Can an Internal Locus of Control and Social Support Reduce Work-Related Levels of Stress and Strain? A Comparative Study Between Spanish Owners and Managers

Downloaded om h p://jou nals.lww.com/joem by BhDM 5ePHKa 1zEoum1 Q N4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQ HD3i3D0OdRyi7T SFl4C 3VC1y0abggQZXd wn KZBY ws= on 12/10/2021 Downloaded om h p://jou nals.lww.com/joem by BhDM 5ePHKa 1zEoum1 Q N4a+kJLhEZgbsIHo4XMi0hCywCX1AWnYQp/IlQ HD3i3D0OdRyi7T SFl4C 3VC1y0abggQZXd wn KZBY ws= on 12/10/2021 Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed Can an In e nal Locus o Con ol and Social Suppo Reduce Wo k-Rela ed Le els o S ess and S ain? A Compa a i e S udy Be ween Spanish Owne s and Manage s An onio A iza-Mon es, PhD, An onio L. Leal-Rod ı ´guez, PhD, Lucı ´a Rod ı ´guez-Fe ´lix, PhD, and Gema Albo -Mo an , PhD Objec i e: The aim o his a icle is o assess he ole played by bo h indi idual and con ex ual ac o s in educing he manage ’s le els o s ess and s ain wi hin he wo kplace se ing. This a icle also highligh s he manage ’s locus o con ol (LOC) as an in e nal ac o and emphasizes he social suppo a iable as a con ex ual ac o . Me hods: We use a sample o 332 esponden s belonging o Spanish manu ac u ing and se ices i ms and a s uc u al equa ion modeling echnique (pa ial leas squa es pa h modeling). Resul s: The esul s e eal ha he e a e signi ican di e ences be ween manage s and owne s abou s ess-s ain ela ionship. Conclusions: The s udy p o ides suppo o he li e a u e on s ess man- agemen , which emphasizes he impo ance o a LOC and social suppo in in luencing s ess and s ain be ween manage s and owne s. Wo kplace s ess is he una oidable esul o he deep social- economic and echnological changes ha socie y is cu en ly acing 1 ; i cons i u es a phenomenon o g owing in e es in he wo kplace and a c i ical p oblem o employees, employe s, and socie y in gene al. 2 A s udy by Milcza ek e al 3 sugges s ha s ess is he second mos equen ly epo ed wo k- ela ed heal h p oblem, a ec ing 22% o wo ke s in he Eu opean Union 27. Mo eo e , acco ding o he la es Eu opean Su ey o Wo king Condi ions, 26.4% o p i a e sec o employees and 26.6% o hose in he public sec o e eal ha hey always o o en expe ience s ess du ing he pe o mance o hei jobs. 4 S ess gene a es se ious epe cussions ha a e di e en in na u e and whose cos s a e incalculable. Undoub edly, high s ess le els may ha e a signi ican impac on declines in p oduc i i y and educ ions in e ec i eness. 5 Fu he mo e, he nega i e e ec s o his phenomenon en ail a dec eased capaci y o pe o m, lowe e iciency, dampened ini ia i e, and highe igidi y o hough , which in u n leads o sca ce in e es in wo k, o ganiza ional ma e s, colleagues, and, inally, a loss o indi idual esponsibili y. 6,7 Mos esea che s seem o gene ally ag ee ha s ess is o be concep ualized as a p ocess in which s ain is gene a ed om an indi idual-en i onmen in e ac ion. 8 Indeed, o ganiza ional beha - io esea che s gene ally ag ee ha s ess and s ain a e posi i ely co ela ed. 9 The s ess p ocess can lead o di e en o ms o s ain ha a ec , o ins ance, indi iduals’ well-being, le el o job sa is- ac ion and ising absen eeism, and u no e a es, among o he hings. 10–12 P olonged exposu e o s ess can esul in a igue, disease, disabili y, p ema u e aging, and, ul ima ely, e en dea h. 13 Al hough he s ess-s ain ela ionship has been widely s udied in gene al e ms, he e is sca ce empi ical esea ch ha analyses his phenomenon among p o essionals wi h manage ial esponsibili ies a he co po a e le el, whe he hese execu i es a e owne s o simply manage s. These wo g oups sha e cha ac e is ics ha g ea ly di e - en ia e hem om employees wi hou manage ial esponsibili y: olde age, highe educa ional le el, independence, ini ia i e, a e sion o wo k ou ines and excessi e o maliza ion, inc eased decision-mak- ing esponsibili y, isk assump ion ole ance, s ong o ien a ion o- wa ds economic o inancial ewa ds, a g ea e need o achie emen and success, ole ance o challenges and change, g ea e sense o p ide, and he like. 14–18 The in ensi y o he demands ha hese indi iduals ace du ing he de elopmen o hei wo k leads o highe le els o s ess compa ed wi h he nonmanage ial s a . Rega dless, he p e oga i es ha a e p esupposed o manag- ing p o essionals a e no ee; on he con a y, hey can come a a high p ice. On mos occasions, he wo k o managing and i s equi emen s p o oundly domina e he li es o owne s, who a e unable o es ablish a clea and p ecise bounda y be ween wo k ime and spa e ime. The need o cons an ly ace unce ain y and he ea o ailu e place hem in a si ua ion o cons an s uggle, which demands om hem a high dedica ion o in es men in hei physical and emo ional esou ces. O he ma e s and wo ies ela ed o owne s indica ed in he li e a u e include pe sonal sac i ices, an excessi e load o esponsibili y, coexis ing in wo k en i onmen s o high s ess, he p edominance o hei p o essional li e and he loss o psychological well-being. 