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This is he pee e iewed e sion o he ollowing a icle: Delanoë‐Gueguen, S., &
Liñán, F. (2019). A longi udinal analysis o he in luence o ca ee mo i a ions on
en ep eneu ial in en ion and ac ion. Canadian Jou nal o Adminis a i e
Sciences/Re ue Canadienne des Sciences de l'Adminis a ion, 36(4), 527-543,
which has been published in inal o m a h ps://doi.o g/10.1002/cjas.1515.
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1
Ca ee mo i a ions, en ep eneu ial in en ion and ac ion
A longi udinal analysis o he in luence o ca ee mo i a ions on
en ep eneu ial in en ion and ac ion
Se ane Delanoë-Gueguen*
Toulouse Business School
F ancisco Liñán
Uni e si y o Se ille & Anglia Ruskin Uni e si y
Abs ac
The impac o ca ee mo i a ions on en ep eneu ial in en ion and ac ion emains in need o
being in es iga ed conjoin ly. Using a la ge sample and ollow-up da a collec ed i e yea s
la e , we in es iga e hei in luence on he en ep eneu ial in ol emen o young adul s, om
he exp ession o an in en ion o en ep eneu ial ac ion. We show ha only he sea ch o job
secu i y seems o ha e a pe sis en e ec h oughou he p ocess. In addi ion, au onomy is
associa ed wi h he o ma ion o in en ion, while wan ing o manage ull p ocesses is ela ed o
ac ual s a -up pa icipa ion. We discuss he heo e ical and p ac ical implica ions.
Résumé
L’impac des mo i a ions p o essionnelles su l’in en ion e l’ac ion en ep eneu iales es en
à é udie conjoin emen . En nous basan su un la ge échan illon in e ogé à cinq ans
* Please add ess co espondence o: Se ane Delanoë-Gueguen, Depa men o S a egy,
En ep eneu ship and Inno a ion, Toulouse Business School, 1 Place Alphonse Jou dain – CS 66810,
31068 Toulouse Cedex 7, F ance. Email: s.delanoe@ bs-educa ion. .
This manusc ip has been pa ly inanced by he p ojec “Longi udinal s udy on he p ocess o eme gence
o high-impac en ep eneu s”, app o ed and unded by he Spanish Na ional R&D Plan (Re .:
ECO2016-75655-P).
1
d'in e alle, nous analysons l’in luence de ces mo i a ions su l’implica ion en ep eneu iale
de jeunes adul es, de l’exp ession d’une in en ion jusqu’à l'ac ion en ep eneu iale. Nous
mon ons que seule la eche che de sécu i é de l'emploi semble a oi un e e pe sis an ou au
long du p ocessus. De plus, l’au onomie es associée à la o ma ion de l’in en ion, alo s que la
olon é de gé e l’in ég ali é des p ocessus es liée à la pa icipa ion en ep eneu iale. Nous
discu ons les implica ions héo iques e p a iques de ces ésul a s.
Keywo ds: ca ee mo i a ions, egula o y ocus, en ep eneu ial in en ion, s a -up beha iou ,
longi udinal analysis, en ep eneu ial p ocess
Mo s clés : mo i a ions p o essionnelles, ocus égula eu , in en ion en ep eneu iale, s a -up,
analyse longi udinale, p ocessus en ep eneu ial
In oduc ion
The analysis o he mo i a ions o indi iduals making ca ee decisions is c ucial o
en ep eneu ship heo y (Ca e , Ga ne , Sha e , & Ga ewood, 2003; Shane, Locke, & Collins,
2003), as hey a e essen ial o people o o m en ep eneu ial in en ions and, subsequen ly, o
s a companies (Ajzen & Gilbe Co e, 2008; Renko, K oeck, & Bullough, 2012). Fo some
ime, he ocus o en ep eneu ship esea ch shi ed away om hese mo i a ions o ocus on
in en ion models (Ca s ud & B ännback, 2011). These models conside mo i a ions as dis al
in luences o in en ion, whose e ec is media ed by pe cei ed desi abili y in Shape o and
Sokol’s (1982) En ep eneu ial E en Fo ma ion Model (EEM) and by a i ude owa d a
beha iou in Ajzen’s (1991) Theo y o Planned Beha iou (TPB).
