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Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed
Can an In e nal Locus o Con ol and Social Suppo Reduce
Wo k-Rela ed Le els o S ess and S ain?
A Compa a i e S udy Be ween Spanish Owne s and Manage s
An onio A iza-Mon es, PhD, An onio L. Leal-Rod ı
´guez, PhD, Lucı
´a Rod ı
´guez-Fe
´lix, PhD,
and Gema Albo -Mo an , PhD
Objec i e: The aim o his a icle is o assess he ole played by bo h
indi idual and con ex ual ac o s in educing he manage ’s le els o s ess
and s ain wi hin he wo kplace se ing. This a icle also highligh s he
manage ’s locus o con ol (LOC) as an in e nal ac o and emphasizes
he social suppo a iable as a con ex ual ac o . Me hods: We use a sample
o 332 esponden s belonging o Spanish manu ac u ing and se ices
i ms and a s uc u al equa ion modeling echnique (pa ial leas squa es
pa h modeling). Resul s: The esul s e eal ha he e a e signi ican
di e ences be ween manage s and owne s abou s ess-s ain ela ionship.
Conclusions: The s udy p o ides suppo o he li e a u e on s ess man-
agemen , which emphasizes he impo ance o a LOC and social suppo in
in luencing s ess and s ain be ween manage s and owne s.
Wo kplace s ess is he una oidable esul o he deep social-
economic and echnological changes ha socie y is cu en ly
acing
1
; i cons i u es a phenomenon o g owing in e es in he
wo kplace and a c i ical p oblem o employees, employe s, and
socie y in gene al.
2
A s udy by Milcza ek e al
3
sugges s ha s ess
is he second mos equen ly epo ed wo k- ela ed heal h p oblem,
a ec ing 22% o wo ke s in he Eu opean Union 27. Mo eo e ,
acco ding o he la es Eu opean Su ey o Wo king Condi ions,
26.4% o p i a e sec o employees and 26.6% o hose in he public
sec o e eal ha hey always o o en expe ience s ess du ing he
pe o mance o hei jobs.
4
S ess gene a es se ious epe cussions ha a e di e en in
na u e and whose cos s a e incalculable. Undoub edly, high s ess
le els may ha e a signi ican impac on declines in p oduc i i y and
educ ions in e ec i eness.
5
Fu he mo e, he nega i e e ec s o his
phenomenon en ail a dec eased capaci y o pe o m, lowe e iciency,
dampened ini ia i e, and highe igidi y o hough , which in u n
leads o sca ce in e es in wo k, o ganiza ional ma e s, colleagues,
and, inally, a loss o indi idual esponsibili y.
6,7
Mos esea che s seem o gene ally ag ee ha s ess is o be
concep ualized as a p ocess in which s ain is gene a ed om an
indi idual-en i onmen in e ac ion.
8
Indeed, o ganiza ional beha -
io esea che s gene ally ag ee ha s ess and s ain a e posi i ely
co ela ed.
9
The s ess p ocess can lead o di e en o ms o s ain
ha a ec , o ins ance, indi iduals’ well-being, le el o job sa is-
ac ion and ising absen eeism, and u no e a es, among o he
hings.
10–12
P olonged exposu e o s ess can esul in a igue,
disease, disabili y, p ema u e aging, and, ul ima ely, e en dea h.
13
Al hough he s ess-s ain ela ionship has been widely s udied
in gene al e ms, he e is sca ce empi ical esea ch ha analyses his
phenomenon among p o essionals wi h manage ial esponsibili ies a
he co po a e le el, whe he hese execu i es a e owne s o simply
manage s. These wo g oups sha e cha ac e is ics ha g ea ly di e -
en ia e hem om employees wi hou manage ial esponsibili y: olde
age, highe educa ional le el, independence, ini ia i e, a e sion o
wo k ou ines and excessi e o maliza ion, inc eased decision-mak-
ing esponsibili y, isk assump ion ole ance, s ong o ien a ion o-
wa ds economic o inancial ewa ds, a g ea e need o achie emen
and success, ole ance o challenges and change, g ea e sense o
p ide, and he like.
14–18
The in ensi y o he demands ha hese
indi iduals ace du ing he de elopmen o hei wo k leads o highe
le els o s ess compa ed wi h he nonmanage ial s a .
Rega dless, he p e oga i es ha a e p esupposed o manag-
ing p o essionals a e no ee; on he con a y, hey can come a a
high p ice. On mos occasions, he wo k o managing and i s
equi emen s p o oundly domina e he li es o owne s, who a e
unable o es ablish a clea and p ecise bounda y be ween wo k ime
and spa e ime. The need o cons an ly ace unce ain y and he ea
o ailu e place hem in a si ua ion o cons an s uggle, which
demands om hem a high dedica ion o in es men in hei physical
and emo ional esou ces. O he ma e s and wo ies ela ed o
owne s indica ed in he li e a u e include pe sonal sac i ices, an
excessi e load o esponsibili y, coexis ing in wo k en i onmen s o
high s ess, he p edominance o hei p o essional li e and he loss
o psychological well-being.
16,19,20
In addi ion o he ha m ul
e ec s o s ess speci ied abo e, his collec i e o people, upon
whom es s he s a egic managemen o he company, acqui es
special ele ance due o he cos s ha s em om an impo e ishmen
in decision-making, in addi ion o mis akes commi ed and oppo -
uni ies squande ed. Manage s subjec ed o s ess le els ha exceed
he limi s o wha is ole able may no espond wi h he necessa y
c ea i i y, may no be able o pe cei e he po en ial o a gi en
si ua ion, o may eac wi h excessi e conse a ism.
To he bes o ou knowledge, he e a e no empi ical s udies
ha ocus on pe o ming an in-dep h assessmen o he e ec s ha
ce ain a iables such as locus o con ol (LOC) and social suppo ,
which could p o ec owne s and manage s by weakening he
ha m ul e ec s o s ess, ha e on he s ess-s ain ela ionship
among Spanish en ep eneu s and execu i es. Focusing on hese
subjec s is a key elemen in designing measu es ha aim a educing
exposu e o isk and ha hus con ibu e o op imizing he pe o -
mance o bo h owne s and manage s and simul aneously imp o ing
hei le els o well-being and quali y o li e.