16,19,20 In addi ion o he ha m ul e ec s o s ess speci ied abo e, his collec i e o people, upon whom es s he s a egic managemen o he company, acqui es special ele ance due o he cos s ha s em om an impo e ishmen in decision-making, in addi ion o mis akes commi ed and oppo - uni ies squande ed. Manage s subjec ed o s ess le els ha exceed he limi s o wha is ole able may no espond wi h he necessa y c ea i i y, may no be able o pe cei e he po en ial o a gi en si ua ion, o may eac wi h excessi e conse a ism. To he bes o ou knowledge, he e a e no empi ical s udies ha ocus on pe o ming an in-dep h assessmen o he e ec s ha ce ain a iables such as locus o con ol (LOC) and social suppo , which could p o ec owne s and manage s by weakening he ha m ul e ec s o s ess, ha e on he s ess-s ain ela ionship among Spanish en ep eneu s and execu i es. Focusing on hese subjec s is a key elemen in designing measu es ha aim a educing exposu e o isk and ha hus con ibu e o op imizing he pe o - mance o bo h owne s and manage s and simul aneously imp o ing hei le els o well-being and quali y o li e. On he basis o he discussion abo e, he p esen wo k is in ended o ill he gaps in esea ch on his opic in he Spanish en i onmen . The e o e, he pu pose o his s udy is o in es iga e F om he Depa men o Managemen , Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucı ´a, Co ´ doba, Spain (D A iza-Mon es, D Leal-Rod ı ´guez), Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Uni e sidad Au o ´noma de Chile, San iago, Chile (D A iza-Mon es), and Depa men o Business Managemen and Ma ke ing, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se illa, Spain (D Rod ı ´guez-Fe ´lix, D Albo - Mo an ). This wo k was suppo ed by esea ch unds om he Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucı ´a and Uni e sidad de Se illa. We disclose ha he e is no any ac ual o po en ial con lic o in e es including any inancial, pe sonal o o he ela ionships wi h o he people o o ganiza- ions wi hin 3 yea s o beginning he submi ed wo k ha could inapp op i- a ely in luence, o be pe cei ed o in luence ou wo k. Add ess co espondence o: An onio A iza-Mon es, PhD, Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucı ´a, Esc i o Cas illa Aguayo, 4, Co ´ doba 14004, Spain (a iza@ uloyola.es). Copy igh ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine DOI: 10.1097/JOM.0000000000001096 JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 903 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed wo k s ess among manage s and owne s in Spain. Mo e speci ically, ou aim is o examine wha ypes o wo k s ess a e ela ed o s ain, in addi ion o he ole played by in e nal (LOC) and ex e nal (wo k suppo ) esou ces.We expec ha esou ces such aswo ksuppo and an in e nal LOC will p o ec bo h owne s and manage s om he nega i e impac o s ess. Manage s who ecei e an adequa e le el o suppo can be con iden ha he esponsibili ies o he job and he s esso s associa ed wi h i can be p ope ly managed. Simul aneously, manage s who conside ha he esul s o hei ac i i y mos ly depend on hei own abili ies, skills, o e o s a e mo e likely o be e manage si ua ions o s ess, and, he e o e, de elop lowe le els o s ain. An indi idual wi h an in e nal LOC o ien a ion is less likely o be bo he ed by wo k s ess and mo e e ec i ely copes wi h ci cum- s ances han an indi idual wi h an ex e nal LOC o ien a ion who belie es ha he/she is a he me cy o a e, luck, o chance. 21 To ha end, his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows: sec ion ‘‘DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK’’ de elops he heo e ical amewo k; sec ion ‘‘METHOD’’ p esen s he esea ch me hodology employed; sec ion 4 ‘‘RESULTS’’ p esen s he main empi ical esul s; and, inally, sec ion ‘‘’DISCUSSION’ discusses he esul s and ce ain implica ions and he main limi a ions o he s udy. DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Rela ionship Be ween S ess and S ain I is only ecen ly ha beha io al esea che s ha e paid a en ion o he wo kplace-s ess ela ionship, among o he easons, due o he di icul y in measu ing a phenomenon ha is occasionally di use, malleable, and changing, hus admi ing di e en in e p e- a ions. The majo i y o beha io al analyses ha e lacked a consis- en de ini ion o s ess. Some esea che s app oach he concep o s ess on he basis o i s causes; o he s, as a cumula i e and in e ac i e p ocess; and o he s a e conce ned wi h s udying how di e en people espond o s ess. Simul aneously, he di icul y in de ining he concep is in ensi ied by he huge e minological imp ecision, which s ems om he exis ence o o he mo e o less ela ed e ms, such as anxie y, dep ession, us a ion, and p essu e, which ha e been used in e changeably, hus gene a ing con usion and delay in he implemen a ion o hei indings. The e a e wo main app oaches conce ning he s udy o s ess. 22 The i s is a es ic i e app oach ha concep ualizes s ess as an excess o en i onmen al demands on he indi idual’s abili y o sol e hem; in o he wo ds, an o e s imula ion o o e load. The second, which is a b oade app oach, en ails a concep ualiza ion o s ess such as a lack o i be ween he indi idual and he en i on- men ; i includes no only he si ua ions e e ed o in he p e ious o ien a ion bu also he ela ionships be ween he subjec s’ needs and he sou ces o sa is y hese needs in he wo k en i onmen . He e, we can o in au iliza ion o in as imula ion, in addi ion o o e s imula ion o o e load. In his s udy, wo k- ela ed s ess has been de ined as hose wo k ea u es ha pose h ea s o an indi id- ual’s pe o mance o he wo k’s asks and unc ions. Al hough hese ea u es a e o en g ouped a ound i e basic dimensions, o he pu poses o his s udy, one dimension, he physical en i onmen , will no be conside ed because i is no ele an o he manage ial wo k en i onmen . 23,24 The e o e, acco ding o Caplan e al’s 25 model, he ou conside ed dimensions a e as ollows: (a) ole con lic , which indica es he deg ee o which he indi idual expe- iences demands and commi men s ha a e inconsis en wi h his ole; (b) ole ambigui y, which is ela ed o he labo condi ions, in which he p io i ies, expec a ions, and c i e ia o e alua ion a e no clea o he indi idual o pe o m his ole; (c) ole o e load, which is unde s ood as he ex en o which he labo demands exceed he pe sonal esou ces o he indi idual and o he wo kplace and he deg ee o which an employee o indi idual is unable o comple e he expec ed assignmen s o wo k load; and (d) ole insu iciency, which indica es he condi ions unde which he educa ion, aining, skills, and expe ience o he employee a e incompa ible wi h o inadequa e o he job equi emen s. In his a icle, we ha e used he model o Caplan e al 25 because ole s