S ill, esea ch ocusing speci ically on mo i a ions and hei po en ial in luence on he
ansi ion om in en ion o en ep eneu ial beha iou has ecen ly been iden i ied as an
impo an esea ch a ea (Fayolle, Liñán, & Mo iano, 2014; Renko e al., 2012; S ephan, Ha ,
2
& D ews, 2015). In his con ex , Higgins’s (1997) Regula o y Focus Theo y (RFT) could shed
some in e es ing ligh on he mo i a ions d i ing en ep eneu s h oughou hei en ep eneu ial
jou neys (B ockne , Higgings, & Low, 2004). This heo y sugges s ha indi iduals conside
wo majo decision ac o s o o m hei choices: people wi h a so-called p omo ion ocus will
be mo i a ed by accomplishmen s, he eby seeking o achie e posi i e ou comes, while hose
wi h a p e en ion ocus will be bea ing in mind sa e y conside a ions, he eby seeking o a oid
nega i e ou comes (Higgins, 1997). These egula o y oci a e in insically linked o mo i a ions
(Fische , Maue , & B e el, 2018). While bo h oci ha e i ues, hey may play di e en oles
h oughou he en ep eneu ial p ocess and i is expec ed ha oo much o a p e en ion ocus
could hinde en ep eneu ial ou comes (B ockne e al., 2004).
Cu en esea ch on en ep eneu ial mo i a ions aces a leas wo p oblems. The i s one
is he lack o p ospec i e s udies e lec ing he longi udinal na u e o en ep eneu ial jou neys,
he eby acknowledging he ime delays inhe en o en ep eneu ial p ocesses (Ca s ud &
B ännback, 2011; Ca e e al., 2003). In ac , indi iduals’ unde lying ca ee mo i a ions a e
usually analyzed using c oss-sec ional da a (Shi oko a, Osiye skyy, & Boga y e a, 2016). A
second p oblem is ha , despi e a ew excep ions (Delanoë-Gueguen & Fayolle, 2018; Delanoë,
2013; Liñán & Rod íguez-Coha d, 2015; Shinna , Hsu, Powell, & Zhou, 2017; Van Gelde en,
Kau onen, & Fink, 2015), mos s udies ocus on he o ma ion o in en ion, bu ha dly e e
in es iga e ac ual en ep eneu ial ealiza ion (Fayolle & Liñán, 2014; Schlaegel & Koenig,
2014). Thus, while i has long been p oposed ha a ying mo i a ions may be in luencing each
s age and he ansi ion be ween he en ep eneu ial p ocess s ages di e en ly (Shane e al.,
2003), hei impac on ac ual in ol emen in en ep eneu ial endea ou s emains in need o
being in es iga ed in a consis en manne (S ephan e al., 2015). This is all he mo e impo an
as hese mo i a ions ha e been shown o in luence he g ow h subsequen ly achie ed by he
en u es (Cassa , 2007).
3
In his pape , we he e o e add ess he ollowing esea ch ques ion: how do ca ee
mo i a ions impac , i s , he o ma ion o en ep eneu ial in en ion and, second, he subsequen
in ol emen in en ep eneu ial unde akings? We ely on he seminal wo k by Kol e eid (1996)
as a s a ing poin o he mo i a ional belie s behind ca ee choices. Ou objec i e o collec ing
p ospec i e da a including indi iduals who may o may no be in e es ed in en ep eneu ial
ca ee s (Ca e e al., 2003; K uege , Reilly, & Ca s ud, 2000) leads us o i s iden i y a sample
o uppe -di ision s uden s (K uege e al., 2000), su eyed again i e yea s la e , once hey had
en e ed p o essional li e. Based on a pa simonious ca ee mo i a ion scale ep esen ing i e
dimensions, we analyze how hese dimensions a e ela ed o he en ep eneu ial in en ion and
he ac ual en ep eneu ial beha iou o indi iduals in he i e yea s elapsed. Using S uc u al
Equa ion Modelling (SEM), we highligh he p esence o complex ela ionships be ween he
di e en mo i a ions, in en ion, and ac ual en ep eneu ial beha iou , h oughou he
en ep eneu ial p ocess. We show ha only he sea ch o job secu i y, a p e en ion- ela ed
mo i a ion, has a pe sis en and hinde ing e ec h oughou he p ocess. Howe e , he sea ch
o au onomy and he willingness o manage he whole p ocess, bo h p omo ion- ela ed
mo i a ions, con ibu e espec i ely o he o ma ion o en ep eneu ial in en ion and he
conc e iza ion o en ep eneu ial ou comes. We know o e y ew s udies adop ing his
longi udinal app oach success ully (Liñán & Rod íguez-Coha d, 2015; Shinna e al., 2017), as
ea lie a emp s o inco po a e en ep eneu ial beha iou ollow-up da a o indi iduals ini ially
su eyed du ing hei s udies had been unsuccess ul, possibly due o limi ed ime in e als
(Soui a is, Ze bina i, & Al-Laham, 2007).