On he basis o he discussion abo e, he p esen wo k is
in ended o ill he gaps in esea ch on his opic in he Spanish
en i onmen . The e o e, he pu pose o his s udy is o in es iga e
F om he Depa men o Managemen , Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucı
´a, Co
´ doba,
Spain (D A iza-Mon es, D Leal-Rod ı
´guez), Depa men o Business
Adminis a ion, Uni e sidad Au o
´noma de Chile, San iago, Chile (D
A iza-Mon es), and Depa men o Business Managemen and Ma ke ing,
Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se illa, Spain (D Rod ı
´guez-Fe
´lix, D Albo -
Mo an ).
This wo k was suppo ed by esea ch unds om he Uni e sidad Loyola
Andalucı
´a and Uni e sidad de Se illa.
We disclose ha he e is no any ac ual o po en ial con lic o in e es including
any inancial, pe sonal o o he ela ionships wi h o he people o o ganiza-
ions wi hin 3 yea s o beginning he submi ed wo k ha could inapp op i-
a ely in luence, o be pe cei ed o in luence ou wo k.
Add ess co espondence o: An onio A iza-Mon es, PhD, Uni e sidad Loyola
Andalucı
´a, Esc i o Cas illa Aguayo, 4, Co
´ doba 14004, Spain (a iza@
uloyola.es).
Copy igh ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al
Medicine
DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0000000000001096
JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 903
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed
wo k s ess among manage s and owne s in Spain. Mo e speci ically,
ou aim is o examine wha ypes o wo k s ess a e ela ed o s ain, in
addi ion o he ole played by in e nal (LOC) and ex e nal (wo k
suppo ) esou ces.We expec ha esou ces such aswo ksuppo and
an in e nal LOC will p o ec bo h owne s and manage s om he
nega i e impac o s ess. Manage s who ecei e an adequa e le el o
suppo can be con iden ha he esponsibili ies o he job and he
s esso s associa ed wi h i can be p ope ly managed. Simul aneously,
manage s who conside ha he esul s o hei ac i i y mos ly depend
on hei own abili ies, skills, o e o s a e mo e likely o be e manage
si ua ions o s ess, and, he e o e, de elop lowe le els o s ain. An
indi idual wi h an in e nal LOC o ien a ion is less likely o be
bo he ed by wo k s ess and mo e e ec i ely copes wi h ci cum-
s ances han an indi idual wi h an ex e nal LOC o ien a ion who
belie es ha he/she is a he me cy o a e, luck, o chance.
21
To ha end, his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows: sec ion
‘‘DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK’’
de elops he heo e ical amewo k; sec ion ‘‘METHOD’’ p esen s
he esea ch me hodology employed; sec ion 4 ‘‘RESULTS’’ p esen s
he main empi ical esul s; and, inally, sec ion ‘‘’DISCUSSION’
discusses he esul s and ce ain implica ions and he main limi a ions
o he s udy.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Rela ionship Be ween S ess and S ain
I is only ecen ly ha beha io al esea che s ha e paid
a en ion o he wo kplace-s ess ela ionship, among o he easons,
due o he di icul y in measu ing a phenomenon ha is occasionally
di use, malleable, and changing, hus admi ing di e en in e p e-
a ions. The majo i y o beha io al analyses ha e lacked a consis-
en de ini ion o s ess. Some esea che s app oach he concep o
s ess on he basis o i s causes; o he s, as a cumula i e and
in e ac i e p ocess; and o he s a e conce ned wi h s udying how
di e en people espond o s ess. Simul aneously, he di icul y in
de ining he concep is in ensi ied by he huge e minological
imp ecision, which s ems om he exis ence o o he mo e o less
ela ed e ms, such as anxie y, dep ession, us a ion, and p essu e,
which ha e been used in e changeably, hus gene a ing con usion
and delay in he implemen a ion o hei indings.
The e a e wo main app oaches conce ning he s udy o
s ess.
22
The i s is a es ic i e app oach ha concep ualizes s ess
as an excess o en i onmen al demands on he indi idual’s abili y o
sol e hem; in o he wo ds, an o e s imula ion o o e load. The
second, which is a b oade app oach, en ails a concep ualiza ion o
s ess such as a lack o i be ween he indi idual and he en i on-
men ; i includes no only he si ua ions e e ed o in he p e ious
o ien a ion bu also he ela ionships be ween he subjec s’ needs
and he sou ces o sa is y hese needs in he wo k en i onmen .
He e, we can o in au iliza ion o in as imula ion, in addi ion o
o e s imula ion o o e load. In his s udy, wo k- ela ed s ess has
been de ined as hose wo k ea u es ha pose h ea s o an indi id-
ual’s pe o mance o he wo k’s asks and unc ions. Al hough hese
ea u es a e o en g ouped a ound i e basic dimensions, o he
pu poses o his s udy, one dimension, he physical en i onmen ,
will no be conside ed because i is no ele an o he manage ial
wo k en i onmen .
23,24
The e o e, acco ding o Caplan e al’s
25
model, he ou conside ed dimensions a e as ollows: (a) ole
con lic , which indica es he deg ee o which he indi idual expe-
iences demands and commi men s ha a e inconsis en wi h his
ole; (b) ole ambigui y, which is ela ed o he labo condi ions, in
which he p io i ies, expec a ions, and c i e ia o e alua ion a e no
clea o he indi idual o pe o m his ole; (c) ole o e load, which
is unde s ood as he ex en o which he labo demands exceed he
pe sonal esou ces o he indi idual and o he wo kplace and
he deg ee o which an employee o indi idual is unable o comple e
he expec ed assignmen s o wo k load; and (d) ole insu iciency,
which indica es he condi ions unde which he educa ion, aining,
skills, and expe ience o he employee a e incompa ible wi h o
inadequa e o he job equi emen s. In his a icle, we ha e used he
model o Caplan e al
25
because ole s ess eme ges speci ically by
he pe o mance o oles in he o ganiza ion.
26
Fo his eason, i is
he bes app oach o he pu pose o ou esea ch.