ess eme ges speci ically by he pe o mance o oles in he o ganiza ion. 26 Fo his eason, i is he bes app oach o he pu pose o ou esea ch. Al hough he e does no exis a uni e sally accep ed de ini- ion o s ess, mos esea che s seem o ag ee on he a iables ha mus be bo ne in mind o unde s and he ies be ween s ess and heal h. House iden i ies up o i e ypes o social-psychological a iables ela ed o measu ing and in eg a ing he wo kplace-s ess ela ionship 27 : (a) he social condi ions ha p o oke s ess, (b) he indi idual pe cep ions o s ess, (c) he indi idual esponses o s ess (physiological, a ec i e and beha io al), (d) he las ing consequen- ces o pe cei ed s ess and he esponses o i , and (e) he indi idual and si ua ional mode a o s. F om his pe spec i e, nume ous em- pi ical s udies con i m he impo an ole played by wo k- ela ed s ess in s ain. In his sense, using a sample o 117 Ame ican employees om a hospi al supply company, Beeh e al 28 ind a close co ela ion be ween ole o e load and ole ambigui y wi h ce ain measu es o ension, such as anxie y and he psychological s ain o hese employees. Adop ing a b oade de ini ion, S i as- a a 2 conside s ha s ain can be ela ed o he impac ha s ess has on e ec i eness o ine ec i eness in he wo k a ea. In he p esen s udy, occupa ional o p o essional s ain should be unde s ood as he de ia ion o he esponse ha an employee could no mally ha e in a gi en si ua ion. In his s udy, he s ain a iable has been concep ual- ized based on he wo ks by Il eld, 29 who akes in o accoun ou psychia ic condi ions: (a) dep ession— equen ly eeling alone, bo ed, dejec ed o i ed, a loss o sexual desi e, and occasionally e en suicidal idea ions; (b) anxie y— equen ly eeling ang y o disgus ed, he eeling o dizziness, embling hands, a oidance be- ha io , and eeling sca ed o ea ul; (c) cogni i e dis u bance: equen ly expe iencing di icul y in emembe ing hings o concen- a ing (blank mind synd ome); and (d) ange — equen ly losing se eni y, easily eeling i i a ed o c i ical o o he s, becoming u ious o e i ial ma e s o wan ing o annoy someone. Al hough s ess seems he una oidable esul o he p ocess o owning and managing a business, 30 in he scien i ic li e a u e, i is di icul o ind s udies ha ocus on analyzing he s ess-s ain ela ionship wi hin he collec i e o manage s, much less dis in- guishing be ween owne s and nonowne manage s. In his ein, Lu e al 11 compa e he impac o s ess on manage s’ heal h in wo samples om di e en coun ies: Taiwan and he UK. These au ho s conclude ha he e is a s ess-s ain ela ionship ha is simila in bo h cases and in spi e o he ac ha he sou ces o s ess we e di e en : he manage ial ole (ensu ing a o able wo k condi ions) and ecogni ion in Taiwan e sus he o ganiza ional clima e, ela- ionships, and pe sonal esponsibili y in he UK. Simila ly, a s udy by P o as and Thompson 31 e eals ha owne s a e subjec ed o g ea e job p essu e due o hei esponsibili y o he i m’s su i al, such as managing pay oll, hi ing, i ing, and nego ia ing wi h supplie s and cus ome s. Al hough hese demands a e also sha ed by manage s, he ac is ha he owne s’ link wi h he company is much mo e in ense; hus, hey may eel highe p essu e han manage s eel. In his sense, Rahim 32 inds ha owne s, in con as o manage s, we e subjec ed o a g ea e numbe o s esso s such as ole o e load. This ci cums ance should esul in inc eased isks o physical and men al heal h; howe e , in his sense, he empi ical e idence is no as clea o conclusi e. On he con a y, Rahim 32 inds no di e ences in epo ed s ain among owne s and manage s. Simila ly, G zywacz and Bass 33 ind no di e ences wi h ega d o p oblems o dep ession, anxie y, o alcohol consump ion. Indeed, a s udy by Te ick e al 34 e eals ha A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 904 ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed owne s p esen lowe emo ional exhaus ion (s ain) han manage s and o he employees. On he basis o he discussion abo e, we posi he ollowing esea ch hypo hesis (Fig. 1): H1. The e a e no di e ences be ween owne s and manage s wi h ega d o he e ec o job demands on s ain. In luence o Pe sonali y and Social Suppo on he S ess-S ain Rela ionship As s a ed in he in oduc ion o his wo k, he e a e many esea che s who ag ee on he need o conside pe sonali y a ibu es and he social ci cums ances ha in luence he ypes o esponses ha an indi idual has o ce ain s ess ul si ua ions. I seems clea ha he agen o s ess o he s esso mus necessa ily p ecede he s ess, al hough i s me e p esence does no ensu e ha s ess ac ually appea s. The pe cep ion o a si ua ion e en ually cha ged wi h s ess depends on he p esence o o he a iables. Ce ain cul u al and pe sonal ac o s de e mine ha an indi idual pe cei es a si ua ion as challenging whe eas ano he indi idual iews i as a h ea . I s ess depends on how i is pe cei ed by he indi idual and he esou ces a his disposal o add ess i , wha is ce ain is ha he esou ces a ailable o owne s and manage s a e di e en om hose a he disposal o o he employees. Undoub edly, hese ci cums ances a ec he s esso -symp om ela ionship. In luence Exe ed by Locus o Con ol LOC is a ela i ely s able p ope y ha e e s o he wide- sp ead belie ha he li e e en s a e con olled by one’s own ac ions (in e nal locus) o by ex e nal o ces (ex e nal locus). 35 LOC is some hing ha de elops in indi iduals o e ime, and i is simila o a unc ion o he accumula ion o all p e ious expe iences and hei meanings. I is no some hing ha changes o is quickly and easily al e ed, hus being an indi idual di e ence ha is e y unlikely o be al e ed by o he s. As a esul , LOC is one o he mos impo an pe sonali y a iables o unde s anding he beha io o employees in he wo k en i onmen . 