An international collaborative investigation of beginning seventh grade students' understandings of scientific inquiry: Establishing a baseline

An in e na ional collabo a i e in es iga ion o beginning se en h g ade s uden s' unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y: Es ablishing a baseline Judi h Lede man ( Illinois Ins i u e o Technology ), No man Lede man ( Illinois Ins i u e o Technology ), Selina Ba els (Uni e sidad de Valpa aíso), Juan Jimenez ( Illinois Ins i u e o Technology ), Ma k Akubo (Flo ida S a e Uni e si y); She een Aly (Ame ican Uni e si y in Cai o); Chengcheng Bao (Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Es elle Blanque (Uni e si é De Bo deaux & ESPE d'Aqui aine); Ron Blonde (Weizmann Ins i u e o Science); Ma iana Bologna Soa es de And ade (Uni e sidade Es adual de Lond ina); Ca he ine Bun ing (The Uni e si y o Waika o); Mus a a Caki (Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Heba EL-Deghaidy (Ame ican Uni e si y in Cai o); Ahmed ElZo kani (Ame ican Uni e si y in Cai o); Es elle Gaighe (Uni e si y o P e o ia); Shuchen Guo (Beijing No mal Uni e si y); A i Hakanen (Helsingin Yliopis o); So aya Hamed Al-Lal (Uni e sidad de Se illa); Cigdem Han-Tosunoglu (Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Annema ie Ha ingh (Uni e si y o Cape Town); Anne Hume (The Uni- e si y o Waika o); Se ha I ez (Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Gillian Kay (Uni e si y o Cape Town); Ozgu Ki ilcan Dogan (Ma ma a Uni e si esi); Ke s in K eme (IPN, Kiel); Pi-Chu Kuo (Na ional Ping ung Uni e si y); Ja i La onen (Helsingin Yliopis o); Shu-Fen Lin (Na ional Changhua Uni e si y o Educa ion); Cheng Liu (Beijing No mal Uni e si y); Enshan Liu (Beijing No mal Uni e si y); Shiang-Yao Liu (Na ional Taiwan No mal Uni e si y); Bin L (Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Rachel Mamlok- Naaman (Weizmann Ins i u e o Science); Ch is ine McDonald (G i i h Uni e si y); I ene Neumann (IPN, Kiel); Yaozhen Pan (Zhejiang In e na ional S udies Uni e si y); E ic Picholle (Uni e si é de Nice Sophia An ipolis); Ana Ri e o Ga cía (Uni e sidad de Se illa); Ca l-Johan Rundg en (S ockholm Uni e si e ); Da id San ibáñez-Gómez (Uni e sidad Ca ólica Sil a Hen íquez); Ka hy Saunde s (The Uni e si y o Waika o); Renee Schwa z (Geo gia S a e Uni e si y); F auke Voi le (IPN, Kiel); Jakob on Gyllenpalm (S ockholm Uni e si e ); Fangbing Wei (Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Jocelyn Wisha (Uni e si y o B is ol); Zhi eng Wu (Zhejiang No mal Uni e si y); Huang Xiao (Zhejiang No mal Uni e - si y); Yalcin Yalaki (Hace epe Uni e si esi); Qiaoxue Zhou (Shanghai Jingyang Middle School) Abs ac Al houg unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y (as opposed o conduc ing inqui y) a e included in science educa ion e o m documen s a ound he wo ld, li le is known abou wha s uden s ha e lea ned abou inqui y du ing hei elemen a y school yea s. This is pa ially due o he lack o any assessmen ins umen o measu e unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y. Howe e , a alid and eliable assessmen has ecen ly been de eloped and published, Views Abou Scien i ic Inqui y (VASI; Lede man e al. [2014], Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 51, 65–83). The pu pose o his la ge- scale in e na ional p ojec was o collec he i s baseline da a on wha beginning middle school s uden s ha e lea ned abou scien i ic inqui y du ing hei elemen a y school yea s. Eigh een coun ies/ egions spanning six con inen s including 2,634 s uden s pa icipa ed in he s udy. The pa icipa ing coun ies/ egions we e: Aus alia, B azil, Chile, Egyp , England, Finland, F ance, Ge many, Is ael, Mainland China, New Zealand, Nige ia, Sou h A ica, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan, Tu key, and he Uni ed S a es. In many coun ies, science is no o mally augh un il middle school, which is he a ionale o choosing se en h g ade s uden s o his in es iga ion. This baseline da a will simul aneously p o ide in o ma ion on wha , i any hing, s uden s lea n abou inqui y in elemen a y school, as well as hei beginning knowledge as hey en e seconda y school. I is impo an o no e ha collec ing da a om all o he app oxima ely 200 coun ies globally was no humanly possible, and i was also no possible o collec da a om e e y egion o each coun y. The esul s o e -whelmingly show ha s uden s a ound he wo ld a he beginning o g ade se en ha e e y li le unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y. Some coun ies do show easonable unde s andings in ce ain aspec s bu he o e all pic u e o unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y is no wha is hoped o a e comple ing 6 yea s o elemen a y educa ion in any coun y. Keywo ds: in e na ional, li e acy, scien i ic inqui y 1. INTRODUCTION Scien i ic inqui y (SI) has been a pe ennial ocus o science educa ion o he pas cen u y and i gene ally e e s o he combina ion o gene al science p ocess skills wi h adi ional science con en , c ea i i y, and c i ical hinking o de elop scien i ic knowledge (Lede man, 2010). Pe haps he mos in luen ial ad ocacy o he impo ance o unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y can be ound in he concep ual pape by Showal e (1974) in which he ou lines he c i ical componen s o scien i ic li e acy (Welch, 1979). Few would a gue ha scien i ic li e acy is no he p ima y goal o science educa ion. Consis en wi h Showal e 's wo k, ecen e o m documen s ha e emphasized ha s uden s should de elop he abili ies necessa y o do inqui y and/o science p ac ices as well as ha e an unde - s anding abou inqui y (e.g. Benchma ks o Science Li e acy, Ame ican Associa ion o he Ad ancemen o Science, 1993; A F amewo k o K-12 Science Educa ion: P ac ices, C osscu ing Concep s, and Co e Ideas, Na ional Resea ch Council [NRC], 2011). The Na ional Science Educa ion S anda ds (NRC, 2000) we e explici in hei di e en ia ion be ween he abili ies o do inqui y and knowledge abou SI. This dis inc ion also con inues o be e iden in he Nex Gene a ion Science S anda ds (NGSS, 2013). Al hough, he NGSS e e s o science p ac ices as opposed o he inqui y. The NGSS conside s “p ac ices” as ex ending well beyond simply being in ol ed in science p ocesses. In ei he case, “inqui y” o “p ac ices” e e s o he engagemen o s uden s in beha io s simila o hose o scien is s. Simila dis inc ions a e becoming mo e p ominen in e o m documen s h oughou he wo ld. Qui e simply, i seems logical ha s uden s will imp o e hei abili y o do inqui y/p ac ices i hey ha e an unde s anding abou wha hey a e doing and his knowledge, combined wi h knowledge o science, will enable s uden s o make mo e in o med decisions abou scien i ically based pe sonal and socie al decisions. The posi ion he e is no ha he doing o science is unimpo an . I is impo an o s uden s o be engaged in inqui y p ac ices. Indeed, hese expe iences p o ide he bes ins uc ional pla o m o s uden s o e lec back upon how scien i ic knowledge is de eloped. Howe e , despi e he con inued emphasis on unde s andings o SI wo ldwide, he e has ne e been a sys ema ic assessmen o how well his educa ional ou come is being accomplished. Resea ch indica es ha nei he eache s no s uden s ypically hold in o med iews o SI (Lede man & Lede man, 2004; Schwa z e al., 2002). Howe e , he esea ch base is small p ima ily due o he lack o a ailabili y o alid and eliable assessmen s o SI. Now wi h he de elopmen o he Views o Scien i ic Inqui y, [VASI] (Lede man e al., 2014) he esea ch base o SI can begin o g ow. The e a e hose ha ha e conce ns wi h ins umen s ha pu po o assess s uden s' unde s and ings abou cons uc s such as inqui y and NOS (Hamme & Elby, 2009; Hamme , Elby, Sche , & Redish, 2005). Thei a gumen s p ima ily e ol e a ound he idea ha con ex impac s s uden s' abili ies o exp ess wha hey unde s and abou NOS and his has been ex ended o he inqui y. The esul s o his in es iga ion show o he wise as he VASI clea ly p o ides s uden s wi h a a ie y o con ex s wi hin which o exp ess wha hey unde s and abou he inqui y. Addi ionally, p io esea ch also would call in o ques ion he claims made by Hamme and colleagues (Ba els & Lede man, 2017; among o he s). While knowing abou SI is in ui i ely linked wi h he doing o SI, wha is no able is he lack o a obus esea ch base cen e ed on s uden s' unde s andings abou he inqui y. Wha is e iden is he p eponde ance o esea ch ocused on he doing o inqui y, which o en imes is assumed o imply an unde s anding o inqui y. The belie ha doing inqui y is a su icien condi ion o de eloping unde s andings abou SI, un o una ely, is a misconcep ion. (Wong & Hodson, 2009, 2010). The in en o his collabo a i e p ojec was o epo on s uden s' unde s andings o SI ac oss he globe wi h a alid and eliable assessmen ool; we can begin o see wha s uden s o he same g ade le els know abou SI in a ious coun ies/ egions. The pu pose is no o ocus on compa isons ac oss coun ies (especially since ins uc ion, cu icula, and cul u es a y widely ac oss na ions), bu a he o de elop a baseline o unde s andings wo ldwide. Reade s a e u ged o esis he emp a ion o com- pa e he indings om hei coun y/ egions wi h he indings om he o he coun ies/ egions. Al hough one o one compa isons be ween coun ies/ egions a ound he wo ld a e no app op ia e, i is clea ha he e a e simila i ies ac oss coun ies/ egions ha can help explain he a he consis en indings. These explana o y ac o s a e elabo a ed on in he conclusions. 