Al hough he e does no exis a uni e sally accep ed de ini-
ion o s ess, mos esea che s seem o ag ee on he a iables ha
mus be bo ne in mind o unde s and he ies be ween s ess and
heal h. House iden i ies up o i e ypes o social-psychological
a iables ela ed o measu ing and in eg a ing he wo kplace-s ess
ela ionship
27
: (a) he social condi ions ha p o oke s ess, (b) he
indi idual pe cep ions o s ess, (c) he indi idual esponses o s ess
(physiological, a ec i e and beha io al), (d) he las ing consequen-
ces o pe cei ed s ess and he esponses o i , and (e) he indi idual
and si ua ional mode a o s. F om his pe spec i e, nume ous em-
pi ical s udies con i m he impo an ole played by wo k- ela ed
s ess in s ain. In his sense, using a sample o 117 Ame ican
employees om a hospi al supply company, Beeh e al
28
ind a
close co ela ion be ween ole o e load and ole ambigui y wi h
ce ain measu es o ension, such as anxie y and he psychological
s ain o hese employees. Adop ing a b oade de ini ion, S i as-
a a
2
conside s ha s ain can be ela ed o he impac ha s ess has
on e ec i eness o ine ec i eness in he wo k a ea. In he p esen
s udy, occupa ional o p o essional s ain should be unde s ood as he
de ia ion o he esponse ha an employee could no mally ha e in a
gi en si ua ion. In his s udy, he s ain a iable has been concep ual-
ized based on he wo ks by Il eld,
29
who akes in o accoun ou
psychia ic condi ions: (a) dep ession— equen ly eeling alone,
bo ed, dejec ed o i ed, a loss o sexual desi e, and occasionally
e en suicidal idea ions; (b) anxie y— equen ly eeling ang y o
disgus ed, he eeling o dizziness, embling hands, a oidance be-
ha io , and eeling sca ed o ea ul; (c) cogni i e dis u bance:
equen ly expe iencing di icul y in emembe ing hings o concen-
a ing (blank mind synd ome); and (d) ange — equen ly losing
se eni y, easily eeling i i a ed o c i ical o o he s, becoming u ious
o e i ial ma e s o wan ing o annoy someone.
Al hough s ess seems he una oidable esul o he p ocess
o owning and managing a business,
30
in he scien i ic li e a u e, i is
di icul o ind s udies ha ocus on analyzing he s ess-s ain
ela ionship wi hin he collec i e o manage s, much less dis in-
guishing be ween owne s and nonowne manage s. In his ein, Lu
e al
11
compa e he impac o s ess on manage s’ heal h in wo
samples om di e en coun ies: Taiwan and he UK. These au ho s
conclude ha he e is a s ess-s ain ela ionship ha is simila in
bo h cases and in spi e o he ac ha he sou ces o s ess we e
di e en : he manage ial ole (ensu ing a o able wo k condi ions)
and ecogni ion in Taiwan e sus he o ganiza ional clima e, ela-
ionships, and pe sonal esponsibili y in he UK. Simila ly, a s udy
by P o as and Thompson
31
e eals ha owne s a e subjec ed o
g ea e job p essu e due o hei esponsibili y o he i m’s
su i al, such as managing pay oll, hi ing, i ing, and nego ia ing
wi h supplie s and cus ome s. Al hough hese demands a e also
sha ed by manage s, he ac is ha he owne s’ link wi h he
company is much mo e in ense; hus, hey may eel highe p essu e
han manage s eel. In his sense, Rahim
32
inds ha owne s, in
con as o manage s, we e subjec ed o a g ea e numbe o
s esso s such as ole o e load. This ci cums ance should esul
in inc eased isks o physical and men al heal h; howe e , in his
sense, he empi ical e idence is no as clea o conclusi e. On he
con a y, Rahim
32
inds no di e ences in epo ed s ain among
owne s and manage s. Simila ly, G zywacz and Bass
33
ind no
di e ences wi h ega d o p oblems o dep ession, anxie y, o
alcohol consump ion. Indeed, a s udy by Te ick e al
34
e eals ha
A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017
904 ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine
Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed
owne s p esen lowe emo ional exhaus ion (s ain) han manage s
and o he employees. On he basis o he discussion abo e, we posi
he ollowing esea ch hypo hesis (Fig. 1):
H1. The e a e no di e ences be ween owne s and manage s wi h
ega d o he e ec o job demands on s ain.
In luence o Pe sonali y and Social Suppo on he
S ess-S ain Rela ionship
As s a ed in he in oduc ion o his wo k, he e a e many
esea che s who ag ee on he need o conside pe sonali y a ibu es
and he social ci cums ances ha in luence he ypes o esponses
ha an indi idual has o ce ain s ess ul si ua ions. I seems clea
ha he agen o s ess o he s esso mus necessa ily p ecede he
s ess, al hough i s me e p esence does no ensu e ha s ess ac ually
appea s. The pe cep ion o a si ua ion e en ually cha ged wi h s ess
depends on he p esence o o he a iables. Ce ain cul u al and
pe sonal ac o s de e mine ha an indi idual pe cei es a si ua ion as
challenging whe eas ano he indi idual iews i as a h ea . I s ess
depends on how i is pe cei ed by he indi idual and he esou ces a
his disposal o add ess i , wha is ce ain is ha he esou ces
a ailable o owne s and manage s a e di e en om hose a he
disposal o o he employees. Undoub edly, hese ci cums ances
a ec he s esso -symp om ela ionship.
In luence Exe ed by Locus o Con ol
LOC is a ela i ely s able p ope y ha e e s o he wide-
sp ead belie ha he li e e en s a e con olled by one’s own ac ions
(in e nal locus) o by ex e nal o ces (ex e nal locus).
35
LOC is
some hing ha de elops in indi iduals o e ime, and i is simila o
a unc ion o he accumula ion o all p e ious expe iences and hei
meanings. I is no some hing ha changes o is quickly and easily
al e ed, hus being an indi idual di e ence ha is e y unlikely o be
al e ed by o he s. As a esul , LOC is one o he mos impo an
pe sonali y a iables o unde s anding he beha io o employees
in he wo k en i onmen .
1
Acco ding o Kahn and Byosie e,
36
i is
impo an o include he concep o LOC in esea ch s udies ha
add ess wo k- ela ed s ess because subjec s wi h an in e nal LOC
will mos likely be e handle si ua ions o s ess, whe eas employ-
ees wi h an ex e nal LOC end o e ain om ac ing, no us ing in
i s abili y o ha e an impac on he en i onmen . Consequen ly,
people wi h an in e nal LOC end o ha e highe le els o heal h and
wel a e when aced wi h si ua ions o s ess a wo k. An in e nal
LOC seems o indica e ha he mo e an indi idual exe s con ol
o e a si ua ion, he less likely he is o conside i h ea ening and
hus e eal pa e ns o ad e se eac ion. Howe e , a mo e accu a e
conside a ion sugges s ha subjec s wi h an in e nal LOC a e mo e
likely o expe ience s ess when hey a e unable o exe cise he
con ol ha hey belie e hey ha e whe eas hose wi h an ex e nal
LOC eel pa icula ly h ea ened when hey ha e he abili y o
exe cise con ol o e wha is occu ing. In his manne , he p oba-
bili y o expe iencing s ess is inc eased when belie s and he
mani es ed eali y a e inconsis en .