1 Acco ding o Kahn and Byosie e, 36 i is impo an o include he concep o LOC in esea ch s udies ha add ess wo k- ela ed s ess because subjec s wi h an in e nal LOC will mos likely be e handle si ua ions o s ess, whe eas employ- ees wi h an ex e nal LOC end o e ain om ac ing, no us ing in i s abili y o ha e an impac on he en i onmen . Consequen ly, people wi h an in e nal LOC end o ha e highe le els o heal h and wel a e when aced wi h si ua ions o s ess a wo k. An in e nal LOC seems o indica e ha he mo e an indi idual exe s con ol o e a si ua ion, he less likely he is o conside i h ea ening and hus e eal pa e ns o ad e se eac ion. Howe e , a mo e accu a e conside a ion sugges s ha subjec s wi h an in e nal LOC a e mo e likely o expe ience s ess when hey a e unable o exe cise he con ol ha hey belie e hey ha e whe eas hose wi h an ex e nal LOC eel pa icula ly h ea ened when hey ha e he abili y o exe cise con ol o e wha is occu ing. In his manne , he p oba- bili y o expe iencing s ess is inc eased when belie s and he mani es ed eali y a e inconsis en . Acco ding oTongandWang, 37 LOC ela es o se e al a iables ha a e linked o pe sonali y, mo i a ions, a i udes, and wo k- ela ed beha io s, such as commi men o change, 38 s ess and job sa is ac ion, 39 and pe o mance. 40 In his sense, nume ous s udies empi ically e eal ha he pe sonal cha ac e - is ics o LOC mode a e he s ess-heal h ela ionship 11,41 o modi y he s ess-s ain ela ionship. 9 (Agains he p edominan ly wo king line, some s udies ha e ailed o demons a e he hypo hesis o he mode a ing ole o he LOC. In his sense, Moyle and Pa kes 42 ound ha wo k LOC (WLC) had no in luence, nei he di ec no indi ec , on psychological s ain.) The mos equen ly ound e idence sugges s ha indi iduals wi h an in e nal LOC end o be mo e sa is ied wi h hei wo k and expe ience g ea e well- being. 43 These indi iduals ha e be e heal h and a ain highe le els o well-being in si ua ions o high demand and con ol, whe eas subjec s wi h an ex e nal LOC expe ience g ea e ension in he same si ua ion. 44 Compa ed wi h employees wi h a p edom- inance o ex e nal LOC, hose wi h an in e nal LOC pe cei e less s ess, mo e au onomy and con ol, and end o s ay longe in he company. 45,46 Simila ly, o he s udies link in e nal LOC o lowe le els o anxie y and s ess in he wo kplace. 47 Simila ly, Kalbe s and Foga y 48 ind ha employees wi h an in e nal LOC a e less likely o expe ience high le els o s ess, whe eas hose wi h an ex e nal LOC a e mo e ulne able o s ess and a e mo e likely o pe cei e e en s as s ess ul. Leung e al 49 also inds ha ex e nal LOC leads o job dissa is ac ion and psychological dis- ess. The easons o he e ec o in e nal LOC on s ess and s ain is hese indi iduals ob ain and use in o ma ion mo e e ec i ely, hey a e able o ge mo e ou o hei expe ience o imp o e hei asks and he esul s, and simul aneously, hey belie e mo e decisi ely in he e ec i eness o hei own e o s. 50 Al hough he e ec o in e nal LOC on s ess and s ain seems clea and e iden , i s impac on p o essionals wi h manage ial esponsibili y is less ob ious. In his ield, s udies a e e y a e (we ha e iden i ied none in he Spanish con ex ), and hey do no o e pa icula ly conclusi e esul s. S ess is a phenomenon ha is pa icula ly ele an o manage s because i c i ically a ec s he e ec i eness o hei decision-making. In his ein, h ough hie a - chical mul iple eg ession analysis, a s udy by S i as a a, who used a sample o 200 manage s belonging o Indian p i a e o ganiza ions, shows ha s ess hinde s manage ial e ec i eness, while in e nal LOC mode a es his ela ionship. 2 In esea ch on he beha io o en ep eneu s and manage s, Rahim concludes ha a pe son wi h a FIGURE 1. Resea ch model and hypo heses. JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 S ess and S ain Be ween Spanish Owne s and Manage s ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine 905 Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed high in e nal LOC belie es ha he can cope wi h s ess unc ionally and mo e e ec i ely han someone wi h a high ex e nal LOC. 32 Simila ly, Muhonen and To kelson 39 conduc a s udy assessing he ole o WLC in job sa is ac ion and heal h in he con ex o occupa ional s ess. Thei s udy, which was conduc ed among manage s and nonmanage s a a Swedish elecommunica ions company, e eals ha manage s showed a g ea e in e nal LOC, which implies ha s a us in he o ganiza ion can be cen al o WLC. Acco ding o hese au ho s, subjec s wi h li le access o powe should de elop an ex e nal LOC, whe eas hose who ha e manage ial posi ions could de elop mo e in e nal WLC belie s. By di ec ly compa ing be ween owne s and manage s, Te ick e al 34 p esuppose ha owne s should ecei e lowe le els o s ess as a esul o he highe deg ee o con ol ha de i es om he ac ha hey a e owne s, which should in u n esul in lowe le els o s ain. Howe e , using a mul i a ia e analysis o a iance, hese au ho s ind only signi ican di e ences be ween owne s and manage s in he ole ambigui y o he wo k- ela ed s ess dimension (1.83 i s and 2.46 seconds). Mo e conclusi e esul s conce ning s ain we e because owne s expe ienced lowe le els o emo ional exhaus ion han manage s. Conside ing he discussion abo e, we posi he second e- sea ch hypo hesis (see Fig. 1): H2. An in e nal LOC educes s ess and s ain o a g ea e ex en among owne s han among manage s. In luence Exe ed by Social Suppo Rega ding he concep o social suppo , mul iple de ini ions, which ha e gene ally been somewha ague o ci cula , ha e been o mula ed. Thus, o e al, social suppo is de e mined by he p esence o ela i e absence o psychological suppo om signi i- can people; 25 o Cobb, i conce ns he in o ma ion ha allows people o belie e ha he e a e people who alue hem, ca e abou hem and lo e hem, and who belong o a ne wo k o communica ion and mu ual obliga ion 51 ; o House, 52 he c ux o he issue is he a ailabili y o aid om o he people. I seems clea ha he na u e o he ela ionships ha exis be ween indi