1.1 Why should s uden s unde s and scien i ic inqui y and wha should hey know? S uden s should be able o unde s and how scien is s do hei wo k and how scien i ic knowledge is de eloped, c i iqued, and e en ually accep ed by he scien i ic communi y. SI is his p ocess. The NSES con en s anda ds o Science as Inqui y o g ades K-12 ad oca ed he me i o s uden s de eloping (a) he abili ies necessa y o do inqui y and (b) unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y (NRC, 2000). In he US, a ela i ely new se o science s anda ds de ine wha s uden s should be lea ning. Al hough s uden s should be engaged in conduc ing scien i ic inqui y he “doing” o scien i ic inqui y is emphasized in he new s anda ds (NGSS, 2013), wi hin he ca ego y o “P ac ices.” The NGSS expec s eache s o ha e s uden s; asking ques ions, planning and ca ying ou in es iga ions, and cons uc ing explana ions. Thus in he Uni ed S a es, eache s a e encou aged o engage hei s u den s in conduc ing scien i ic in es iga ions in hei class ooms. Howe e , he explici eaching o unde s andings abou SI/P ac ices is missing om he NGSS. Al hough conduc ing an inqui y, o he p ocess skills o science, is impo an , s uden s can o en do inqui y wi hou knowing how and why scien is s go abou hei wo k. The e icacy o such implici app oaches o de eloping unde s andings o SI, and o ha ma e NOS, ha e been called in o ques ion by a g owing body o esea ch (Abd- El-Khalick & Lede man, 2000; Ake son, Abd-El-Khalick, & Lede man, 2000; Lede man, Ba els, Liu, & Jimenez, 2013; Lede man & Lede man, 2004; Schwa z e al., 2002; Schwa z, Lede man, & C aw o d, 2004). The e o e, i is impo an o iden i y and explici ly each he aspec s o SI ha can se e, in he end, o de elop in o med iews o SI. And, o cou se, he majo endpoin desi ed is he de elopmen o a scien i ically li e a e ci izen y. I is impo an o no e ha “explici ’ does no mean lec u e o eache -cen e ed ins uc ion, as misunde s ood by some esea che s (Duschl & G andy, 2013). Explici / e lec i e ins uc ion engages s uden s in e lec ions upon wha hey ha e done in an in es iga ion and he implica ions his has o how scien is s do hei wo k and he knowledge ha is p oduced. Such unde s andings a e c i ical o he de elopmen o a scien i ically li e a e public, con- side ing ha ou ci izen y is con on ed wi h scien i ically based issues upon which decisions mus be made, ye ew ci izens engage in scien i ic in es iga ions a e hey ha e g adua ed high school o college. The ini ial o mal eaching o SI begins in p ima y school. The age a which a child en e s p ima y school is di e en depending on he coun y o egion. The NGSS Lead S a es (2013) begins wi h kinde ga en and, he e o e, he o mal eaching o SI in he US is supposed o begin in kinde ga en. The o mal s a o science ins uc ion also di e s a ound he wo ld. S udies ha e been con- duc ed on young child en's unde s andings o SI. These s udies ha e ound ha young child en ha e he abili y o unde s and ce ain aspec s o SI ha a e de elopmen ally app op ia e (e.g., science begins wi h a ques ion, no single scien i ic me hod, and conclusions a e consis en wi h da a collec ed and p io knowledge) (Lede man, 2012). S uden s in g ades Kinde ga en h ough i h g ade ha e he abili y o unde s and some aspec s o SI (Sodian, Zai chik, & Ca ey, 1991; Ty le & Pe e son, 2003). Two s udies ha e looked a elemen a y s uden s who spoke English and o he languages a home ound ha a e ins uc ion in hei na i e language s uden s had an unde s anding o SI o hei age le el ega dless o language spoken (Cue as, Lee, Ha , & Deak o , 2005; Lede man e al., 2013). I is in i h g ade and beyond ha , he in oduc ion and eaching o he addi ional aspec s o SI a e de elopmen ally app op ia e. 1.1.1 Aspec s o SI The aspec s o SI ha ollow a e empi ically shown o be app op ia e in he con ex o K-12 class- ooms (Ba els & Lede man, 2017; Lede man, 2012; Lede man e al., 2013), bu can also be app op ia ely applied o college le el s uden s. Fo a mo e in- dep h elabo a ion o each o hese aspec s, see Lede man e al. (2014). Speci ically s uden s should de elop an in o med unde s anding o he ollowing aspec s. 1.2 Scien i ic in es iga ions all begin wi h a ques ion, bu do no necessa ily es a hypo hesis “Scien i ic in es iga ions in ol e asking and answe ing a ques ion and compa ing he answe wi h wha scien is s al eady know abou he wo ld” (Na ional Resea ch Council [NRC], 2000, p. 20). In o de o scien i ic in es iga ions o occu he e has o be a ques ion asked abou he na u al wo ld. T adi ional expe imen al designs ypically include a o mally s a ed hypo hesis, bu his is no necessa y o ypical o o he designs (e.g. desc ip i e and co ela ional). 1.3 The e is no single se o sequence o s eps ollowed in all in es iga ions Clea ly, he e a e o he ways ha scien is s pe o m in es iga ions such as obse ing na u al phenom ena. Mos o en, desc ip i e and co ela ional esea ch me hodologies a e employed o ga he da a in his ield. S uden s need o de elop no only an unde s anding o he a ie y o esea ch me hodologies employed bo h ac oss and wi hin he domains o science bu ha , in gene al, “scien is [s] use di e en kinds o in es iga ions depending on he ques ions hey a e ying o answe ” (NRC, 2000, p. 20). 1.4 Inqui y p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked While scien is s may design di e en p ocedu es o answe he same ques ion, hese in a iably need o be capable o answe ing he ques ion p oposed. Simila o he a o emen ioned aspec o SI, s u- den s need o unde s and he necessi y o his alignmen be ween he esea ch ques ion and me hod, in ha he o me d i es and ul ima ely de e mines he la e . In gene al, s uden s should unde s and ha he ques ion de e mines he app oach, wi h he app oaches di e ing bo h wi hin and be ween sci en i ic disciplines and ields (Lede man, An ink, & Ba os, 2012). 1.5 All scien is s pe o ming he same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s S uden s need o unde s and ha “scien i ic da a does no s and by i sel , bu can be a iously in e p e ed” (Osbo ne, Collins, Ra cli e, Milla , & Duschl, 2003, p. 708). As such, scien is s who ask simila ques ions and ollow simila p ocedu es may each di e en conclusions, owing in pa o hei heo e ical commi men s, wha scien is s conside as e idence and how hey handle anomalous da a also in luence he esul s o a scien i ic in es iga ion. Because o his, scien is s who examine he same da a may jus i iably come o di e en conclusions. 1.6 Inqui y p ocedu es can in luence esul s The p ocedu e selec ed o a scien i ic in es iga ion in a iably in luences i s ou come. The ope a ionaliza ion o a iables, he me hods o da a collec ion, and how a iables will be measu ed and analyzed all in luence he conclusions eached by he esea che . 1.7 Scien i ic da a a e no he same as scien i ic e idence Da a and e idence se e di e en pu poses in a scien i ic in es iga ion. Da a a e obse a ions ga e ed by he scien is du ing he cou se o he in es iga ion, and hey can ake a ious o ms (e.g. numbe s, desc ip ions, pho og aphs, audio, physical samples, e c.) E idence, in con as , is a p oduc o da a analysis p ocedu es and subsequen in e p e a ion and is di ec ly ied o a speci ic ques ion and a ela ed claim. 1.8 Resea ch conclusions mus be consis en wi h he da a collec ed Each esea ch conclusion mus be suppo ed by e idence. S uden s need o unde s and ha he s eng h o a scien is 's claim is a unc ion o he p eponde ance o he e idence ha suppo s i . The alidi y o he claims is u he s eng hened by he alignmen o he esea ch me hod wi h he esea ch ques ion. I ollows as well hen, ha claims mus be e lec ed in he da a collec ed which a e analyzed o p o ide he e idence o said claims. Scien i ic knowledge is empi ically based, hus any explana ions o he phenomena explo ed in in es iga ions a e ancho ed by he da a ha acili- a es scien is s' de elopmen o hose explana ions. 1.9 Explana ions a e de eloped om a combina ion o collec ed da a and wha is al eady known Bomba die , & Bea on, 1993; Hamble on, 2002; Hamble on & Pa sula, 1998; Manee s iwongul & Dixon, 2004; O ganiza ion o Economic and Coope a ion and De elopmen (OECD), 2017). 