Ou s udy o e s se e al con ibu ions. F om a heo e ical s andpoin , ou analysis enables
us o highligh he ela i e impo ance o di e en ca ee mo i a ions a wo key ea ly s ages o
he en ep eneu ial p ocess, namely he o ma ion o en ep eneu ial in en ion, bu also he
ac ual subsequen pa icipa ion in an en ep eneu ial p ojec . I also se es o in o m Regula o y
4
Focus Theo y in en ep eneu ial con ex s (B ockne e al., 2004; Higgins, 1997) by showing
he ole o speci ic p omo ion- and p e en ion- ela ed ca ee mo i a ions in espec i ely
os e ing and hinde ing ea ly en ep eneu ial de elopmen s. Fo en ep eneu ship schola s, ou
analysis elies on a pa simonious a i ude scale, adap ed om Kol e eid’s (1996) o iginal
p oposi ion, which can be used in u u e en ep eneu ship s udies o achie e inc eased
homogenei y and compa abili y. F om a me hodological s andpoin , he use o a la ge ini ial
sample and a ollow-up s udy a e i e yea s ensu es he obus ness o ou p oposi ion. Las
bu no leas , om a p ac ical s andpoin , we iden i y wha mo i a ions a e impo an o policy
make s, educa o s and s a -up ad iso s seeking o encou age ac ual en ep eneu ial
in ol emen a he han jus in en ion.
In he ollowing sec ion, we p esen ou li e a u e e iew s a ing wi h he p esen a ion o
ca ee mo i a ions in en ep eneu ial con ex s, hei heo e ical g oundings wi hin he Theo y
o Planned Beha iou (Ajzen, 1991), and hei ela ionship wi h Regula o y Focus Theo y
(B ockne e al., 2004; Higgins, 1997). This leads us o p esen ou esea ch model. We hen
u n o ou me hodology and he p esen a ion o ou da a analysis. A e ha , we discuss ou
esul s, and conclude by showing hei limi a ions and oppo uni ies o u u e esea ch.
Theo e ical Backg ound and Hypo hesis De elopmen
In en ionali y has long been a cha ac e is ic a ibu ed o en ep eneu ial beha iou
(Ca e e al., 2003; K uege , 2009), as he choice o an en ep eneu ial pa h goes h ough
a ious phases o inc easing engagemen , om he o ma ion o an en ep eneu ial in en ion o
ac ual en ep eneu ial beha iou (Ca s ud & B ännback, 2011; Delanoë-Gueguen & Fayolle,
2018). In his con ex , schola s ha e been seeking o unde s and which ca ee mo i a ions lead
some indi iduals a he han o he s o en e and p og ess h ough en ep eneu ial jou neys.
5
Ca ee Mo i a ions and En ep eneu ial Ca ee Pa hs
Two complemen a y pe spec i es may be used o unde s and how ca ee mo i a ions
in luence indi iduals’ choices o ca ee pa h: he Theo y o Planned Beha iou , o TPB (Ajzen,
1991), and Regula o y Focus Theo y, o RFT (Higgins, 1997).
The TPB, on he one hand, posi s ha in he case o complex beha iou s, as is usually
conside ed o be he case o en ep eneu ship, ac ion will be p eceded by he o ma ion o an
in en ion, and ha his in en ion i sel will be in luenced by an a i ude owa d ha beha iou ,
social no ms and pe cei ed beha iou al con ol (Ajzen, 1991). In his heo y, a i udes illus a e
he “disposi ions o espond wi h some deg ee o a o ableness o un a o ableness o a
psychological objec ” (Ajzen & Gilbe Co e, 2008, p. 289). Thei unde lying de e minan s a e
beha iou al belie s o “belie s abou a beha io ’s consequences” (Ajzen & Gilbe Co e, 2008,
p. 302), which a e closely ela ed o mo i a ions. In en ep eneu ial con ex s, ca ee mo i a ions
ha e been ela ed o pe cei ed a ac i eness (Boissin, Cholle , & Emin, 2009; De Cle cq,
Honig, & Ma in, 2013; Soui a is e al., 2007) o pe cei ed desi abili y (Fi zsimmons &
Douglas, 2011; K uege e al., 2000; Nasu din, Ahmad, & Lin, 2009; Segal, Bo gia, &
Schoen eld, 2005), and hence an in en ion o engage in en ep eneu ial pa hs. In ac ,
indi iduals a ou ac i i ies ha hey expec will enable hem o a ain posi i ely alued
ou comes o a oid nega i ely alued ones (V oom, 2005). In his con ex , he wo k mo i a ions
o indi iduals ep esen he alence o impo ance hey a ibu e o a ious wo k- ela ed
ou comes (Manolo a, B ush, & Edelman, 2008). They eed hei a i ude owa d
en ep eneu ship and, in u n, hei in en ion o emb ace an en ep eneu ial pa h o no .
En ep eneu ial alence is clea ly a mul i-dimensional cons uc (Renko e al., 2012), as
illus a ed in he a ie y o ca ee mo i a ions iden i ied in he li e a u e.
6
RFT, on he o he hand, ocuses speci ically on he mo i a ional d i e s o indi iduals
and he ela ed sel - egula o y mechanisms ha hey ely on when pu suing speci ic goals
(Fische e al., 2018). I p oposes ha hese d i e s may be aimed ei he a ge ing pleasu e o
a oiding pain. In wo k- ela ed con ex s, he aims may be o each some posi i e
accomplishmen s, in he case o indi iduals exhibi ing a p omo ion ocus, o o p e en losses
o nega i e ou comes, o indi iduals elying on a p e en ion ocus (Higgins, 1997). The
p esence o a p omo ion and a p e en ion ocus ha e been shown o espec i ely mo i a e and
demo i a e s uden s o conside an en ep eneu ial ca ee (Jaskiewicz, Luchak, Oh, & Chlos a,
2016). Fu he along in he p ocess, when de eloping a new en u e p ojec , al e na i ely
emphasizing p omo ion and p e en ion aspec s appea s impo an o mo ing o wa d
(B ockne e al., 2004; Fische e al., 2018; Hmieleski & Ba on, 2008). Fo example, i has been
p oposed ha a p omo ion ocus will be mos use ul in he idea gene a ion phase, while a
p e en ion ocus should help sc een hese ideas in a disciplined manne (B ockne e al., 2004).
In addi ion, while in s able en i onmen s en ep eneu s’ p omo ion and p e en ion ocuses do
no seem o impac i ms’ pe o mance le els, in he case o dynamic en i onmen s equi ing a
cons an e-assessmen and eposi ioning o he en u e, a p omo ion ocus, as opposed o a
p e en ion ocus, appea s o enhance pe o mance (Hmieleski & Ba on, 2008). Finally, a
p e en ion ocus has been shown o educe he likelihood o becoming a se ial en ep eneu
(Simmons, Ca , Hsu, & Shu, 2016).
En ep eneu ial Ve sus Employee Ca ee Mo i a ions
Because o hei acknowledged impo ance o he de elopmen o en ep eneu ial
endea ou s, he ca ee mo i a ions o en ep eneu s ha e a ac ed a en ion and been he opic
o impo an s udies (Ca e e al., 2003; Douglas & Shephe d, 2002; Manolo a e al., 2008;
Segal e al., 2005; Shane e al., 2003; S ephan e al., 2015).
7
In ecen yea s, many US schola s ha e been elying on da a collec ed ia he Panel S udy
o En ep eneu ial Dynamics (PSED I and II), which includes da a ega ding six ca ee easons:
inno a ion, independence, ecogni ion, oles, inancial success, and sel - ealiza ion (Ca e e
al., 2003; Cassa , 2007; Manolo a e al., 2008). In o he geog aphic a eas, whe e PSED da a
a e no a ailable, esea ch has been a ou ing he use o Kol e eid’s (1996) p oposi ion
(Boissin e al., 2009; Fayolle & Gailly, 2015; Kau onen, an Gelde en, & To nikoski, 2013;
McNally, Ma in, Honig, Be gmann, & