden s
may
see
a
pa adox
in
how
one
could
asse
ha
p ocedu es
in luence esul s,
and hen simul aneously hold he iew ha he same p ocedu es may no ge he same
esul s. So, hey may ha e been ope a ionalizing he logic ha he same p ocedu es
yield he same esul s.
4.14
Sou h A ica
The Na ional Na u al Science Cu iculum (Depa men o Basic Educa ion (DBE),
2011) p omp s eache s o use inqui y-based app oaches o eaching science beginning
in G ade 7. The cu iculum implici ly p omo es knowledge abou he inqui y by
p o iding a lis o science p ocess skills, including a de ailed desc ip ion o each skill.
Howe e , ac ual eaching abou SI may a y among schools and eache s. Mos o he
p ima y science eache s ha e no majo ed in science subjec s, and mos o he schools
do no ha e labo a o ies, esul ing in a eali y ha doing inqui y is seldom achie ed. I is
possible ha he emphasis on in es iga ions in he cu iculum and ex books, combined
wi h he cul u e o a oiding hands-on p ac ical wo k in many schools may esul in a
heo e ical emphasis on scien i ic in es iga ions. Fo he VASI s udy, 106 s uden s we e
selec ed o pa icipa e. A eam o h ee esea che s analyzed he answe s. Fo in e iews,
20% o s uden s we e selec ed acco ding o di e ences in ou comes in he VASI. The
esul s show ha se en h g ade s uden s showed mos ly naï e and in o med iews o
SI. S uden s we e conside ed in o med o begins wi h a ques ion (48%), conclusions
consis en wi h da a collec ed (48%), and p ocedu e in luence esul s (39%).
Fu he mo e, mo e complex aspec s in ol ing human imagina ion and c ea i i y, such
as same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (57% nai e), and p ocedu es a e
guided by he ques ion asked (53% nai e) hold mos ly naï e iews. Also, da a does
no equal e idence (51%) showed mos ly naï e iews. The poo
unde s anding o his
aspec may be unde s ood in e ms o inadequa e ocabula y due o second lan-
guage usage.
O e all, o e he pas 20 yea s, educa ion in Sou h A ica has been subjec o h ee cu -
iculum changes, seeking a balance be ween lea ning con en and skills de elopmen .
Th oughou he cu iculum changes, conduc ing in es iga ions emained a ocus,
al hough he eali y o poo ly ained eache s o en limi s oppo uni ies o lea ne s o
conduc in es iga ions. Ne e heless, he cu iculum and ex books ha e placed a
s ong emphasis on asking ques ions, collec ing da a and
making conclusions. I is
he e o e plausible ha eache s emphasize hese ideas e en hough lea ne s
hemsel es
seldom ha e oppo uni ies o engage p ac ically in he inqui y. The e o e, lea ne s may
de elop some unexpec ed unde s anding o some inqui y aspec s emphasized by he
cu iculum, as a gued in an ea lie Sou h A ican s udy using G ade 11 lea ne s
(Gaighe , Lede man, & Lede man, 2014). I is hus no su p ising ha lea ne s in he
cu en s udy a e bes in o med on aspec s ocused on ques ions, da a, and conclusions,
while aspec s in ol ing he human mind in ela ing hese ideas a e poo ly unde s ood.
4.15
Spain
In Spain, he Andalusian cu iculum and he O ganic Law o Educa ion (LOE, 2006)
ha e adop ed he amewo k ag eed by he Council and he Eu opean Pa liamen (EU,
2006a, 2006b) in which scien i ic compe ence is emphasized as one o he eigh key
compe encies o he scien i ic li e acy o ci izens and Science has been one o he
compulso y subjec s in all he co esponding cu icula. The e a e no explici
e e ences abou he unde s anding o SI, al hough i is possible o ind gene al
objec i es
and
con en
ela ed
o
“knowing
how
o
do
esea ch”
o
doing
inqui y.