iduals and hei immedia e su oundings, in addi ion o e e y hing ha cul u ally shapes hem, has a ela i e impac on indi iduals’ le el o ole ance o s ess. The absence o an a mo- sphe e o us among cowo ke s, supe io s and subo dina es may be a ac o ha dec eases he le el o ole ance o s ess inhe en o o expe ienced a wo k. F om he pe spec i e o he job-demand- con ol-suppo model o s ess a wo k, Johnson and Hall 53 iden i y a con ex o low social suppo as one o he main s esso s. In a simila ein, Ha kness e al 54 poin o he absence o social suppo and dis espec ul communica ion as majo s esso s in he wo k o s a nu ses and o ice s a . Fo decades, he ole played by social suppo in mi iga ing he e ec s o occupa ional s ess has been a main esea ch opic in he ield o o ganiza ional psychology. Ne e heless, he impac o social suppo on s ess is no clea , 28 much less i s e ec on ce ain g oups such as hose who a e he subjec o his esea ch. In his manne , he e iew by Knox Haly 55 shows ha some s udies ha e ound ha social suppo exe s a di ec e ec on wo k- ela ed s ess. 56,57 Howe e , ano he g oup o s udies has ei he ound a mo e ambiguous ela ionship (eg, 58 ) o has no ound any ela ion- ship (eg, 59 ). Mo eo e , he e iew by Knox Haly 55 inds wo s udies ha e ealed a posi i e ela ionship be ween social suppo and he e ec s o s ess. 60,61 Undoub edly, one analy ical pe spec i e ha has la gely occupied he a en ion o esea che s conce ns he ea u es o social suppo in he p ocess o occupa ional s ess. Based on he assump ion ha wo k- ela ed s ess has ad e se e ec s on heal h, House 52 a gues ha social suppo can in luence his p ocess in h ee ways. Fi s , i can di ec ly imp o e heal h because i mee s impo an needs o he indi idual, such as a ilia ion, membe ship, and adop ion. In his manne , social suppo in s ess ul si ua ions may coun e ac he nega i e e ec s on heal h o p oduce posi i e ou comes. Second, social suppo can educe he expe iences o occupa ional s ess in di e en ways and he e- o e indi ec ly imp o e heal h. On nume ous occasions, cowo ke s and supe iso s a e p o ide s o suppo who can minimize in e - pe sonal con lic s and p essu es. Thi d, social suppo can mi iga e he nega i e e ec s o s ess on heal h and psychological well- being. Thus, in addi ion o he di ec e ec s on s ess and hei consequences, social suppo has a bu e ing e ec on he ela ionship. The e ec o social suppo in s ess and s ain is nei he clea no conclusi e. 62 Fo ins ance, Swanson and Powe 63 assess he e ec o social suppo on a sample comp ising B i ish public u ili y employees. The esul s con i m ha wo ke s who ecei ed social suppo om hei supe io s showed lowe le els o ole con lic , ole ambigui y and ole o e load. The same occu s when hey ecei ed pee suppo , al hough only wi h ega d o ole con lic and ole ambigui y. Simila esul s a e ob ained in a s udy by Pel ene e al, 64 who use a sample o mo e han 20,000 employees om 25 Belgian o ganiza ions, and a s udy by Nelson e al, 65 who examine 415 B i ish eache s o s uden s wi h emo ional beha io al diso de s. Beeh e al 28 also analyze he mode a ing e ec o social suppo on he s ess-s ain ela ionship by using a sample o 117 Ame ican employees om a hospi al supply company, inding s ong co ela ions be ween wo k load/wo k ambigui y and he anxie y/psychological s ain measu es. The s onges co ela ion disco e ed is be ween wo kload and psychological s ain, whe eas he weakes is be ween ole ambigui y and anxie y. Acco ding o hese au ho s, he di e en ypes o social suppo exe cise a mode a ing e ec , ega dless o he s esso (wo kload o wo k ambigui y) and he na u e o he s ess (anxie y o psychological s ain). Acco ding o Pinneau, 66 social suppo leads o h ee main e ec s: (a) i educes po en ial s esso s (p e en i e e ec ), (b) i dec eases s ain ( he apeu ic e ec ), and (c) i educes he impac o s ess on s ain (mode a ing e ec ). By di ec ly compa ing owne s and manage s, Te ick e al 34 posi ha , compa ed wi h manage s, owne s a e expec ed o ha e a de ici in social suppo as a esul o he g ea e di icul y in inding suppo among sou ces o social suppo ha ha e hei o igin in he en i onmen (colleagues and supe io s). As a consequence o he esul s ob ained by hese au ho s, only he p e en i e e ec ecei es suppo , sugges ing ha social suppo di ec ly ac s o educe pe cei ed s ess. In line wi h Gelle and Hob oll, 67 who asse ha social suppo has been iewed as a esou ce ha educes s ain, he hi d hypo hesis o his esea ch is p oposed as ollows (see Fig. 1): H3. Social suppo educes s ess and s ain o a g ea e ex en among manage s han among owne s. METHOD Da a Collec ion and Sample To conduc his esea ch, we p epa ed a ques ionnai e ha encompassed i ems aimed a measu ing he dis inc a iables o he esea ch model. This ques ionnai e was sen o a sample o 1000 en e p ises andomly selec ed om a lis ob ained om he Cham- be o Comme ce o Se ille (Spain). A le e explaining he pu pose o he s udy and a sel -add essed en elope (i he esponden p e e ed o comple e he ques ionnai e wi hou he p esence o he in e iewe and send i anonymously by mail) accompanied each A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 906 ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed ques ionnai e. The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o Helsinki, and he p o ocol was app o ed by he E hics Commi ee o Uni e sidad Loyola Andalucı ´a (Spain). The ieldwo k (deli e y and collec ion o ques ionnai es) was pe o med du ing om Oc obe o Decembe 2014. Ou mailing e o yielded a o al o 369 ques ionnai es; o hese, 37 we e uled ou because some sec ions we e incomple e. Thus, ou inal sample is composed o 332 ques ionnai es, which ep esen s a esponse a e o 33.2%. O he 332 alid esponses, 53.1% ep esen owne s (176) and 46.9% manage s (156). By sec o o ac i i y, he majo i y o owne s and manage s wo k in he se ices sec o (44.9% o owne s and 47.4% o manage s) and he manu ac u ing sec o (23.9% and 19.25%, espec i ely). Finally, mos o he esponden s a e male (84%), a e ma ied (77%), and li e in u ban spaces (69.9%). Measu es Table 1 p esen s he main desc ip i e s a is ics conce ning he conside ed measu es and he di e ences be ween he subsamples o owne s and manage s. S ess Fo he pu pose o his s udy, job s ess has been de ined as hose ea u es o he wo k ha pose a h ea o an indi idual’s pe o mance o asks and unc ions. In pa icula , he dimensions o be e alua ed a e as ollows: ole con lic , ole ambigui y, ole o e load, and ole insu iciency. These ou dimensions o wo k- ela ed s ess ha e been measu ed by using he scale by Caplan e al, 25 which consis s o 14 i ems measu ed wi h a i e-poin Like scale (5 ¼always, 1 ¼ a ely o ne e ). A high sco e on his ins u- men signi ies a g ea deal o s ess expe ienced by he subjec . The ollowing a e some examples o i ems: I ecei e incompa ible eques s om wo o mo e people a he same ime ( ole con lic ); My job has clea goals and objec i es ( ole ambigui y); I do no ha e su icien ime o do all hings I eel should be done ( ole o e load); My aining, skills, educa ion, and expe ience a e insu - icien o mee job equi emen s ( ole insu iciency). Caplan e al 25 epo ha he in e nal consis ency o he ins umen a ies be ween 0.74 and 0.90. Nume ous published pape s ha ha e used his scale ha e epo ed he cons uc alidi y and c i e ion alidi y o his s ess-measu ing ins umen . The C onbach’s alpha o his scale was 0.778: ole con lic (0.796), ole ambigui y (0.803), ole o e load (0.686), and ole insu iciency (0.598). S ain The 29 i ems o he Psychia ic Symp oms Index (PSI) de eloped by Il eld 29 measu e occupa ional s ain. PSI comp ises ou dimensions o psychia ic condi ions: dep ession (ie, Feel bo ed o ha e li le in e es in hings), anxie y (ie, Ha e o a oid ce ain hings places ac i i ies because hey igh ened you?), cogni i e dis u bance (ie, Ha e you mind go blank?), and ange (ie, Feel easily annoyed o i i a ed?). Each o he i ems in his ins umen is measu ed wi h a ou -poin scale (0 ¼ne e , 1¼some imes, 2 ¼ equen ly, 3 ¼always). A high sco e on his ins umen indica es a high equency o psychia ic symp oms. The PSI is an abb e ia ed e sion o he Hopkins Symp om Dis ess Checklis and was de eloped h ough a ac o ial analysis, using da a om 2299 adul pa ien s. Il eld 29 demons a es he alidi y and eliabili y o his ins umen . Ou esea ch ob ained an alpha coe icien o 0.911: dep ession (0.784), anxie y (0.824), cogni i e dis u bance (0.663), and ange (0.845) Locus o Con ol LOC e e s o he ex en o which indi iduals eel ha hey can con ol he hings ha happen o and a ec hem. 35 In his s udy, LOC is measu ed by he eigh i ems shaping he in e nal LOC scale de eloped by Le enson. 68 An example o his scale is he ollowing: I can p e y much de e mine wha will happen in my li e. To ha end, his ins umen s uses a i e-poin scale (5 ¼s ongly ag ee, 1¼s ongly disag ee). A high sco e on his ins umen (maximum sco e is 40 poin s) indica es an in e nal LOC o he esponden , and a low sco e indica es an ex e nal LOC. Le enson 68 ob ains e idence o he scale’s consis ency and alidi y. Fu he e idence o he psychome ic p ope ies o his measu emen ins umen is p o ided by Fusilie e al. 69 In ou s udy, he C onbach’s alpha was 0.638. Social Suppo Social suppo is unde s ood as he a ailabili y o help om o he s in imes o need. This s udy conside s h ee dimensions o social suppo (supe iso s/bosses, pee s, and amily/ iends), mea- su ed by he social suppo scale designed by Caplan e al. 25 The ollowing is an example o i em: How easy is o alk wi h you ... TABLE 1. Means and S anda d De ia ions o all Va iables o Owne s and Manage s Valo Owne s (N¼176) Manage s (N¼156) Sig. () MSDMSD S ess Role con lic 1.84 0.74 2.03 0.83 0.05 Role ambigui y 1.98 0.72 2.14 0.76 0.041 Role o e load 2.95 0.80 2.92 0.77 0.728 (n.s.) Role Insu iciency 2.66 0.84 2.62 0.76 0.661 (n.s.) S ain Dep ession 0.59 0.42 0.57 0.41 0.719 (n.s.) Anxie y 0.69 0.48 0.59 0.44 0.046 Cogni i e Dis u bance 0.87 0.51 0.74 0.48 0.016 Ange 1.12 0.75 1.00 0.60 0.125 (n.s.) Locus o con ol 3.36 0.64 3.41 0.60 0.466 (n.s.) Social suppo Supe io s 0.47 1.07 2.59 0.95 0.000 Colleagues 2.51 1.11 2.90 0.76 0.000 Family 3.22 0.79 3.48 0.56 0.001  Signi ican di e ence a a 95% con idence in e al. n.s., nonsigni ican di e ence. JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 S ess and S ain Be ween Spanish Owne s and Manage s ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine 907 Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed (supe iso s/bosses, pee s, and amily/ iends)? Each o he h ee dimensions comp ises ou i ems ha a e measu ed wi h a i e-poin Like scale (4 ¼much, 1 ¼no hing, 0 ¼I do no ha e any o hese people). A high sco e indica es a g ea e le el o social suppo ecei ed by an indi idual. The eliabili y es ima es in his s udy o he h ee dimensions was 0.942 (supe iso suppo ), 0.828 (co- wo ke s suppo ), and 0.729 ( amily suppo ). Da a Analysis The esea ch model desc ibed in Fig. 1 has been es ed by using pa ial leas squa es (PLS) pa h modeling, a a iance-based s uc u al equa ion modeling echnique. 70 PLS simul aneously ena- bles he assessmen o he eliabili y and alidi y o he measu es o heo e ical cons uc s (ou e model) and he es ima ion o he ela ionships among hese cons uc s (inne model). 71 The use o PLS is jus i ied o he ollowing easons: (1) his s udy is o ien ed owa d he p edic ion o he dependen a iables 72 ; (2) he sample size (n¼156 and n¼176) is small, and acco ding o Reina z e al, 73 PLS should be applied when he numbe o obse a ions is lowe han 250; (3) he esea ch model is complex wi h ega d o he ypes o a iables (second-o de cons uc s); and (4) his s udy uses la en a iable sco es in he subsequen analysis o p edic i e ele ance. 74 We ha e used he Sma PLS 2.0 so wa e (Sma PLS GmbH, Hambu g, Ge many). 75 We ollowed a wo-s ep app oach o ope a ionalize he mul idimensional supe o dina e cons uc s. 72 Acco dingly, he i ems o each dimension we e op imally weigh ed and combined, using he PLS algo i hm o c ea e a la en a iable sco e. As a esul , he dimensions o i s -o de ac o s became he obse ed indica o s o he second-o de cons uc s, which a e he STRESS and STRAIN a iables. 76 RESULTS A PLS model is assessed and in e p e ed in wo s ages: (1) he e alua ion o he eliabili y and alidi y o he measu emen model (ou e model) and (2) he assessmen o he s uc u al model (inne model). This sequence gua an ees ha he cons uc measu es a e alid and eliable be o e a emp ing o d aw conclusions ega ding he ela ionships be ween cons uc s. 70 Measu emen Model Ou esul s e eal ha he measu emen model is en i ely sa is ac o y. Fi s , mos o he s anda dized loadings a e g ea e han 0.707 (Tables 2 and 3). Acco ding o Hai e al, 77 he indica o ’s ou e loadings should be highe han he h eshold o 0.707. The indica o s comp ising he ou e loadings be ween 0.4 and 0.7 should be emo ed only i he dele ion leads o an inc ease in he composi e eliabili y and a e age a iance ex ac ed (AVE) abo e he sug- ges ed h eshold alue. Consequen ly, because some o ou loadings a e lowe bu close o he h eshold (ie, 0.6703, 0.6418, 0.6674, 0.6224, 0.6774, and 0.6517), we main ain all o he indica o s and a gue ha he eliabili y o he indi idual i ems is adequa e. 78 Second, all a iables mee he equi emen o cons uc eliabili y because hei composi e eliabili ies a e g ea e han 0.7 79 (Tables 2 and 3). In addi ion, hese la en a iables achie e con e gen alidi y because hei AVE alues su pass he c i ical le el o 0.5 80 (Tables 1 and 2). Finally, all o he a iables each disc iminan alidi y achie ed ia he compa ison o he squa e oo o he AVE and he co ela ions (Table 4). Fo sa is ac o y disc iminan alidi y, he diagonal elemen s (in bold) should be signi ican ly g ea e han he o -diagonal elemen s in he co esponding ows and columns. S uc u al Model Table 5 e eals he explained a iance (R 2 ) in he dependen cons uc s and he pa h coe icien s o he di e en models con- side ed (Models 1 and 2). Consis en wi h Hai e al, 74 boo s apping (5000 esamples) was used o gene a e s anda d e o s and s a is- ics, which enable he assessmen o he s a is ical signi icance o he ela ionships conside ed in he models. Table 5 includes he di ec ela ionships hypo hesized be- ween STRESS, STRAIN, LOC, and SUPPORT o he wo e- sea ch models conside ed (Models 1 and 2). As shown in Table 4, we ind suppo o all o he di ec links hypo hesized in Model 1 o TABLE 2. Measu emen Model 1: Manage s Cons uc /Indica o Loading Composi e Reliabili y AVE S ess 0.7363 0.5287 Role con lic 0.7748 Role ambigui y 0.7429 Role o e load 0.6703 Role insu iciency 0.7363 S ain 0.8951 0.6812 Dep ession 0.8663 Anxie y 0.8673 Cogni i e dis u bance 0.7897 Ange 0.7736 Locus o con ol 0.7754 0.5367 L1 0.7409 L2 0.7974 L3 0.6521 L4 0.7964 L5 0.7172 L6 0.8330 L7 0.7935 L8 0.7809 Social suppo 0.7217 0.6174 Supe io s 0.9046 Colleagues 0.6418 Family 0.7486 AVE, a e age a iance ex ac ed. TABLE 3. Measu emen Model 2: Owne s Cons uc /Indica o Loading Composi e Reliabili y AVE S ess 0.7438 0.5246 Role con lic 0.6674 Role ambigui y 0.7637 Role o e load 0.6224 Role insu iciency 0.7315 S ain 0.8538 0.5943 Dep ession 0.8092 Anxie y 0.8064 Cogni i e dis u bance 0.7055 Ange 0.7579 Locus o con ol 0.8185 0.6028 L1 0.7759 L2 0.8646 L3 0.6774 L4 0.7052 L5 0.7111 L6 0.7339 L7 0.8041 L8 0.7882 Social suppo 0.7129 0.6348 Supe io s 0.7537 Colleagues 0.6517 Family 0.9946 AVE, a e age a iance ex ac ed A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 908 ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed manage s (Fig. 2). Howe e , in Model 2 (Owne s), only he STRESS!STRAIN and he SUPPORT!STRAIN ela ionships a e signi ican (Fig. 3). DISCUSSION The con inuous changes and inc easing demands ha cha - ac e ize he cu en wo kplace con ex make i necessa y o iden i y a ious indi idual cha ac e is ics (eg, LOC) and ypes o social suppo ha se e as ac o s o ulne abili y o p o ec ion in esponse o wo k s ess. 81 Ce ainly, e ec i e managemen o such s ess is de e mined by he manne in which people manage job s ess. This ac is e en mo e ele an in posi ions wi h mo e manage ial du ies, such as hose o manage and owne . En e p ises ha e habi ually pe o med human esou ce managemen by apply- ing he same s a egies and p ocedu es, bu he esul s p esen ed in his s udy indica e ha manage s and owne s di e and ha he main di e gences a e exhibi ed in pe cep ions o job s ess and social suppo . In his sense, he majo s eng hs o his a icle a e as ollows: (1) he da a we e collec ed om knowledgeable manage s and owne s; (2) he main a iables we e measu ed wi h psychome - ically alida ed and eliable ins umen s; (3) PLS pa h modeling was used o es he e ec s o LOC and social suppo on he s ess- s ain ela ionship; and (4) sepa a e da a analyses o owne s and manage s we e use ul in compa ing he indings be ween he wo g oups. O e all, he s udy p o ides suppo o he li e a u e on s ess managemen , which emphasizes he impo ance o a LOC and social suppo in in luencing s ess and s ain (eg, 21 ). The esul s ob ained by applying s uc u al equa ion modeling show ha hese a iables and hei e ec s di e be ween manage s and owne s. Fi s , as p oposed in hypo hesis 1, s ess posi i ely ela es o s ain among bo h manage s and owne s, wi hou di e ences be ween he wo g oups. This esul is in line wi h ha o Lu e al 11 conce ning manage s in Taiwan and he UK. These au ho s indica e ha , ega ding s ess-s ain ela ions, sou ces o s ess we e nega i ely ela ed o job sa is ac ion, men al heal h and physical heal h. Second, hypo hesis 2 sugges s ha , o e ec i ely handle he p essu es, unce ain ies, and challenges o he wo k o owne s (which is highe among owne s han i is among manage s), i is be e o be an in e nalize han i is o be an ex e nalize . The e is a gene al consensus ha an in e nal LOC ends o be associa ed wi h posi i e ou comes, whe eas an ex e nal LOC ends o be associa ed wi h nega i e ou comes. 82 Agains expec a ions, manage s epo a highe in e nal LOC han do owne s. Ne e heless, his di e ence is sca ce and nonsigni ican , which leads o he conclusion ha , in Model 1 (manage s), LOC is consis en ly and nega i ely associa ed wi h s ess and s ain. Howe e , i s educing e ec on s ess and s ain is nonsigni ican o he owne s g oup (Model 2), con a y o wha we posi ed in hypo hesis 2. Because he manage s sco e highe on he LOC scale han he owne s do, hey a e in a posi ion o manage s ess mo e e ec i ely han he owne s. This ci cums ance is pe haps mo i a ed by he manage s’ highe deg ee o con ol o e e en s and hei own u u e. By no ha ing hei des iny be di ec ly TABLE 4. Disc iminan Validi y Model 1 LOC STRAIN STRESS SUPPORT LOC 0.7326 0 0 0 STRAIN 0.2494 0.8253 0 0 STRESS 0.2305 0.5905 0.7271 0 SUPPORT 0.0803 0.3315 0.2506 0.7857 Model 2 LOC STRAIN STRESS SUPPORT LOC 0.7764 0 0 0 STRAIN 0.2082 0.7709 0 0 STRESS 0.1721 0.4811 0.7243 0 SUPPORT 0.1345 0.3626 0.1457 0.7967 TABLE 5. S uc u al Model Resul s Model 1 Model 2 R 2 STRESS ¼0.1273 R 2 STRESS ¼0.1449 R 2 STRAIN ¼0.3972 R 2 STRAIN ¼0.3269 Rela ionship Pa h Coe icien Suppo Pa h Coe icien Suppo STRESS!STRAIN 0.5156  (5.8453) Yes 0.4213  (5.5952) Yes LOC!STRAIN 0.1152  (1.6117) Yes 0.0972 ns (1.2809) No LOC!STRESS 0.2118  (2.8368) Yes 0.1553 ns (1.3349) No SUPPORT!STRAIN 0.1931  (2.5881) Yes 0.2882  (2.9133) Yes SUPPORT!STRESS 0.2336  (2.6389) Yes 0.1248 ns (0.9983) No No es: alues in pa en heses.  P<0.001.  P<0.01.  P<0.05. ns, no signi ican ; based on (4999), one- ailed es . (0.05, 4999) ¼1.645; (0.01, 4999) ¼2.327; (0.001, 4999) ¼3.092 JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 S ess and S ain Be ween Spanish Owne s and Manage s ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine 909 Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed linked o ha o he company, as is he case wi h owne s, manage s ha e g ea e oom o maneu e . Undoub edly, con ol may in luence he s esso -s ain ela ionship. I is possible ha success ul man- age s a e in e nalize s and ha job s ess is no a majo p oblem o hem. F om his pe spec i e, a manage wi h an in e nal LOC should be selec ed o high-s ess jobs. Thi d, social suppo is also an impo an a iable in he s ess-s ain ela ionship. Owne s ecei e less social suppo han do manage s (especially om supe io s and colleagues bu also om he amily). As a esul , social suppo is nega i ely associa ed wi h s ess and s ain o manage s bu only wi h s ain o owne s. I is possible ha he ‘‘owne ’s loneliness’’ o igina es in a lack o social suppo om wo k (supe io and colleagues) sou ces ha ails o be compensa ed o by he social suppo p o ided by nonwo k sou ces ( amily, iends, e c). This ci cums ance causes he le el o s ess expe ienced by he owne s is no isibly educed by his a iable, which occu in he case o he manage s. This esea ch comp ises some ele an implica ions, bo h o heo y and o p ac ice. The mos impo an heo e ical implica ion is linked o he li e a u e on s ess managemen (which emphasizes he impo ance o a LOC and social suppo in in luencing s ess and s ain), p o iding e idence o his ela ionship wi hin he speci ic and a ely explo ed con ex o owne s and manage s. E en hough he s ess-s ain ela ionship has been ex ensi ely analyzed, he e is li le empi ical esea ch ha e iew his opic among p o essionals wi h manage ial esponsibili ies a he co po a e le el, whe he hese execu i es a e owne s o simply manage s. Ou esul s sugges ha his ela ionship is no homogeneous, bu ha i di e s be ween he wo g oups in es iga ed. The s udy has also se e al p ac ical implica ions. On he one hand, an in e nal LOC can help in be e unc ionally coping wi h s ess and s ain. On he o he hand, social suppo is a posi i e ac o ha con ibu es o be e managing be e his ela ionship. This s udy concludes ha , in gene al, manage s a e mo e psychologically p epa ed and a e also mo e s ongly suppo ed by hei social ne wo k han owne s a e. Thus, hey can ac wi h g ea e e ec i eness in e e yday si ua ions o job s ess and s ain, and consequen ly, hey a e be e p epa ed o occupy mo e s ess ul jobs and posi ions o g ea e esponsibili y. Despi e he signi ican indings o his a icle, i s in insic me hodological limi a ions should be no ed. Fi s , he da a we e ob ained h ough sel - epo ing, which is subjec o a bias and dis o ion. A second p oblem in his way is social desi abili y bias. Gi en he sensi i i y o he phenomenon unde s udy, i could esul in o e epo ing o posi i e beha io s and unde epo ing o nega i e beha io s. To co ec hese p oblems, we should use mul ime hod da a and u ilize objec i e measu es ha may ein o ce s ess-s ain esea ch (eg, manage ial epo s, sco es om hi d pa ies, e c). Finally, because ou da a we e c oss-sec ional, he ela ionships ound in his s udy a e co ela ional a he han causal. The e o e, longi udinal s udies would be necessa y o u he in es- iga e his ma e . FIGURE 2. Summa y o s uc u al Model 1 esul s (manage s). FIGURE 3. Summa y o s uc u al Model 2 esul s (owne s). A iza-Mon es e al JOEM Volume 59, Numbe 9, Sep embe 2017 910 ß2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine Copy igh © 2017 Ame ican College o Occupa ional and En i onmen al Medicine. Unau ho ized ep oduc ion o his a icle is p ohibi ed REFERENCES 1. Jaganna han L, Thampi P. Locus o con ol and i s ela ion o o ganiza ional ole s ess: an empi ical s udy among e ail employees in Bangalo e. Global Manage Re . 2013;7:1–11. 2. S i as a a S. 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