3.4 T aining Sessions o Sco ing he VASI The selec ion and aining o he con ac people o his s udy we e di ec ed by he US esea che s. This p ojec o mally began wi h an ini ial mee ing a he Eu opean Science Educa ion Resea ch Associa ion (ESERA) mee ing. The ini ial imeline o he s udy was de e mined when he pe sonne a each esea ch si e was able o speci y hei local cons ain s. Indi idual mee ings we e a anged and conduc ed ia Skype be ween each si e and he p ima y US si e. Depending on he esea ch eam, he e we e wo o h ee mee ings. The i s mee ing in ol ed lea ning o adminis e and sco e he VASI. A e he adminis a ion o he VASI in each coun y/ egion, each si e was equi ed o send ou o i e comple ed (bu unsco ed) VASI ques ionnai es om hei sample. The esponses we e ansla ed in o English by each local eam. Then, each ques ionnai e was independen ly sco ed by a g oup o ou o i e esea che s om he US eam. Once he ques ionnai es we e sco ed, a second mee ing wi h he in e na ional local eam was scheduled o explain how he ques ionnai es we e sco ed and how he ques ions a ge ed he aspec s o SI. Du ing his mee ing, each local eam discussed he quali y o he answe s, sco ing, eliabili y, and in e - a e ag eemen . Any issues o cul u al impac s on he meaning o s uden s' esponses we e discussed and econciled. This mani es ed i sel in some si ua ions whe e he US sco ing eam de e ed o he in e p e a ion o he in e na ional eam because o he impo ance o a po en ial cul u al in luence on he meaning o s uden 's esponses. In a hi d mee ing, each eam sco ed a new se o ques ionnai es o hemsel es and hen compa ed hei sco es wi h he US eam. This mee ing allowed he local eams o “calib a e” he sco ing p ocess in o de o ge 80% o g ea e in e - a e ag eemen . I addi ional mee ings we e needed, hey we e scheduled on a case by case basis. Once eams could eliably sco e he VASI wi h he US eam, hey hen p oceeded o es ablish eliabili y wi h hei local eam be o e sco ing he en i e se o ques ionnai es. They sco ed hei en i e sample and me wi h hei local eam o ensu e 80% o g ea e in e - a e ag eemen o each aspec o he VASI. The in e a e ag eemen es ablished o each esea ch si e can be ound in Table 1. 3.5 Da a collec ion This s udy ook place a he s a o he g ade se en school yea which a ied in iming depending on he beginning o he school yea in he a ious con inen s and hemisphe es. Coun ies in he No he n hemisphe e collec ed da a in Augus /Sep embe and he Sou he n hemisphe e coun ies collec ed da a in Janua y). Each s uden was gi en a VASI ques ionnai e (Figu e 1) o comple e in a 45–60 min ime pe iod. In Figu e 1, below is he ull VASI ins umen . The e sion dis ibu ed o he s uden s con ained mo e han adequa e space o he s uden s o p o ide hei esponses a e adminis a ion o he VASI, he esponses we e sco ed by he p ima y con ac pe son (and colleagues) in each coun y. Each s uden was gi en a sco e o ; No Answe , Naï e (s uden s' esponses con ained all inaccu a e unde s andings), Mixed (s uden s' esponses con ained some accu a e and some inaccu a e unde s andings) o In o med (s uden s' esponses a e comple e and accu a e) o each aspec o SI. Please e e o Table 1 o examples o esponses and how hey we e coded. Nume ical sco es a e no used wi h he VASI, s uden 's esponses a e ca ego ized wi h espec o how accu a ely hei esponses align wi h he measu ed aspec o SI. I a esponden p o ided a esponse consis en ac oss he en i e ques ionnai e ha is wholly cong uen wi h he a ge esponse o a gi en aspec o SI hey we e sco ed as “in o med”. I , in con as , a esponse was ei he only pa ially p o- ided, and hus no o ally consis en wi h he a ge ed esponse, o i a con adic ion in he esponse is e iden , a sco e o “mixed” was gi en. A esponse ha is con adic o y o accep ed iews o an aspec o SI, and p o ides no e idence o cong uence wi h accep ed iews o he speci ic aspec o SI unde examina ion, was sco ed as “naï e”. Re e Table 1 o examples o how VASI esponses a e sco ed. A leas 20% o he s uden s we e in e iewed o ensu e ha he sco ing o he VASI was accu a e in ep esen ing wha he s uden s' w i en esponse mean . This insu ed ace alidi y o he ques ionnai e. The in e iews we e eco ded and ansc ibed. The in e - a e ag eemen epo ed o he VASI was 80% o be e o each si e. 4 OVERALL FINDINGS In gene al, his s udy ound ha g ade se en s uden s' unde s andings o SI a e poo . Howe e , i was appa en ha , o each coun y o egion in he s udy, he e we e some s uden s who held mo e mod e a e unde s andings han o he s. These a ia ions di e ed om place o place depending on he cu iculum, ins uc ion, and he my iad o o he ac o s ha in luence wha s uden s lea n. Again, he eason da a om each coun y/ egion we e no compa ed wi h o he coun ies/ egions is ha such compa isons would be inapp op ia e and is ce ainly no in line wi h he in ended ocus o his in es iga ion. The ollowing pa ag aphs highligh he indings om each coun y/ egion. Resea che s om each we e asked o w i e a b ie summa y o hei si e-speci ic indings. They w o e abou he mos in e es ing indings om hei coun y/ egion. They also explained he possible easons o hese pa icula esul s. See Tables 2 and 3 o a comple e se o da a om each coun y/ egion o each aspec o SI. Wha ollows is coun y/ egion speci ic explana ions (in alphabe ical o de ) o indings and possi- ble ac o s in luencing SI unde s andings based on local s anda ds, cu iculum, and eaching p ac ice. The lead esea che o each coun y/ egion w o e he si e-speci ic indings sec ion, his esul ed in some une en language. Thus, some edi ing was done, bu subs an i e we e no made and e e y a emp was made o allow each con ibu o o con ey hei own indings om hei own dis inc place in he wo ld. Addi ionally, ei e a ions o he same da a ound in he p e ious ables we e omi - ed in an e o o conse e space. TABLE 2 The wo ldwide a e age o indings o each aspec o SI Aspec Naï e % Mixed % In o med % S a s wi h a ques ion 43.9 29.9 20.7 Mul iple me hods 54.4 33.8 6.0 Same p ocedu es may no yield same esul s 54.0 25.5 14.0 P ocedu es in luence esul s 40.7 33.1 15.9 Conclusions mus be consis en wi h da a collec ed 39.7 20.6 33.3 P ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked 44.8 20.1 27.5 Da a and e idence a e no he same 48.5 32.1 10.4 Conclusions a e de eloped om da a and p io knowledge 41.3 37.9 10.9 10982736, 2019, 4, Downloaded om h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ ea.21512 by Uni e sidad De Se illa, Wiley Online Lib a y on [02/01/2024]. See he Te ms and Condi ions (h ps://onlinelib a y.wiley.com/ e ms-and-condi ions) on Wiley Online Lib a y o ules o use; OA a icles a e go e ned by he applicable C ea i e Commons License 4.1 Aus alia Scien i ic inqui y (SI) is pa o he Aus alian na ional cu iculum. The Aus alian cu iculum: Science F-10 (ACARA, 2015) is s uc u ed a ound h ee in e ela ed s ands: Science unde s anding, Science as a human endea o , and Science inqui y skills. Howe e , he e is no expec a ion ha SI is explici ly add essed in elemen a y class ooms. Elemen a y eache s a e esponsible o eaching ac oss he en i e cu iculum and ypically do no hold e ia y quali ica ions, o en esul ing in low con idence in eaching science (McKenzie, KOS, Walke , & Hong, 2008). Fo his s udy, a o al o 108 s uden s om wo Ca holic single-sex schools in Queensland, Aus alia comple ed he VASI. A e accep ing he in i a ion o pa icipa e in he s udy, s uden s comple ed he ins umen and hei esponses we e analyzed and sco ed by wo esea che s. Finally, 21 s uden s comp ising a 20% sub- sample we e in e iewed, ep esen ing a ange o iews abou SI aspec s. The esul s show ha Aus alian se en h g ade s uden s ailed o exp ess in o med iews o he majo i y o he aspec s o SI examined in his s udy. Mos s uden s held naï e o mixed iews o six o he eigh aspec s, wi h hal o he s uden s exp essing in o med iews in only wo aspec s. O e all, Aus alian se en h g ade s uden s en e high school wi h la gely unin o med iews o SI. O e all, s uden s showed adequa e unde s andings o he need o alignmen be ween he esea ch ques ion and me hod, and claims being suppo ed by da a. Un o una ely, a lack o unde s anding o he ole o da a in e p e a ion and p e ious scien i ic knowledge was ound in he g ade se en s uden s. A majo i y o he s uden s also had an inabili y o desc ibe mul iple me hods used by scien is s. These indings a e conce ning as e idence sugges s ha inadequa e iews o SI may hampe s uden s' abili ies o app ecia e how he scien i ic en e p ise ope a es, and may lead o disengagemen in science in he pos compulso y yea s o schooling. 4.2 B azil Two o icial documen s guide eaching in B azil: The Na ional Cu icula Pa ame e s (BRAZIL, 1998) and he Na ional Educa ion Plan (BRAZIL, 2014). Un o una ely, none o he documen s p o- mo e and p io i ize SI in science class ooms h ough ac i i ies. In mos B azilian elemen a y class- ooms, science is augh using a eache -cen e ed app oach wi h ew o no p ac ical ac i i ies. In his s udy, 169 s uden s om i e public and p i a e co-educa ional schools we e selec ed o pa icipa e. As a way o ep esen he majo i y o B azilian schools, s uden s ha e di e en socioeconomic le els. A e he ques ionnai es we e answe ed, hey we e sco ed by wo esea che s. Then a sub-sample o 20% o s uden s we e in e iewed. The esul s show ha he majo i y o B azilian s uden s' esponses we e classi ied as naï e Fo all aspec s o SI. O e all, a e analyzing he esponses o B azilian s u- den s, i can be seen ha hey can concep ualize some SI aspec s, bu canno iden i y hem in eal si - ua ions. This esul e lec s he lack o na ional cu icula emphasis o SI o elemen a y school and he absence o expe ience in doing inqui y in science class ooms. 4.3 Chile The Chilean na ional science cu iculum o elemen a y school (MINEDUC, 2012) es ablishes lea n- ing objec i es ela ed o science con en , scien i ic skills, and a i udes. Mo eo e , he idea o SI appea s o be conside ed as a esea ch skill ha e e s o he ac ions o doing science and no o he e lec ion on he meaning o inqui y i sel . This emphasis is s eng hened in all he o icial documen s sugges ed o ins uc ion. In spi e o he cu icula p esc ip ions, he science classes in mos cases a e eache -cen e ed wi h ew oppo uni ies o de elop scien i ic hinking o skills. Fo his s udy, a sam- ple o 142 s uden s om wo co-educa ional public and one unded school om San iago, Chile answe ed he ins umen . The schools we e chosen because public schools (44%) and unded schools (51%) comp ise 95% o he school sys em in Chile. These schools p o ide educa ion o low-income s uden s wi h simila academic backg ounds. A e s uden s answe ed he ques ionnai es, hey we e analyzed and sco ed by wo esea che s. Then, 20% o s uden s we e in e iewed conside ing he di e en s uden s' iews o SI aspec s. The esul s show ha mos o he se en h g ade Chilean s uden s demons a ed a naï e o mixed knowledge o SI. The mos in o med iews we e o conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed whe e only 26.1% o he s uden s we e able o ead he cha and ex ac in o ma ion. Fo se en SI aspec s, 50% o he Chilean s uden s demons a ed naï e iews. Wi h espec o Mul iple me hods (75.4%) we e ca ego ized as “naï e.” The idea o “one scien i ic me hod” is no new in he Chilean con ex . E en science ex books and eache s con inue ansmi ing ha idea o s uden s. O e all he esul s sugges ha s uden s a e commi ed o a s epwise single scien i ic me hod ha hey ha e lea ned in science, and hey assume ce ain le els o in ui i e cohe ence among he s eps. Simul aneously, hey a ely ha e oppo uni ies o de elop hei own esea ch ques ions and design in es iga ions o answe hose ques ions. As a esul , hey a e no explici ly awa e o he ela ionship be ween esea ch esul s and he p ocedu es u ilized. 4.4 Egyp In he science s anda ds in Egyp (Cen e o Cu icula and Ma e ial De elopmen , 2016) he e a e some s anda ds ela ed o “doing” SI ye i is a e ha eache s engage s uden s in inqui y in p ac ice The sample was s uden s o eache s who pa icipa ed in p o essional de elopmen wo k- shops in Weizmann Ins i u e. Once he su eys we e collec ed, wo esea che s analyzed hem. S u- den s om he sample we e selec ed o in e iews (20%) acco ding o he eache s´ ecommenda ions. The esul s show ha se en h g ade Is aeli s uden s showed naï e iews in six o eigh aspec s o SI. S uden s held in o med iews o wo aspec s: P ocedu es guided by he ques ion asked (44.9%) and conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed (44.2%). Du ing he in e iew p ocess, s uden s we e asked i hey e e ed o “Da a collec ed” o “Da a analysis”, howe e , hey did no know how o di e en ia e be ween he wo. The mos naï e aspec s acco ding o he analysis o s u- den answe s we e mul iple me hods (47.8%), same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (46.4%), explana ions a e de eloped om da a and wha is al eady known (46%), p ocedu es in luence esul s (45.7%), and begin wi h a ques ion (44.2%). Some s uden s said ha scien is s may do a ious expe i men s in hei labo a o ies wi h he ma e ials and ins umen s which hey ha e, and see wha hey ge . They do no necessa ily de elop a ques ion. Da a does no equal e idence also showed ha 39% o he s uden s' held naï e iews. Addi ionally, du ing he in e iews, s uden s ied o explain he mean- ing o da a/e idence, bu hey we e qui e con used abou i . I appea s ha s uden s, in gene al, lea ned hese concep s, bu hey did no eally assimila e hem co ec ly. Fu he mo e, he inqui y app oach o eaching and lea ning is no done in a ho ough manne . The inqui y p ocedu es we e somehow “ ansmi ed” in a decla a i e way, and he inqui y concep s we e somehow neglec ed. In ha case, he eache s' p epa a ion is he key o wha happens in he class oom, and o how hei s u- den s pe cei e he scien i ic p ocess as well as science phenomena. Finally, he science cu iculum o six h o eigh h g ades includes mainly biology opics and emphasizes he na u e o science as well as inqui y p ocedu es and skills. We, he e o e, belie e ha qui e a ew s uden s we e co ec abou some ca ego ies, bu when in e iewing s uden s, we ound ou ha hey jus epea ed wha hey we e old in class, a he han eally unde s anding he issue. 4.10 4.11 Mainland China 4.11.1 Beijing Lea ning science h ough inqui y is ad oca ed in he na ional science cu iculum s anda ds o an ele men a y school in Mainland China (Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China [MOE], 2001). Based on he s anda ds, SI is one o he h ee dimensions a ound which na ional science cu iculum o p ima y educa ion is buil . In his dimension, p ocess skills a e he main ocus. Howe e , wo aspec s o unde s anding abou inqui y, “ he inqui y me hods a e guided by he ques ion asked” and “e idence and logical deduc ion a e impo an o scien i ic inqui y” a e men ioned. Since he na ional science cu iculum s anda ds o elemen a y school we e issued, mo e and mo e eache s in Beijing ha e ied o in eg a e hands-on ac i i ies and lab wo k in o hei science class oom eaching. In spi e o much e o o p o iding s uden s oppo uni ies o do inqui y, eache s do no ac i ely help s uden s e lec abou na u e o scien i ic inqui y. In his s udy, samples came om wo public middle schools. One is loca ed a 5 km away om he cen e o he ci y and he o he is 11 km away. Mos o he s uden s a e en olled in schools nea hey li e. Public schools a e selec ed because mos o he elemen a y and middle schools a e un by he go e nmen in Mainland China (Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China, 2017a, 2017b). Two classes in each public school a e in ol ed in his s udy. Th ee esea che s analyzed and sco ed he ques ionnai es and a class om he school close o he ci y cen e was selec ed o he indi idual in e iews. Thus, i is impo an o no e ha al hough 20% o he s uden s we e in e iewed, all hose who we e in e iewed we e om he same school o logis ical easons. The esul s show ha Chinese s uden s om Beijing hold mos ly mixed iews o he SI aspec s. The aspec s o which s uden s iews we e in o med: p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked, wi h 57.2% o he s uden s p o iding explici co ec explana ions; conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed, wi h 36.7% holding in o med iews, and 46.4% demons a ing mixed iews o his same aspec . One possible eason o hese in o med iews is ha hese pa icula aspec s o SI a e men ioned o some ex en in he na ional cu iculum s anda ds. Teache s in his egion p o ide oppo uni ies o s uden s o iden i y a iables ela ed o a esea ch ques ion, con ol a iables, and de elop a conclusion based on he da a collec ed. The mos naï e iews epo ed we e o same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul (57.8%), whe e mos s uden s men ioned only he “e o ” o jus i y di e ences among esul s. Addi ionally, mo e han hal o he s u- den s held mixed iews o he o he i e aspec s. These esul s may ha e occu ed because he e is no emphasis on explici unde s anding abou hese aspec s o SI in he na ional s anda ds (Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China [MOE], 2001). Fu he mo e, he aspec s o which s uden s did no do well a e no men ioned in he s anda ds. These esul s also migh be ela ed wi h he eas e n philosophies o educa ion, such as Con ucianism (Lee & S iaman, 2013). I is a common belie ha Chinese s uden s a e o e lea ne s and choose a passi e app oach o lea ning. Lau, Ho, and Lam (2015) poin ed ou ha s uden s om Wes e n coun ies a e ela i ely be e a unde s a ing he scien i ic p ocess and na u e o science, while Eas Asian s uden s a e ela i ely be e in science con- en han science p ocess. Las bu no leas , he g ade one h ough six na ional science cu iculum s anda ds in Mainland China we e jus e ised in 2017. Since he s uden s in ol ed in his s udy only had lea ning expe iences guided by he p e ious s anda ds issued in 2001, he ocus o he e ised s anda ds ha e no had enough longe i y o ha e any impac on s uden s' unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y. 4.11.2 Shanghai As he es o mainland China, Shanghai science educa ion ollows he na ional science cu iculum s anda ds o elemen a y school (Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China [MOE], 2001). In his con ex , SI is p esen in he s anda ds mos ly ela ed o esea ch skills. In o he wo ds, he ocus is on “doing” inqui y. Fo his s udy, 106 s uden s om one co-educa ional p i a e school comple ed he VASI. The school se es s uden s om middle socioeconomic le els. Once he ques ionnai es we e answe ed by he s uden s, hey we e analyzed and sco ed by wo esea che s. Finally, 20% o s uden s we e selec ed acco ding o he di e si y in hei answe s o be in e iewed. The esul s showed ha s uden s om Shanghai showed low le els o unde s anding o SI in all he aspec s conside ed in he VASI ques ionnai e. A bes , no mo e han 30% o he s uden s showed in o med iews o some aspec s. Many possible ac o s can explain he esul s. Fi s , in Shanghai, SI is no su icien ly used in science class ooms. Se en h g ade s uden s lea n science h ough lec u es ins ead o inqui y ac i i ies because eache s eel ha inqui y ac i i ies equi e mo e ime and longe ime o he eache s o p epa e. Second, i was no un il 2001 ha he e o m o basic educa ion s a ed in China and SI began o be p omo ed. Thi d, science eache s ha e di e en unde s andings o SI and his con ibu es o s uden s' misunde s anding o scien i ic inqui y. Finally, high s akes pape and pencil examina ions a e s ill e y impo an wi h espec o assessing s uden s' science achie emen . These examina ions do no s ess highe le el hinking, and as long as s uden s con inue o ecei e high sco es he e is li le e o Thus, as long as s uden s ge good sco es, he e is li le ins uc ional e o o equi e s uden s o unde s and scien i ic inqui y. Zhejiang The Science cu iculum S anda d o Full-Time Schools o Compulso y Educa ion [2011] empha- sizes he impo ance o SI. “Doing” and “unde s anding” inqui y a e bo h s essed and desc ibed as objec i es o he con en o he science cu iculum, as well as a eaching me hod. This e ised cu iculum also s esses he idea o an in eg a ed cu iculum, howe e , Zhejiang p o ince has been implemen ing i o nea ly 20 yea s wi h mixed esul s. Because p ima y school science has ecei ed mo e and mo e a en ion, some schools ha e begun o ec ui science eache s majo ing in science. P e iously i was common o p ima y science eache s o majo in o he subjec s, such as Chinese, Ma hema ics, o Music. Fo his s udy, he sample (n = 106) was selec ed om wo u ban and one u al school o di e en socioeconomic le els in h ee ci ies in Zhejiang p o ince. S uden s answe ed he ques ionnai es and ou esea che s pa icipa ed du ing he sco ing p ocess. La e , 20% o he s uden s we e in e iewed o ensu e he accu acy o he sco ing o he VASI. The s uden s we e chosen andomly based on he a ious le els o unde s anding o SI. In gene al, s uden s om Zhejiang showed in o med iews in ou aspec s o SI. They also held mixed iews o wo SI aspec s and naï e iews o ano he wo SI aspec s. In pa icula , he mos in o med iews we e o P ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked (60.4%), begin wi h a ques ion (59.4%), explana ions a e de eloped om da a and wha is al eady known (50%), and conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed (41.5%). One o he possible easons o hese esul s is ha SI is desc ibed as bo h objec i es and con en o he science cu iculum in he s anda ds. These ou aspec s a e also s essed in he in eg a ed science ex - book. Aspec s ha showed he mos naï e esponses we e: Same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (50%) whe e hal o he s uden s p o ided inadequa e answe s and easons. The same esul s a e seen wi h espec o P ocedu es in luence esul s (36.8%), howe e , in his case, he pe cen age o naï e answe s is simila o he in o med answe s (32.1%). Addi ionally, mul iple me hods (70.8%), and da a does no equal o e idence (64.1) e ealed mos ly mixed iews. The possible eason was ha hese wo aspec s a e no explici ly men ioned by science cu iculum s anda ds o he in eg a ed science ex book. 4.12 New Zealand New Zealand has a na ional cu iculum ha includes science as one o he eigh lea ning a eas (Minis y o Educa ion, 2007). These a eas a e e y b oadly de ined, and i is up o each school o de elop a se o lea ning expe iences conside ed app op ia e o hei s uden s and communi y. The cu iculum, he e o e, is e y nonp esc ip i e. Elemen a y eache s a e gene ally esponsible o eaching all eigh lea ning a eas and he majo i y o hese eache s do no ha e science-speci ic aining beyond hei own school expe iences and a single science educa ion cou se included in hei p e- se ice eache educa ion. The science lea ning a ea has a i s hea s uden s' de elopmen o a ibu es ha e lec hose o a scien i ically li e a e ci izen and a he p ima y le el, he expec a ion is ha s uden s unde s and some aspec s o SI such as, he impo ance o asking ques ions o scien is s. Howe e , despi e he cu iculum guidelines, he e is a gene ally widesp ead lack o p io i y placed on science, and a numbe o na ional ini ia i es ha e ecen ly been implemen ed o suppo school science. O pa icula ele ance o his s udy was he publica ion o i e “science capabili ies o ci izenship” (Minis y o Educa ion, 2015) wi h a ange o suppo ing esou ces p o ided o suppo eache s o de elop p og ams ha will con ibu e o s uden s' “ unc ional knowledge o science”. Fo his s udy, 87 s uden s om wo co- educa ional s a e seconda y schools loca ed in small owns in he mid-No h Island egion o New Zealand we e selec ed. School selec ion was no only con enien bu also pu pose ul. The schools ep esen ed “ ypical” schools om a mid-socio-economic a ea wi h 21% ep esen a ion om indigenous people and mixed academic abili ies. A e answe ing he ques ionnai e, ollow-up in e iews we e conduc ed wi h 18 o he s uden s (21%) o check ha he su ey da a sco ing had been accu a e. These s uden s we e selec ed o ensu e a widesp ead ac oss he ange o esponses. The esul s show ha New Zealand se en h g ade s uden s end o hold naï e iews in almos e e y aspec o SI. S uden s p o ided mo e in o med answe s in ela ion o begin wi h a ques ion (26.4%) and p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion (25.3%). Howe e , he same SI aspec s showed 37.9% and 48.3% o naï e answe s espec i ely. This esul sugges s ha while s uden s may ha e some unde s anding o he pu pose ul na u e o scien i ic in es iga ions, his unde s anding is no always modeled in science class ooms. On he con a y, wo aspec s showed o e 70% naï e iews. Explana ions a e de eloped om da a and wha is al eady known (78.2%) and same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (71.3%), whe e mos s uden s sugges ed ha di e en conclusions would esul om he same p ocedu es because o expe imen al e o and/o expe imen al a ia ion. O e all, al hough he New Zealand Cu iculum in science se s expec a ions ela ed o unde s anding key aspec s o SI, science o en has low s a us in he cu iculum o many p ima y schools. The causes a e mul iple bu con ibu ing ac o s include he lack o sys emic suppo o eaching science by way o inse ice p o essional de elopmen ; as a esul , p ima y eache s possess a low sense o sel - e icacy in science eaching. The in oduc ion o na ional s anda ds in nume acy and li e acy, wi h a consequen shi in ocus on hese a eas, has esul ed in less emphasis on o he a eas, including sci- ence. The New Zealand go e nmen has esponded o conce ns abou s uden s' engagemen and achie emen in science, as measu ed by na ional and in e na ional es ing, wi h a numbe o ini ia i es including a na ion-wide ‘Plan o Science in Socie y’. 4.13 Nige ia Recen ly in Nige ia, he e has been a e iew o he Uni e sal Basic Educa ion Cu iculum (Fede al Minis y o Educa ion, 1999) by he Nige ian Educa ion Resea ch and De elopmen Council (Igbokwe, 2015), howe e , despi e ha he e is a cu iculum in place, he e is no a eadily accessible de ailed oadmap o eache s. Addi ionally, “unde s anding” o inqui y is no included in wha s u- den s a e expec ed o know o lea n in Elemen a y class ooms. The e is, howe e , some e o owa d he inclusion o he “doing” o inqui y, bu e en his is no s ongly ollowed in e e y school. Elemen a y science eache s a e p o ided wi h schemes o wo k and s ipula ed ex books om he S a e Minis ies o Educa ion, which in u n d aw om he Fede al Minis y o Educa ion. S uden s a e augh as a whole class wi h ew ins ances o small g oup ac i i ies, and e y a e ield ips. They ead om he ex s, he blackboa d, and some imes, he eache asks s uden s o epea wha he/she eads aloud and equi es hem o w i e down wha is said in hei no ebooks. Fo he VASI s udy, 102 s uden s we e selec ed om se en geopoli ical egions in Nige ia. This sample was con enien and co-educa ional p i a e and public schools a e ep esen ed. A e comple ing he VASI, s uden s' esponses we e analyzed and sco ed, and in e - a e ag eemen was es ablished wi h a eam o six expe s. A e wa d, 20% o he s uden s we e pu pose ully selec ed o in e iews. The esul s show ha Nige ian s uden s om se en h g ade mos ly hold naï e iews on six aspec s o SI. They also showed an in o med unde s anding in wo aspec s. Fo he mos in o med aspec s, 54.9% showed in o med iews on p ocedu e in luence esul s and 36.3% o da a does no equal e idence. S uden s showed mos naï e iews on same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (77.5%), mul iple me hods (68.6%) p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked (61.8%), explana ions a e de eloped om da a and wha is al eady known (60.8%), begins wi h a ques ion (57.8%), and conclusions con- sis en wi h da a collec ed (42.2%). One possible explana ion o he esul s could be ha he ins uc- ional sys em is one ha emphasizes di ec and s ic ly guided ins uc ion. In hei lea ning expe iences, s uden s ha e some amilia i y wi h ollowing laid down s eps and s uc u es o o gani- za ion o scien i ic ideas. Conside ing he aspec same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (77.5%) nai e, i is possible o in e cohe ence be ween his and hei la gely o mal iew o he in lu- ence o p ocedu es on esul s. S uden s may see a pa adox in how one could asse ha p ocedu es in luence esul s, and hen simul aneously hold he iew ha he same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s. So, hey may ha e been ope a ionalizing he logic ha he same p ocedu es yield he same esul s. 4.14 Sou h A ica The Na ional Na u al Science Cu iculum (Depa men o Basic Educa ion (DBE), 2011) p omp s eache s o use inqui y-based app oaches o eaching science beginning in G ade 7. The cu iculum implici ly p omo es knowledge abou he inqui y by p o iding a lis o science p ocess skills, including a de ailed desc ip ion o each skill. Howe e , ac ual eaching abou SI may a y among schools and eache s. Mos o he p ima y science eache s ha e no majo ed in science subjec s, and mos o he schools do no ha e labo a o ies, esul ing in a eali y ha doing inqui y is seldom achie ed. I is possible ha he emphasis on in es iga ions in he cu iculum and ex books, combined wi h he cul u e o a oiding hands-on p ac ical wo k in many schools may esul in a heo e ical emphasis on scien i ic in es iga ions. Fo he VASI s udy, 106 s uden s we e selec ed o pa icipa e. A eam o h ee esea che s analyzed he answe s. Fo in e iews, 20% o s uden s we e selec ed acco ding o di e ences in ou comes in he VASI. The esul s show ha se en h g ade s uden s showed mos ly naï e and in o med iews o SI. S uden s we e conside ed in o med o begins wi h a ques ion (48%), conclusions consis en wi h da a collec ed (48%), and p ocedu e in luence esul s (39%). Fu he mo e, mo e complex aspec s in ol ing human imagina ion and c ea i i y, such as same p ocedu es may no ge he same esul s (57% nai e), and p ocedu es a e guided by he ques ion asked (53% nai e) hold mos ly naï e iews. Also, da a does no equal e idence (51%) showed mos ly naï e iews. The poo unde s anding o his aspec may be unde s ood in e ms o inadequa e ocabula y due o second lan- guage usage. O e all, o e he pas 20 yea s, educa ion in Sou h A ica has been subjec o h ee cu - iculum changes, seeking a balance be ween lea ning con en and skills de elopmen . Th oughou he cu iculum changes, conduc ing in es iga ions emained a ocus, al hough he eali y o poo ly ained eache s o en limi s oppo uni ies o lea ne s o conduc in es iga ions. Ne e heless, he cu iculum and ex books ha e placed a s ong emphasis on asking ques ions, collec ing da a and making conclusions. I is he e o e plausible ha eache s emphasize hese ideas e en hough lea ne s hemsel es seldom ha e oppo uni ies o engage p ac ically in he inqui y. The e o e, lea ne s may de elop some unexpec ed unde s anding o some inqui y aspec s emphasized by he cu iculum, as a gued in an ea lie Sou h A ican s udy using G ade 11 lea ne s (Gaighe , Lede man, & Lede man, 2014). I is hus no su p ising ha lea ne s in he cu en s udy a e bes in o med on aspec s ocused on ques ions, da a, and conclusions, while aspec s in ol ing he human mind in ela ing hese ideas a e poo ly unde s ood. 4.15 Spain In Spain, he Andalusian cu iculum and he O ganic Law o Educa ion (LOE, 2006) ha e adop ed he amewo k ag eed by he Council and he Eu opean Pa liamen (EU, 2006a, 2006b) in which scien i ic compe ence is emphasized as one o he eigh key compe encies o he scien i ic li e acy o ci izens and Science has been one o he compulso y subjec s in all he co esponding cu icula. The e a e no explici e e ences abou he unde s anding o SI, al hough i is possible o ind gene al objec i es and con en ela ed o “knowing how o do esea ch” o doing inqui y. The eaching o p i ma y science akes place in he con ex o a subjec called “Na u al Sciences”, howe e , he e is a documen ed lack o in e es in Science (Con ede ación de Sociedades Cien í icas de España [COSCE], 2011; Vázquez & Manasse o, 2011) a ibu ed o he lack o connec ion be ween he 5 CONCLUSIONS O e whelmingly, he esul s om his s udy show ha s uden s a ound he wo ld ha e an o e all inadequa e unde s anding o scien i ic inqui y, al hough he e we e ins ances in which s uden s in a coun y did be e han “naï e” on a pa icula aspec o SI. This is consis en wi h he ew s udies (i.e. because a alid and eliable ins umen , was no a ailable) ha ha e been done wi h seconda y s uden s, p ese ice and inse ice eache s (Lede man & Lede man, 2004; Schwa z, Lede man, & Lede man, 2008). Ne e heless, hese indings a e signi ican because his is he i s global and sys ema ic assessmen o he highly alued educa ional ou come o unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y. Gi en he 18 independen samples om each o he coun ies/ egions, i would be inapp op ia e o make blanke in e ences abou why hese esul s we e ound. Ob iously, he e a e nume ous easons o hese esul s due o he ob ious di e ences in eaching, cu iculum, s anda ds, and cul u es o he a ious coun ies/ egions in ol ed in his s udy. Howe e , he e a e some common hemes gleaned om he con ex -speci ic in o ma ion ecei ed om each o he esea ch si es and epo ed in he p e ious sec ions o each o he epo ing coun ies/ egions. These hemes a e (1) lack o s anda ds speci ying unde s andings abou SI, (2) eaching ha does no make unde s andings abou SI explici , (3) science eaching ha emphasizes only he doing o science, and (4) eaching ha does no emphasize an inqui y app oach. Gi en he epo ed con ex o science eaching in he coun ies/ egions in ol ed in his in es iga ion, he indings a e no su p ising. In some cases, s uden s a ely, i e e , ha e he oppo uni y o ac ually conduc scien i ic in es iga ions. I is clea ha no ma e whe e s uden s li e wo ldwide ha unde s andings o inqui y a e no cul i a ed. Again, i is impo an o no e ha no s a is ical compa isons we e made among he coun ies o he pu pose he e was jus o ge a baseline o beginning middle school s uden s' unde s andings. S a is ical compa isons ac oss coun ies would be inapp op ia e because o he p e iously no ed di e ences ha exis wi h espec o cu iculum, eaching app oach, and cul u es ac oss he 18 coun ies/ egions included in his in es iga ion. As men ioned p e iously, he sample is eally a composi e o 18 sepa a e samples. As humans, we a e all oo o en emp ed o compa e ou own coun y's pe o mance agains o he coun ies, bu his is eally inapp op ia e and un ai . I is impo an o no e ha despi e all o he possible di e ences ac oss coun ies/ egions wi h espec o cu iculum, eaching app oach, and cul u es he esul s a e qui e consis en wi h espec o s uden s' lack unde s anding abou inqui y and he e seem o be some clea ly common hemes o explain he esul s. Comple ion o elemen a y school is abou hal way h ough a s uden 's schooling and he da a collec ed in his s udy indica e ha mos s uden s hold a naï e iew o mos o he aspec s o SI in se en h g ade. These indings a e no su p ising as a c oss-sec ional s udy conduc ed in he US ound ha s uden s' unde s andings o SI do no inc ease be ween g ades one o i e and in he case o some aspec s hei unde s andings dec ease h ough elemen a y school (Ba els & Lede man, 2017). Some may a gue ha he s uden s in his in es iga ion will ha e plen y o ime o imp o e hei unde s andings and a e no ha poo conside ing ha s uden s ha e jus comple ed elemen a y school. Howe e , p e ious s udies ha e ound ha e y young child en (g ade one and abo e) a e able o adequa ely unde s and se e al aspec s o scien i ic inqui y; science begins wi h a ques ion, he e is no single scien i ic me hod and conclusions a e based on da a ga he ed and wha is al eady known (Lede man, 2012). Ano he s udy looked a g ade one s uden s' unde s andings o SI who came om e y di e en cul u al backg ounds, his s udy ound ha a e explici and e lec i e science ins uc ion g ade one s uden s could unde s and aspec s o SI ega dless o hei ini ial SI unde s andings (Lede man e al., 2013). S uden s should, a he e y leas , ha e in o med iews o a leas some o he a o emen ioned aspec s by g ade se en. The in e p e a ion o he esul s could igh ully be iewed as a con lic be ween ha ing a pe spec i e o a glass hal ull e sus a glass hal emp y. Whe he hese esul s a e iewed nega i ely o posi i ely will ul ima ely be decided by how each coun y/ egion iews he de elopmen al le el o hei s uden s and u u e s udies on wha s uden s know when hey exi high school, a s udy ha we a e jus comple ing wi h 25 coun ies/ egions. Again, an impo an ca ea , o he han a oiding he emp a ion o compa ing coun ies/ egions, is ha he p ima y goal o his in es iga ion was o es ablish an ini ial baseline o wha s uden s unde s and abou scien i ic inqui y. Unde s andings o scien i ic inqui y a e a highly p ized goal o science educa ion h oughou he wo ld and i is a signi ican componen o scien i ic li e acy (Robe s, 2008). I is qui e possible ha no all coun ies/ egions will ca e equally abou each o he eigh aspec s o SI in es iga ed he e. Consequen ly, hey may no be conce ned ha hei s uden s do no know he di e ence be ween da a and e idence. Ne e heless, he esul s o his in es iga ion p o ide an empi ically based “call o ac ion.” Al hough he samples o each loca ion we e o con enience, his in es iga ion p o ides da a on some aspec s ha a e assu ed o conce n and impo ance o ce ain coun ies/ egions and he esul s can lead o changes in cu icula, science eaching and policy decisions a he local, s a e/p o incial, and na ional policy decisions in science educa ion. 6 IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH Cu en ly, he 18 coun ies/ egions in ol ed in his in es iga ion, along wi h an addi ional se en coun ies/ egions a e looking a g adua ing high school s uden s' unde s andings o SI. This will p o- ide in o ma ion abou how, and i , s uden s' unde s andings o SI become mo e sophis ica ed as hey p oceed h ough middle and high school. I will also help decide wha le els o unde s anding a e app op ia e o expec o s uden s a he beginning o se en h g ade. The inal piece o s uden s' ajec- o ies o SI unde s andings can be comple ed by assessing elemen a y s uden s' unde s andings o SI ea lie in elemen a y school. The esul s om all h ee o hese s udies combined will elucida e a ull p og ession o s uden s' SI unde s andings om beginning elemen a y school o he comple ion o high school a ound he wo ld. As men ioned ea lie , some may a gue ha doing scien i ic inqui y is o ul ima e impo ance (Duschl & G andy, 2013), and doing o inqui y will necessa ily lead o unde - s anding abou he inqui y. This implici de elopmen o knowledge abou inqui y is no suppo ed by any exis ing esea ch. Mo e impo an ly, we a gue ha unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y a e a necessa y and c i ical componen o he achie emen o scien i ic li e acy. The gene al ci izen y needs o make in o med decisions abou scien i ically based pe sonal and socie al decisions, and hese decisions a e based on hei knowledge abou how scien i ic knowledge is de eloped (i.e. scien i ic inqui y). REFERENCES Abd-El-Khalick, F., & Lede man, N. G. (2000). The In luence o his o y o science cou ses on s uden s' iews o na u e o science. Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 37(10), 1057–1095. Ake son, V. L., Abd-El-Khalick, F., & Lede man, N. G. (2000). In luence o a e lec i e explici ac i i y-based app oach on elemen- a y eache s' concep ions o na u e o science. Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 37(4), 295–317. Ame ican Associa ion o he Ad ancemen o Science. (1993). Benchma ks o science li e acy. New Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess. Aus alian Cu iculum and Repo ing Au ho i y (ACARA). (2015). Aus alian Cu iculum: Science F-10. Sydney: Commonweal h o Aus alia. Ba els, S. L., & Lede man, J. S. (2017, Ap il). A c oss-sec ional s udy o elemen a y s uden s' unde s andings o na u e o science and scien i ic inqui y. A pape p esen ed a he annual mee ing o he Na ional Associa ion o Resea ch in Science Teaching con e - ence, San An onio, TX. BOEN. (2015). Bulle in O iciel de l'Educa ion Na ionale. Numé o spécial no11 du 26 no emb e 2015: P og ammes d'enseignemen de l'école élémen ai e e du collège (NOR MENE1526483A) [In F ench]. BRAZIL. (1998). Minis é io da Educação e Cul u a (p. 1998). Pa âme os Cu icula es Nacionais pa a o Ensino de Ciências. B así- lia: MEC. BRAZIL. (2014). Minis é io da Educação e Cul u a Plano Nacional da Educação (p. 2014). B asília: MEC. Cen e o Cu icula and Ma e ial De elopmen . (2016). Science S anda ds and indica o s o school le el educa ion. Egyp : Minis y o Educa ion Re ie ed om: h p://moe.go .eg/ccimd/pd /Ma ix_science_cu iculum.pd Cha pak, G. (1998). La Main à la Pâ e, His oi e des sciences à l'école p imai e. Pa is: Flamma ion. Con ede ación de Sociedades Cien í icas de España [COSCE]. (2011). In o me ENCIENDE. Enseñanza de las ciencias en la Didác ica Escola pa a edades emp anas en España. Mad id: COSCE. Cue as, P., Lee, O., Ha , J., & Deak o , R. (2005). Imp o ing science inqui y wi h elemen a y s uden s o di e se backg ounds. Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 42(3), 337–357. Depa men o Educa ion. (2013). The Na ional Cu iculum in England: Science P og am o S udy. Re ie ed om h ps://www.go . uk/go e nmen /publica ions/na ional-cu iculum-in-england-science-p og ammes- o -s udy/na ional-cu iculum-in-england-science-p og ammes-o -s udy Depa men o Basic Educa ion (DBE). (2011). Cu iculum and Assessmen Policy S a emen G ades 7 – 9, Na u al Sciences. P e o ia: Depa men o Basic Educa ion. DEPP (2014). CEDRE-2013 ‘G ande s abili é des acquis en sciences en in d'école depuis 2007’ ‘S ong s abili y o he pupils’ esul s in science a he end o p ima y school since 20070. In o ma ion No e o DEPP (Di ec ion o E alua ion, P ospec i e and Pe o - mance), No27, July 2014, p. 3. Duschl, R. A., & G andy, R. (2013). Two iews abou explici ly eaching na u e o science. Science & Educa ion, 22(9), 2109–2139. EU. (2006a). Compe encias cla e pa a el ap endizaje pe manen e. Un ma co de e e encia eu opeo. Anexo a la Recomendación del pa lamen o eu opeo y del consejo sob e las compe encias cla e pa a el ap endizaje pe manen e. EU. (2006b). Recomendación del pa lamen o eu opeo y del consejo sob e las compe encias cla e pa a el ap endizaje pe manen e. Fede al Minis y o Educa ion. (1999). UBE Uni e sal Basic Educa ion o Nige ia. P oceedings o he Educa ion Mini Summi . Za ia: Ahmadu Bello Uni e si y P ess Limi ed. Finnish Na ional Boa d o Educa ion [FNBE]. (2014). The na ional co e cu iculum o basic Educa ion. Helsinki: Finnish Na ional Boa d o Educa ion Re ie ed om h p://www.oph. i/ops2016 Gaighe , E., Lede man, N. G., & Lede man, J. S. (2014). Knowledge abou inqui y: A s udy in Sou h A ican high schools. In e na ional Jou nal o Science Educa ion, 36(18), 3125–3147. Ga cía, M., & O ozco, L. (2008). O ien ando un cambio de ac i ud hacia las Ciencia Na u ales y su enseñanza en P o eso es de Educación P ima ia. Re is a Elec ónica de Enseñanza de las Ciencias, 7(3), 539–568. G isay, A. (2003). T ansla ion p ocedu es in OECD/PISA 2000 in e na ional assessmen . Language Tes ing, 20(2), 225–240. Guillemin, F., Bomba die , C., & Bea on, D. (1993). C oss-cul u al adap a ion o heal h- ela ed quali y o li e measu es: li e a u e e iew and p oposed guidelines. Jou nal o Clinical Epidemiology, 46(12), 1417–1432. Hamble on, R. K. (2002). Adap ing achie emen es s in o mul iple languages o in e na ional assessmen s. In A. C. Po e & A. Gamo an (Eds.), Me hodological ad ances in c oss na ional su eys o educa ional achie emen . Washing on, DC: Na ional Academy P ess. Hamble on, R. K., & Pa sula, L. (1998). Adap ing es s o use in mul iple languages and cul u es. Social Indica o s Resea ch, 45(1–3), 153–171. Hamme , D., & Elby, A. (2009). Tapping epis emological esou ces o lea ning physics. Jou nal o he Lea ning Sciences, 12(1), 53–90. h ps://doi.o g/10.1207/S15327809JLS1201_3 Hamme , D., Elby, A., Sche , R. E., & Redish, E. F. (2005). Resou ces, aming, and ans e . In J. P. Maes e (Ed.), T ans e o Lea ning om a mode n mul idisciplina y pe spec i e (pp. 89–119). G eenwich, CT: In o ma ion Age Publishing. Igbokwe, C. O. (2015). Recen cu iculum e o ms a he basic educa ion le el in Nige ia aimed a ca ching hem young o c ea e change. Ame ican Jou nal o Educa ional Resea ch, 3(1), 31–37. Lau, K. C., Ho, S. C., & Lam, Y. P. (2015). E ec i e class oom pedagogy and beyond o p omo ing scien i ic li e acy: Is he e an eas -asian model? In M. S. Khine (Ed.), Science educa ion in Eas Asia: Pedagogical inno a ions and esea ch-in o med p ac ices (pp. 13–40). Swi ze land: Sp inge . Lede man, J. S. (2012). De elopmen o a alid and eliable p o ocol o he assessmen o ea ly Childhood s uden s' concep ions o Na u e o Science and scien i ic Inqui y. A Pape P esen ed a he Annual Mee ing o he Na ional Associa ion o Resea ch in Sci- ence Teaching, Indianapolis, IN. Lede man, J. S., Ba els, S. L., Liu, C., & Jimenez, J. (2013). Teaching Na u e o Science and scien i ic Inqui y o di e se classes o ea ly p ima y le el s uden s. A Pape P esen ed a he Annual Con e ence o he Na ional Associa ion o Resea ch in Science Teaching, San Juan, PR. Lede man, J. S., Lede man, N. G., Ba os, S. A., Ba els, S. L., Meye , A. A., & Schwa z, R. S. (2014). Meaning ul assessmen o lea ne s' unde s andings abou scien i ic inqui y- The iews abou scien i ic inqui y (VASI) ques ionnai e. Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 51(1), 65–83. Lede man, N. G. (2010). A powe ul way o lea n. Science and Child en, 48(1), 8–9. Lede man, N. G., An ink, A., & Ba os, S. (2012). Na u e o science, scien i ic inqui y, and socio-scien i ic issues a ising om gene - ics: A pa hway o de eloping a scien i ically li e a e ci izen y. Science & Educa ion, 23(2), 285–302. Lede man, N. G., & Lede man, J. S. (2004). P ojec ICAN: A p o essional De elopmen p ojec o p omo e eache s' and s uden s' knowledge o Na u e o Science and scien i ic enqui y. In P oceedings o he 11 h Annual SAARMSTE Con e ence. Cape Town, Sou h A ica. Lee, K., & S iaman, B. (2013). An Eas e n lea ning pa adox: Pa adoxes in wo Ko ean ma hema ics eache s' pedagogy o silence in he class oom. In e change, 43(2), 147–166. O ganic Law o Educa ion [LOE] 2/2006, 3 d May. (2006). Bole ín O icial del Es ado, Numbe . 106, pp. 17158–17207. Re ie ed om h p://www.boe.es/boe/dias/2006/05/04/pd s/A17158-17207.pd Manee s iwongul, W., & Dixon, J. K. (2004). Ins umen ansla ion p ocess: a me hods e iew. Jou nal o Ad anced Nu sing, 48(2), 175–186. McKenzie, P., Kos, J., Walke , M., & Hong, J. (2008). S a in Aus alia's Schools 2007. Canbe a: DEEWR. MEB. (2013). Minis y o na ional Educa ion, cu iculum o Science classes o p ima y schools. Anka a: MEB. MINEDUC. (2012). Bases Cu icula es Educación Básica. San iago: Minis e io de Educación. Minis y o Educa ion. (2003). G ade 1–9 science and echnology cu iculum guidelines. Taipei, Taiwan: MOE. Minis y o Educa ion. (2007). The New Zealand cu iculum. Welling on: Lea ning Media. Minis y o Educa ion. (2015). In oducing i e science capabili ies. Re ie ed om h p://scienceonline. ki.o g.nz/ Science-capabili ies- o -ci izenship/In oducing- i e-science-capabili ies Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China. (2017a). Educa ional S a is ics in 2016: Numbe o S uden s in P ima y Schools. Re ie ed om h p://en.moe.go .cn/Resou ces/S a is ics/edu_s a _2016/2016_en01/201708/ 2017 0823_311723. h ml Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China (2017b). Educa ional s a is ics in 2016: Numbe o s uden s in junio sec- onda y schools. Re ie ed om h p://en.moe.go .cn/Resou ces/S a is ics/edu_s a _2016/2016_en01/201708/ 2017 0823_ 311737.h ml Minis y o Educa ion o he People's Republic o China [MOE]. (2001). Na ional Science cu iculum s anda ds o he ull- ime com- pulso y Educa ion (G ades 3– 6). (T ial Ve sion). Beijing: Beijing No mal Uni e si y P ess (in Chinese). Minis y o Educa ion, Pedagogical Sec e a ia . (2018). Up-da ed cu iculum o science and echnology in seconda y school in Is ael (in Heb ew). Re ie ed om h p://cms.educa ion.go .il/Educa ionCMS/Uni s/Mazki u _Pedagogi /MadaTechn ologya/ ochni Limudim/ha ab+ l.h m Na ional Academy o Educa ional Resea ch. (2015). G ade 1–12 cu iculum guidelines: Lea ning a ea o na u al science (d a ). Taipei, Taiwan: Na ional Academy o Educa ional Resea ch. Na ional Resea ch Council. (1996). Na ional science educa ion s anda ds. Washing on, DC: Na ional Academies P ess. Na ional Resea ch Council [NRC]. (2000). Inqui y and he na ional science educa ion s anda ds. Washing on, D.C.: Na ional Acad- emy P ess. Na ional Resea ch Council [NRC]. (2011). A amewo k o K-12 science educa ion: P ac ices, c osscu ing concep s, and co e ideas. Washing on, DC: Na ional Academy P ess. Neumann, K., Kaue z, A., & Fische , H. E. (2010). F om PISA o s anda ds - he impac o la ge scale assessmen s on science educa- ion esea ch in Ge many. In e na ional Jou nal o Science and Ma hema ics Educa ion, 8(3), 545–563. NGSS Lead S a es. (2013). Nex gene a ion science s anda ds: Fo s a es, by s a es. Washing on, DC: Na ional Academies P ess A ailable online a www.nex genscience.o g/nex -gene a ion-science-s anda ds O ganiza ion o Economic and Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD). (2017). PISA 2015 echnical epo . Pa is: OECD Publishing Re ie ed om h p://www.oecd.o g/pisa/si edocumen /PISA-2015-Technical-Repo -Chap e -5- T ansla ion.pd Osbo ne, J., Collins, S., Ra cli e, M., Milla , R., & Duschl, R. (2003). Wha “ideas- abou science” should be augh in school science? A Delphi s udy o he expe communi y. Jou nal o Resea ch in Science Teaching, 40(7), 692–720. Robe s, D. A. (2008). Scien i ic li e acy/science li e acy. In S. K. Abell & N. G. Lede man (Eds.), Handbook o Resea ch on Science Educa ion (pp. 729–780). Mahwah, NJ: Rou ledge. Gesellscha ü Didak ik des Sachun e ich s. (2013). Pe spek i ahmen Sachun e ich . Julius Klinkha d . Re ie ed om h p:// www.gdsu.de/wb/pages/pe spek i ahmen-sachun e ich .php Schwa z, R. S., Lede man, N. G., & C aw o d, B. A. (2004). De eloping iews o na u e o science in an au hen ic con ex : An explici app oach o b idging he gap be ween na u e o science and science inqui y. Science Educa ion, 88, 610–645. Schwa z, R. S., Lede man, N. G., Khish e, R., Lede man, J. S., Ma hews, L., & Liu, S. (2002). Explici / e lec i e ins uc ional a en ion o Na u e o Science and scien i ic Inqui y: Impac on s uden Lea ning Pape P esen ed a he P oceedings o he 2002 Annual In e na ional Con e ence o he Associa ion o he Educa ion o Teache s in Science, Cha lo e, NC. Schwa z, R. S., Lede man, N. G., & Lede man, J. S. (2008). An ins umen o assess iews o scien i ic inqui y: The VOSI ques ion- nai e. Pape P esen ed a he In e na ional Con e ence o he Na ional Associa ion o Resea ch in Science Teaching, Bal i- mo e, MD. Sek e a ia de S ändigen Kon e enz de Kul usminis e de Lände de Bundes epublik Deu schland [KMK]. (2005a). Bildungss an- da ds im Fach Biologie ü den Mi le en Schulabschluss (Jah gangss u e 10). Neuwied: Luch e hand. Sek e a ia de S ändigen Kon e enz de Kul usminis e de Lände de Bundes epublik Deu schland [KMK]. (2005b). Bildungss an- da ds im Fach Chemie ü den Mi le en Schulabschluss (Jah gangss u e 10). Neuwied: Luch e hand. Sek e a ia de S ändigen Kon e enz de Kul usminis e de Lände de Bundes epublik Deu schland [KMK]. (2005c). Bildungss an- da ds im Fach Physik ü den Mi le en Schulabschluss (Jah gangss u e 10). Neuwied: Luch e hand. Showal e , V. (1974). P og am objec i es and scien i ic li e acy. P ism II, 2, 1–6. Skol e ke . (2011). Lä oplan ö g undskolan, ö skoleklass och i idshemme . (The Swedish Na ional Agency o Educa ion, (2011). Cu iculum o compulso y school, p eschool and leisu e ime cen e s). S ockholm: Edi a. Sodian, B., Zai chik, D., & Ca ey, S. (1991). Young child en's di e en ia ion o hypo he ical belie s om e idence. Child De elop- men , 62, 753–766. Ty le , R., & Pe e son, S. (2003). T acing young child en´s scien i ic easoning.