Acco ding oTongandWang,
37
LOC ela es o se e al
a iables ha a e linked o pe sonali y, mo i a ions, a i udes,
and wo k- ela ed beha io s, such as commi men o change,
38
s ess and job sa is ac ion,
39
and pe o mance.
40
In his sense,
nume ous s udies empi ically e eal ha he pe sonal cha ac e -
is ics o LOC mode a e he s ess-heal h ela ionship
11,41
o modi y
he s ess-s ain ela ionship.
9
(Agains he p edominan ly wo king
line, some s udies ha e ailed o demons a e he hypo hesis o he
mode a ing ole o he LOC. In his sense, Moyle and Pa kes
42
ound ha wo k LOC (WLC) had no in luence, nei he di ec no
indi ec , on psychological s ain.) The mos equen ly ound
e idence sugges s ha indi iduals wi h an in e nal LOC end o
be mo e sa is ied wi h hei wo k and expe ience g ea e well-
being.
43
These indi iduals ha e be e heal h and a ain highe
le els o well-being in si ua ions o high demand and con ol,
whe eas subjec s wi h an ex e nal LOC expe ience g ea e ension
in he same si ua ion.
44
Compa ed wi h employees wi h a p edom-
inance o ex e nal LOC, hose wi h an in e nal LOC pe cei e less
s ess, mo e au onomy and con ol, and end o s ay longe in he
company.
45,46
Simila ly, o he s udies link in e nal LOC o lowe
le els o anxie y and s ess in he wo kplace.
47
Simila ly, Kalbe s
and Foga y
48
ind ha employees wi h an in e nal LOC a e less
likely o expe ience high le els o s ess, whe eas hose wi h an
ex e nal LOC a e mo e ulne able o s ess and a e mo e likely
o pe cei e e en s as s ess ul. Leung e al
49
also inds ha
ex e nal LOC leads o job dissa is ac ion and psychological dis-
ess. The easons o he e ec o in e nal LOC on s ess and s ain
is hese indi iduals ob ain and use in o ma ion mo e e ec i ely,
hey a e able o ge mo e ou o hei expe ience o imp o e hei
asks and he esul s, and simul aneously, hey belie e mo e
decisi ely in he e ec i eness o hei own e o s.
50
Al hough he e ec o in e nal LOC on s ess and s ain
seems clea and e iden , i s impac on p o essionals wi h manage ial
esponsibili y is less ob ious. In his ield, s udies a e e y a e (we
ha e iden i ied none in he Spanish con ex ), and hey do no o e
pa icula ly conclusi e esul s. S ess is a phenomenon ha is
pa icula ly ele an o manage s because i c i ically a ec s he
e ec i eness o hei decision-making. In his ein, h ough hie a -
chical mul iple eg ession analysis, a s udy by S i as a a, who used
a sample o 200 manage s belonging o Indian p i a e o ganiza ions,
shows ha s ess hinde s manage ial e ec i eness, while in e nal
LOC mode a es his ela ionship.
2
In esea ch on he beha io o
en ep eneu s and manage s, Rahim concludes ha a pe son wi h a
FIGURE 1. Resea ch model and hypo heses.
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high in e nal LOC belie es ha he can cope wi h s ess unc ionally
and mo e e ec i ely han someone wi h a high ex e nal LOC.
32
Simila ly, Muhonen and To kelson
39
conduc a s udy assessing he
ole o WLC in job sa is ac ion and heal h in he con ex o
occupa ional s ess. Thei s udy, which was conduc ed among
manage s and nonmanage s a a Swedish elecommunica ions
company, e eals ha manage s showed a g ea e in e nal LOC,
which implies ha s a us in he o ganiza ion can be cen al o
WLC. Acco ding o hese au ho s, subjec s wi h li le access o
powe should de elop an ex e nal LOC, whe eas hose who ha e
manage ial posi ions could de elop mo e in e nal WLC belie s. By
di ec ly compa ing be ween owne s and manage s, Te ick e al
34
p esuppose ha owne s should ecei e lowe le els o s ess as a
esul o he highe deg ee o con ol ha de i es om he ac ha
hey a e owne s, which should in u n esul in lowe le els o s ain.
Howe e , using a mul i a ia e analysis o a iance, hese au ho s
ind only signi ican di e ences be ween owne s and manage s in
he ole ambigui y o he wo k- ela ed s ess dimension (1.83 i s
and 2.46 seconds). Mo e conclusi e esul s conce ning s ain we e
because owne s expe ienced lowe le els o emo ional exhaus ion
han manage s.
Conside ing he discussion abo e, we posi he second e-
sea ch hypo hesis (see Fig. 1):
H2. An in e nal LOC educes s ess and s ain o a g ea e ex en
among owne s han among manage s.
In luence Exe ed by Social Suppo
Rega ding he concep o social suppo , mul iple de ini ions,
which ha e gene ally been somewha ague o ci cula , ha e been
o mula ed. Thus, o e al, social suppo is de e mined by he
p esence o ela i e absence o psychological suppo om signi i-
can people;
25
o Cobb, i conce ns he in o ma ion ha allows
people o belie e ha he e a e people who alue hem, ca e abou
hem and lo e hem, and who belong o a ne wo k o communica ion
and mu ual obliga ion
51
; o House,
52
he c ux o he issue is he
a ailabili y o aid om o he people.
I seems clea ha he na u e o he ela ionships ha exis
be ween indi iduals and hei immedia e su oundings, in addi ion
o e e y hing ha cul u ally shapes hem, has a ela i e impac on
indi iduals’ le el o ole ance o s ess. The absence o an a mo-
sphe e o us among cowo ke s, supe io s and subo dina es may be
a ac o ha dec eases he le el o ole ance o s ess inhe en o o
expe ienced a wo k. F om he pe spec i e o he job-demand-
con ol-suppo model o s ess a wo k, Johnson and Hall
53
iden i y
a con ex o low social suppo as one o he main s esso s. In a
simila ein, Ha kness e al
54
poin o he absence o social suppo
and dis espec ul communica ion as majo s esso s in he wo k o
s a nu ses and o ice s a .
Fo decades, he ole played by social suppo in mi iga ing
he e ec s o occupa ional s ess has been a main esea ch opic in
he ield o o ganiza ional psychology. Ne e heless, he impac o
social suppo on s ess is no clea ,
28
much less i s e ec on ce ain
g oups such as hose who a e he subjec o his esea ch. In his
manne , he e iew by Knox Haly
55
shows ha some s udies ha e
ound ha social suppo exe s a di ec e ec on wo k- ela ed
s ess.
56,57
Howe e , ano he g oup o s udies has ei he ound a
mo e ambiguous ela ionship (eg,
58
) o has no ound any ela ion-
ship (eg,
59
). Mo eo e , he e iew by Knox Haly
55
inds wo s udies
ha e ealed a posi i e ela ionship be ween social suppo and he
e ec s o s ess.
60,61
Undoub edly, one analy ical pe spec i e ha has la gely
occupied he a en ion o esea che s conce ns he ea u es o
social suppo in he p ocess o occupa ional s ess. Based on
he assump ion ha wo k- ela ed s ess has ad e se e ec s on
heal h, House
52
a gues ha social suppo can in luence his
p ocess in h ee ways. Fi s , i can di ec ly imp o e heal h because
i mee s impo an needs o he indi idual, such as a ilia ion,
membe ship, and adop ion. In his manne , social suppo in
s ess ul si ua ions may coun e ac he nega i e e ec s on heal h
o p oduce posi i e ou comes. Second, social suppo can educe
he expe iences o occupa ional s ess in di e en ways and he e-
o e indi ec ly imp o e heal h. On nume ous occasions, cowo ke s
and supe iso s a e p o ide s o suppo who can minimize in e -
pe sonal con lic s and p essu es. Thi d, social suppo can mi iga e
he nega i e e ec s o s ess on heal h and psychological well-
being. Thus, in addi ion o he di ec e ec s on s ess and
hei consequences, social suppo has a bu e ing e ec on
he ela ionship.
The e ec o social suppo in s ess and s ain is nei he clea
no conclusi e.
62
Fo ins ance, Swanson and Powe
63
assess he
e ec o social suppo on a sample comp ising B i ish public u ili y
employees. The esul s con i m ha wo ke s who ecei ed social
suppo om hei supe io s showed lowe le els o ole con lic ,
ole ambigui y and ole o e load. The same occu s when hey
ecei ed pee suppo , al hough only wi h ega d o ole con lic
and ole ambigui y. Simila esul s a e ob ained in a s udy by
Pel ene e al,
64
who use a sample o mo e han 20,000 employees
om 25 Belgian o ganiza ions, and a s udy by Nelson e al,
65
who
examine 415 B i ish eache s o s uden s wi h emo ional beha io al
diso de s. Beeh e al
28
also analyze he mode a ing e ec o social
suppo on he s ess-s ain ela ionship by using a sample o 117
Ame ican employees om a hospi al supply company, inding
s ong co ela ions be ween wo k load/wo k ambigui y and he
anxie y/psychological s ain measu es. The s onges co ela ion
disco e ed is be ween wo kload and psychological s ain, whe eas
he weakes is be ween ole ambigui y and anxie y. Acco ding o
hese au ho s, he di e en ypes o social suppo exe cise a
mode a ing e ec , ega dless o he s esso (wo kload o wo k
ambigui y) and he na u e o he s ess (anxie y o psychological
s ain).
Acco ding o Pinneau,
66
social suppo leads o h ee main
e ec s: (a) i educes po en ial s esso s (p e en i e e ec ), (b) i
dec eases s ain ( he apeu ic e ec ), and (c) i educes he impac o
s ess on s ain (mode a ing e ec ). By di ec ly compa ing owne s
and manage s, Te ick e al
34
posi ha , compa ed wi h manage s,
owne s a e expec ed o ha e a de ici in social suppo as a esul o
he g ea e di icul y in inding suppo among sou ces o social
suppo ha ha e hei o igin in he en i onmen (colleagues and
supe io s). As a consequence o he esul s ob ained by hese
au ho s, only he p e en i e e ec ecei es suppo , sugges ing ha
social suppo di ec ly ac s o educe pe cei ed s ess. In line wi h
Gelle and Hob oll,
67
who asse ha social suppo has been iewed
as a esou ce ha educes s ain, he hi d hypo hesis o his esea ch
is p oposed as ollows (see Fig. 1):
H3. Social suppo educes s ess and s ain o a g ea e ex en
among manage s han among owne s.
METHOD
Da a Collec ion and Sample
To conduc his esea ch, we p epa ed a ques ionnai e ha
encompassed i ems aimed a measu ing he dis inc a iables o he
esea ch model. This ques ionnai e was sen o a sample o 1000
en e p ises andomly selec ed om a lis ob ained om he Cham-
be o Comme ce o Se ille (Spain). A le e explaining he pu pose
o he s udy and a sel -add essed en elope (i he esponden
p e e ed o comple e he ques ionnai e wi hou he p esence o
he in e iewe and send i anonymously by mail) accompanied each
A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017
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ques ionnai e. The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he
Decla a ion o Helsinki, and he p o ocol was app o ed by he
E hics Commi ee o Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucı
´a (Spain). The
ieldwo k (deli e y and collec ion o ques ionnai es) was pe o med
du ing om Oc obe o Decembe 2014.
Ou mailing e o yielded a o al o 369 ques ionnai es; o
hese, 37 we e uled ou because some sec ions we e incomple e.
Thus, ou inal sample is composed o 332 ques ionnai es, which
ep esen s a esponse a e o 33.2%. O he 332 alid esponses,
53.1% ep esen owne s (176) and 46.9% manage s (156). By sec o
o ac i i y, he majo i y o owne s and manage s wo k in he se ices
sec o (44.9% o owne s and 47.4% o manage s) and he
manu ac u ing sec o (23.9% and 19.25%, espec i ely). Finally,
mos o he esponden s a e male (84%), a e ma ied (77%), and li e
in u ban spaces (69.9%).
Measu es
Table 1 p esen s he main desc ip i e s a is ics conce ning he
conside ed measu es and he di e ences be ween he subsamples o
owne s and manage s.
S ess
Fo he pu pose o his s udy, job s ess has been de ined as
hose ea u es o he wo k ha pose a h ea o an indi idual’s
pe o mance o asks and unc ions. In pa icula , he dimensions o
be e alua ed a e as ollows: ole con lic , ole ambigui y, ole
o e load, and ole insu iciency. These ou dimensions o wo k-
ela ed s ess ha e been measu ed by using he scale by Caplan
e al,
25
which consis s o 14 i ems measu ed wi h a i e-poin Like
scale (5 ¼always, 1 ¼ a ely o ne e ). A high sco e on his ins u-
men signi ies a g ea deal o s ess expe ienced by he subjec . The
ollowing a e some examples o i ems: I ecei e incompa ible
eques s om wo o mo e people a he same ime ( ole con lic );
My job has clea goals and objec i es ( ole ambigui y); I do no
ha e su icien ime o do all hings I eel should be done ( ole
o e load); My aining, skills, educa ion, and expe ience a e insu -
icien o mee job equi emen s ( ole insu iciency). Caplan e al
25
epo ha he in e nal consis ency o he ins umen a ies be ween
0.74 and 0.90. Nume ous published pape s ha ha e used his scale
ha e epo ed he cons uc alidi y and c i e ion alidi y o his
s ess-measu ing ins umen . The C onbach’s alpha o his scale
was 0.778: ole con lic (0.796), ole ambigui y (0.803), ole
o e load (0.686), and ole insu iciency (0.598).
S ain
The 29 i ems o he Psychia ic Symp oms Index (PSI)
de eloped by Il eld
29
measu e occupa ional s ain. PSI comp ises
ou dimensions o psychia ic condi ions: dep ession (ie, Feel
bo ed o ha e li le in e es in hings), anxie y (ie, Ha e o a oid
ce ain hings places ac i i ies because hey igh ened you?),
cogni i e dis u bance (ie, Ha e you mind go blank?), and ange
(ie, Feel easily annoyed o i i a ed?). Each o he i ems in his
ins umen is measu ed wi h a ou -poin scale (0 ¼ne e ,
1¼some imes, 2 ¼ equen ly, 3 ¼always). A high sco e on his
ins umen indica es a high equency o psychia ic symp oms. The
PSI is an abb e ia ed e sion o he Hopkins Symp om Dis ess
Checklis and was de eloped h ough a ac o ial analysis, using da a
om 2299 adul pa ien s. Il eld
29
demons a es he alidi y and
eliabili y o his ins umen . Ou esea ch ob ained an alpha
coe icien o 0.911: dep ession (0.784), anxie y (0.824), cogni i e
dis u bance (0.663), and ange (0.845)
Locus o Con ol
LOC e e s o he ex en o which indi iduals eel ha hey
can con ol he hings ha happen o and a ec hem.
35
In his s udy,
LOC is measu ed by he eigh i ems shaping he in e nal LOC scale
de eloped by Le enson.
68
An example o his scale is he ollowing:
I can p e y much de e mine wha will happen in my li e. To ha end,
his ins umen s uses a i e-poin scale (5 ¼s ongly ag ee,
1¼s ongly disag ee). A high sco e on his ins umen (maximum
sco e is 40 poin s) indica es an in e nal LOC o he esponden , and
a low sco e indica es an ex e nal LOC. Le enson
68
ob ains e idence
o he scale’s consis ency and alidi y. Fu he e idence o he
psychome ic p ope ies o his measu emen ins umen is p o ided
by Fusilie e al.
69
In ou s udy, he C onbach’s alpha was 0.638.
Social Suppo
Social suppo is unde s ood as he a ailabili y o help om
o he s in imes o need. This s udy conside s h ee dimensions o
social suppo (supe iso s/bosses, pee s, and amily/ iends), mea-
su ed by he social suppo scale designed by Caplan e al.
25
The
ollowing is an example o i em: How easy is o alk wi h you ...
TABLE 1. Means and S anda d De ia ions o all Va iables o Owne s and Manage s
Valo
Owne s (N¼176) Manage s (N¼156)
Sig.
()
MSDMSD
S ess
Role con lic 1.84 0.74 2.03 0.83 0.05
Role ambigui y 1.98 0.72 2.14 0.76 0.041
Role o e load 2.95 0.80 2.92 0.77 0.728 (n.s.)
Role Insu iciency 2.66 0.84 2.62 0.76 0.661 (n.s.)
S ain
Dep ession 0.59 0.42 0.57 0.41 0.719 (n.s.)
Anxie y 0.69 0.48 0.59 0.44 0.046
Cogni i e Dis u bance 0.87 0.51 0.74 0.48 0.016
Ange 1.12 0.75 1.00 0.60 0.125 (n.s.)
Locus o con ol 3.36 0.64 3.41 0.60 0.466 (n.s.)
Social suppo
Supe io s 0.47 1.07 2.59 0.95 0.000
Colleagues 2.51 1.11 2.90 0.76 0.000
Family 3.22 0.79 3.48 0.56 0.001

Signi ican di e ence a a 95% con idence in e al.
n.s., nonsigni ican di e ence.
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(supe iso s/bosses, pee s, and amily/ iends)? Each o he h ee
dimensions comp ises ou i ems ha a e measu ed wi h a i e-poin
Like scale (4 ¼much, 1 ¼no hing, 0 ¼I do no ha e any o hese
people). A high sco e indica es a g ea e le el o social suppo
ecei ed by an indi idual. The eliabili y es ima es in his s udy o
he h ee dimensions was 0.942 (supe iso suppo ), 0.828 (co-
wo ke s suppo ), and 0.729 ( amily suppo ).
Da a Analysis
The esea ch model desc ibed in Fig. 1 has been es ed by
using pa ial leas squa es (PLS) pa h modeling, a a iance-based
s uc u al equa ion modeling echnique.
70
PLS simul aneously ena-
bles he assessmen o he eliabili y and alidi y o he measu es o
heo e ical cons uc s (ou e model) and he es ima ion o he
ela ionships among hese cons uc s (inne model).
71
The use o
PLS is jus i ied o he ollowing easons: (1) his s udy is o ien ed
owa d he p edic ion o he dependen a iables
72
; (2) he sample
size (n¼156 and n¼176) is small, and acco ding o Reina z
e al,
73
PLS should be applied when he numbe o obse a ions
is lowe han 250; (3) he esea ch model is complex wi h ega d o
he ypes o a iables (second-o de cons uc s); and (4) his s udy
uses la en a iable sco es in he subsequen analysis o p edic i e
ele ance.
74
We ha e used he Sma PLS 2.0 so wa e (Sma PLS
GmbH, Hambu g, Ge many).
75
We ollowed a wo-s ep app oach o ope a ionalize he
mul idimensional supe o dina e cons uc s.
72
Acco dingly, he
i ems o each dimension we e op imally weigh ed and combined,
using he PLS algo i hm o c ea e a la en a iable sco e. As a esul ,
he dimensions o i s -o de ac o s became he obse ed indica o s
o he second-o de cons uc s, which a e he STRESS and STRAIN
a iables.
76
RESULTS
A PLS model is assessed and in e p e ed in wo s ages: (1) he
e alua ion o he eliabili y and alidi y o he measu emen model
(ou e model) and (2) he assessmen o he s uc u al model (inne
model). This sequence gua an ees ha he cons uc measu es a e
alid and eliable be o e a emp ing o d aw conclusions ega ding
he ela ionships be ween cons uc s.
70
Measu emen Model
Ou esul s e eal ha he measu emen model is en i ely
sa is ac o y. Fi s , mos o he s anda dized loadings a e g ea e han
0.707 (Tables 2 and 3). Acco ding o Hai e al,
77
he indica o ’s
ou e loadings should be highe han he h eshold o 0.707. The
indica o s comp ising he ou e loadings be ween 0.4 and 0.7 should
be emo ed only i he dele ion leads o an inc ease in he composi e
eliabili y and a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE) abo e he sug-
ges ed h eshold alue. Consequen ly, because some o ou loadings
a e lowe bu close o he h eshold (ie, 0.6703, 0.6418, 0.6674,
0.6224, 0.6774, and 0.6517), we main ain all o he indica o s and
a gue ha he eliabili y o he indi idual i ems is adequa e.
78
Second, all a iables mee he equi emen o cons uc eliabili y
because hei composi e eliabili ies a e g ea e han 0.7
79
(Tables 2
and 3).
In addi ion, hese la en a iables achie e con e gen alidi y
because hei AVE alues su pass he c i ical le el o 0.5
80
(Tables 1
and 2). Finally, all o he a iables each disc iminan alidi y
achie ed ia he compa ison o he squa e oo o he AVE and
he co ela ions (Table 4). Fo sa is ac o y disc iminan alidi y, he
diagonal elemen s (in bold) should be signi ican ly g ea e han he
o -diagonal elemen s in he co esponding ows and columns.
S uc u al Model
Table 5 e eals he explained a iance (R
2
) in he dependen
cons uc s and he pa h coe icien s o he di e en models con-
side ed (Models 1 and 2). Consis en wi h Hai e al,
74
boo s apping
(5000 esamples) was used o gene a e s anda d e o s and s a is-
ics, which enable he assessmen o he s a is ical signi icance o
he ela ionships conside ed in he models.
Table 5 includes he di ec ela ionships hypo hesized be-
ween STRESS, STRAIN, LOC, and SUPPORT o he wo e-
sea ch models conside ed (Models 1 and 2). As shown in Table 4,
we ind suppo o all o he di ec links hypo hesized in Model 1 o
TABLE 2. Measu emen Model 1: Manage s
Cons uc /Indica o Loading Composi e Reliabili y AVE
S ess 0.7363 0.5287
Role con lic 0.7748
Role ambigui y 0.7429
Role o e load 0.6703
Role insu iciency 0.7363
S ain 0.8951 0.6812
Dep ession 0.8663
Anxie y 0.8673
Cogni i e dis u bance 0.7897
Ange 0.7736
Locus o con ol 0.7754 0.5367
L1 0.7409
L2 0.7974
L3 0.6521
L4 0.7964
L5 0.7172
L6 0.8330
L7 0.7935
L8 0.7809
Social suppo 0.7217 0.6174
Supe io s 0.9046
Colleagues 0.6418
Family 0.7486
AVE, a e age a iance ex ac ed.
TABLE 3. Measu emen Model 2: Owne s
Cons uc /Indica o Loading Composi e Reliabili y AVE
S ess 0.7438 0.5246
Role con lic 0.6674
Role ambigui y 0.7637
Role o e load 0.6224
Role insu iciency 0.7315
S ain 0.8538 0.5943
Dep ession 0.8092
Anxie y 0.8064
Cogni i e dis u bance 0.7055
Ange 0.7579
Locus o con ol 0.8185 0.6028
L1 0.7759
L2 0.8646
L3 0.6774
L4 0.7052
L5 0.7111
L6 0.7339
L7 0.8041
L8 0.7882
Social suppo 0.7129 0.6348
Supe io s 0.7537
Colleagues 0.6517
Family 0.9946
AVE, a e age a iance ex ac ed
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manage s (Fig. 2). Howe e , in Model 2 (Owne s), only he
STRESS!STRAIN and he SUPPORT!STRAIN ela ionships
a e signi ican (Fig. 3).
DISCUSSION
The con inuous changes and inc easing demands ha cha -
ac e ize he cu en wo kplace con ex make i necessa y o iden i y
a ious indi idual cha ac e is ics (eg, LOC) and ypes o social
suppo ha se e as ac o s o ulne abili y o p o ec ion in
esponse o wo k s ess.
81
Ce ainly, e ec i e managemen o such
s ess is de e mined by he manne in which people manage job
s ess. This ac is e en mo e ele an in posi ions wi h mo e
manage ial du ies, such as hose o manage and owne . En e p ises
ha e habi ually pe o med human esou ce managemen by apply-
ing he same s a egies and p ocedu es, bu he esul s p esen ed in
his s udy indica e ha manage s and owne s di e and ha he main
di e gences a e exhibi ed in pe cep ions o job s ess and social
suppo . In his sense, he majo s eng hs o his a icle a e as
ollows: (1) he da a we e collec ed om knowledgeable manage s
and owne s; (2) he main a iables we e measu ed wi h psychome -
ically alida ed and eliable ins umen s; (3) PLS pa h modeling
was used o es he e ec s o LOC and social suppo on he s ess-
s ain ela ionship; and (4) sepa a e da a analyses o owne s and
manage s we e use ul in compa ing he indings be ween he
wo g oups.
O e all, he s udy p o ides suppo o he li e a u e on s ess
managemen , which emphasizes he impo ance o a LOC and social
suppo in in luencing s ess and s ain (eg,
21
). The esul s ob ained
by applying s uc u al equa ion modeling show ha hese a iables
and hei e ec s di e be ween manage s and owne s.
Fi s , as p oposed in hypo hesis 1, s ess posi i ely ela es o
s ain among bo h manage s and owne s, wi hou di e ences
be ween he wo g oups. This esul is in line wi h ha o Lu
e al
11
conce ning manage s in Taiwan and he UK. These au ho s
indica e ha , ega ding s ess-s ain ela ions, sou ces o s ess
we e nega i ely ela ed o job sa is ac ion, men al heal h and
physical heal h.
Second, hypo hesis 2 sugges s ha , o e ec i ely handle he
p essu es, unce ain ies, and challenges o he wo k o owne s
(which is highe among owne s han i is among manage s), i is
be e o be an in e nalize han i is o be an ex e nalize . The e is a
gene al consensus ha an in e nal LOC ends o be associa ed wi h
posi i e ou comes, whe eas an ex e nal LOC ends o be associa ed
wi h nega i e ou comes.
82
Agains expec a ions, manage s epo a
highe in e nal LOC han do owne s. Ne e heless, his di e ence is
sca ce and nonsigni ican , which leads o he conclusion ha , in
Model 1 (manage s), LOC is consis en ly and nega i ely associa ed
wi h s ess and s ain. Howe e , i s educing e ec on s ess and
s ain is nonsigni ican o he owne s g oup (Model 2), con a y o
wha we posi ed in hypo hesis 2. Because he manage s sco e highe
on he LOC scale han he owne s do, hey a e in a posi ion o
manage s ess mo e e ec i ely han he owne s. This ci cums ance
is pe haps mo i a ed by he manage s’ highe deg ee o con ol o e
e en s and hei own u u e. By no ha ing hei des iny be di ec ly
TABLE 4. Disc iminan Validi y
Model 1 LOC STRAIN STRESS SUPPORT
LOC 0.7326 0 0 0
STRAIN 0.2494 0.8253 0 0
STRESS 0.2305 0.5905 0.7271 0
SUPPORT 0.0803 0.3315 0.2506 0.7857
Model 2 LOC STRAIN STRESS SUPPORT
LOC 0.7764 0 0 0
STRAIN 0.2082 0.7709 0 0
STRESS 0.1721 0.4811 0.7243 0
SUPPORT 0.1345 0.3626 0.1457 0.7967
TABLE 5. S uc u al Model Resul s
Model 1 Model 2
R
2
STRESS
¼0.1273 R
2
STRESS
¼0.1449
R
2
STRAIN
¼0.3972 R
2
STRAIN
¼0.3269
Rela ionship Pa h Coe icien Suppo Pa h Coe icien Suppo
STRESS!STRAIN 0.5156

(5.8453) Yes 0.4213

(5.5952) Yes
LOC!STRAIN 0.1152

(1.6117) Yes 0.0972 ns (1.2809) No
LOC!STRESS 0.2118

(2.8368) Yes 0.1553 ns (1.3349) No
SUPPORT!STRAIN 0.1931

(2.5881) Yes 0.2882

(2.9133) Yes
SUPPORT!STRESS 0.2336

(2.6389) Yes 0.1248 ns (0.9983) No
No es: alues in pa en heses.

P<0.001.

P<0.01.

P<0.05.
ns, no signi ican ; based on (4999), one- ailed es . (0.05, 4999) ¼1.645; (0.01, 4999) ¼2.327; (0.001, 4999) ¼3.092
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Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed
linked o ha o he company, as is he case wi h owne s, manage s
ha e g ea e oom o maneu e . Undoub edly, con ol may in luence
he s esso -s ain ela ionship. I is possible ha success ul man-
age s a e in e nalize s and ha job s ess is no a majo p oblem o
hem. F om his pe spec i e, a manage wi h an in e nal LOC should
be selec ed o high-s ess jobs.
Thi d, social suppo is also an impo an a iable in he
s ess-s ain ela ionship. Owne s ecei e less social suppo han do
manage s (especially om supe io s and colleagues bu also om
he amily). As a esul , social suppo is nega i ely associa ed wi h
s ess and s ain o manage s bu only wi h s ain o owne s. I is
possible ha he ‘‘owne ’s loneliness’’ o igina es in a lack o social
suppo om wo k (supe io and colleagues) sou ces ha ails o be
compensa ed o by he social suppo p o ided by nonwo k sou ces
( amily, iends, e c). This ci cums ance causes he le el o s ess
expe ienced by he owne s is no isibly educed by his a iable,
which occu in he case o he manage s.
This esea ch comp ises some ele an implica ions, bo h o
heo y and o p ac ice. The mos impo an heo e ical implica ion
is linked o he li e a u e on s ess managemen (which emphasizes
he impo ance o a LOC and social suppo in in luencing s ess
and s ain), p o iding e idence o his ela ionship wi hin he
speci ic and a ely explo ed con ex o owne s and manage s. E en
hough he s ess-s ain ela ionship has been ex ensi ely analyzed,
he e is li le empi ical esea ch ha e iew his opic among
p o essionals wi h manage ial esponsibili ies a he co po a e le el,
whe he hese execu i es a e owne s o simply manage s. Ou
esul s sugges ha his ela ionship is no homogeneous, bu ha
i di e s be ween he wo g oups in es iga ed. The s udy has
also se e al p ac ical implica ions. On he one hand, an in e nal
LOC can help in be e unc ionally coping wi h s ess and s ain.
On he o he hand, social suppo is a posi i e ac o ha con ibu es
o be e managing be e his ela ionship. This s udy concludes
ha , in gene al, manage s a e mo e psychologically p epa ed and
a e also mo e s ongly suppo ed by hei social ne wo k han
owne s a e. Thus, hey can ac wi h g ea e e ec i eness in e e yday
si ua ions o job s ess and s ain, and consequen ly, hey a e be e
p epa ed o occupy mo e s ess ul jobs and posi ions o g ea e
esponsibili y.
Despi e he signi ican indings o his a icle, i s in insic
me hodological limi a ions should be no ed. Fi s , he da a we e
ob ained h ough sel - epo ing, which is subjec o a bias and
dis o ion. A second p oblem in his way is social desi abili y bias.
Gi en he sensi i i y o he phenomenon unde s udy, i could
esul in o e epo ing o posi i e beha io s and unde epo ing
o nega i e beha io s. To co ec hese p oblems, we should
use mul ime hod da a and u ilize objec i e measu es ha may
ein o ce s ess-s ain esea ch (eg, manage ial epo s, sco es om
hi d pa ies, e c). Finally, because ou da a we e c oss-sec ional, he
ela ionships ound in his s udy a e co ela ional a he han causal.
The e o e, longi udinal s udies would be necessa y o u he in es-
iga e his ma e .
FIGURE 2. Summa y o s uc u al Model 1
esul s (manage s).
FIGURE 3. Summa y o s uc u al Model 2
esul s (owne s).
A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017
910 ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine
Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed
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JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 S ess and S ain Be ween Spanish Owne s and Manage s
ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine 911