The
eaching
o
p i
ma y science akes place in he con ex o a subjec called “Na u al
Sciences”, howe e , he e is a documen ed lack o in e es in Science
(Con ede ación de Sociedades Cien í icas de España [COSCE], 2011; Vázquez &
Manasse o, 2011) a ibu ed o he lack o connec ion be ween he
5
CONCLUSIONS
O e whelmingly, he esul s om his s udy show ha s uden s a ound he wo ld ha e
an o e all inadequa e unde s anding o scien i ic inqui y, al hough he e we e ins ances
in which s uden s in a coun y did be e han “naï e” on a pa icula aspec o SI. This
is consis en wi h he ew s udies (i.e. because a alid and eliable ins umen , was no
a ailable) ha ha e been done wi h seconda y s uden s, p ese ice and inse ice
eache s (Lede man & Lede man, 2004; Schwa z, Lede man, & Lede man, 2008).
Ne e heless, hese indings a e signi ican because his is he i s global and sys ema ic
assessmen o he highly alued educa ional ou come o unde s andings o scien i ic
inqui y. Gi en he 18 independen samples om each o he coun ies/ egions, i would
be inapp op ia e o make blanke in e ences abou why hese esul s we e ound.
Ob iously, he e a e nume ous easons o hese esul s due o he ob ious di e ences in
eaching, cu iculum, s anda ds, and cul u es o he a ious coun ies/ egions in ol ed in
his s udy. Howe e , he e a e some common hemes gleaned
om he con ex -speci ic
in o ma ion ecei ed om each o he esea ch si es and epo ed in he p e
ious sec ions
o each o he epo ing coun ies/ egions. These hemes a e (1) lack o s anda ds
speci ying
unde s andings
abou
SI,
(2)
eaching
ha
does
no
make
unde s andings
abou
SI
explici ,
(3) science eaching ha emphasizes only he doing o science, and (4)
eaching ha does no emphasize an inqui y app oach. Gi en he epo ed con ex o
science eaching in he coun ies/ egions in ol ed in his in es iga ion, he indings a e
no su p ising. In some cases, s uden s a ely, i e e , ha e he oppo uni y o ac ually
conduc scien i ic in es iga ions. I is clea ha no ma e whe e s uden s li e wo ldwide
ha unde s andings o inqui y a e no cul i a ed. Again, i is impo an o no e ha no
s a is ical compa isons we e made among he coun ies o he pu pose he e was jus o
ge a baseline o beginning middle school s uden s' unde s andings. S a is ical
compa isons ac oss coun
ies would be inapp op ia e because o he p e iously no ed
di e ences ha exis wi h espec o cu
iculum, eaching app oach, and cul u es ac oss
he 18 coun ies/ egions included in his in es iga ion. As men ioned p e iously, he
sample is eally a composi e o 18 sepa a e samples. As humans, we a e all oo o en

emp ed o compa e ou own coun y's pe o mance agains o he coun ies, bu his is
eally inapp op ia e and un ai . I is impo an o no e ha despi e all o he possible
di e ences ac oss coun ies/ egions wi h espec o cu iculum, eaching app oach, and
cul u es he
esul s a e qui e consis en wi h espec o s uden s' lack unde s anding abou
inqui y and he e seem
o be some clea ly common hemes o explain he esul s.
Comple ion o elemen a y school is abou hal way h ough a s uden 's schooling
and he da a collec ed in his s udy indica e ha mos s uden s hold a naï e iew o
mos o he aspec s o SI in se en h g ade. These indings a e no su p ising as a
c oss-sec ional s udy conduc ed in he US ound ha s uden s' unde s andings o SI do
no inc ease be ween g ades one o i e and in he case o some aspec s hei
unde s andings dec ease h ough elemen a y school (Ba els & Lede man, 2017).
Some may a gue ha he s uden s in his in es iga ion will ha e plen y o ime o
imp o e
hei unde s andings and a e no ha poo conside ing ha s uden s ha e jus
comple ed elemen a y
school. Howe e , p e ious s udies ha e ound ha e y young
child en (g ade one and abo e) a e able o adequa ely unde s and se e al aspec s o
scien i ic inqui y; science begins wi h a ques ion, he e is no single scien i ic me hod
and conclusions a e based on da a ga he ed and wha is al eady known (Lede man,
2012). Ano he s udy looked a g ade one s uden s' unde s andings o SI who came
om e y di e en cul u al backg ounds, his s udy ound ha a e explici and
e lec i e science ins uc ion g ade one s uden s could unde s and aspec s o SI
ega dless o hei ini ial SI unde s andings (Lede man e al., 2013). S uden s should,
a he e y leas , ha e in o med iews o
a
leas
some
o
he
a o emen ioned
aspec s
by
g ade
se en.
The
in e p e a ion
o
he
esul s
could
igh ully be iewed as a con lic be ween
ha ing a pe spec i e o a glass hal ull e sus a glass hal emp y. Whe he hese
esul s a e iewed nega i ely o posi i ely will ul ima ely be decided by
how each
coun y/ egion iews he de elopmen al le el o hei s uden s and u u e s udies on wha
s uden s know when hey exi high school, a s udy ha we a e jus comple ing wi h 25
coun ies/ egions.
Again, an impo an ca ea , o he han a oiding he emp a ion o compa ing
coun ies/ egions, is
ha he p ima y goal o his in es iga ion was o es ablish an ini ial
baseline o wha s uden s unde s and abou scien i ic inqui y. Unde s andings o
scien i ic inqui y a e a highly p ized goal o science educa ion h oughou he wo ld
and i is a signi ican componen o scien i ic li e acy (Robe s, 2008). I is qui e
possible ha no all coun ies/ egions will ca e equally abou each o he eigh
aspec s o SI in es iga ed he e. Consequen ly, hey may no be conce ned ha hei
s uden s do no
know he di e ence be ween da a and e idence. Ne e heless, he esul s o
his in es iga ion p o ide
an empi ically based “call o ac ion.” Al hough he samples
o each loca ion we e o con enience,
his in es iga ion p o ides da a on some aspec s
ha a e assu ed o conce n and impo ance o ce ain
coun ies/ egions and he esul s can
lead o changes in cu icula, science eaching and policy decisions a he local,
s a e/p o incial, and na ional policy decisions in science educa ion.
6
IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
Cu en ly, he 18 coun ies/ egions in ol ed in his in es iga ion, along wi h an
addi ional se en coun ies/ egions a e looking a g adua ing high school s uden s'
unde s andings o SI. This will p o-
ide in o ma ion abou how, and i , s uden s'
unde s andings o SI become mo e sophis ica ed as hey
p oceed h ough middle and high
school. I will also help decide wha le els o unde s anding a e
app op ia e o expec o
s uden s a he beginning o se en h g ade. The inal piece o s uden s' ajec-
o ies o SI
unde s andings can be comple ed by assessing elemen a y s uden s' unde s andings o SI
ea lie in elemen a y school. The esul s om all h ee o hese s udies combined will
elucida e a ull p og ession o s uden s' SI unde s andings om beginning elemen a y
school o he comple ion o high school a ound he wo ld. As men ioned ea lie , some
may a gue ha doing scien i ic inqui y is o ul ima e impo ance (Duschl & G andy,
2013), and doing o inqui y will necessa ily lead o unde - s anding abou he inqui y.
This implici de elopmen o knowledge abou inqui y is no suppo ed by any exis ing
esea ch. Mo e impo an ly, we a gue ha unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y a e a
necessa y and c i ical componen o he achie emen o scien i ic li e acy. The
gene al ci izen y needs o make in o med decisions abou scien i ically based
pe sonal and socie al decisions, and hese decisions a e based on hei knowledge
abou how scien i ic knowledge is de eloped (i.e. scien i ic inqui y).
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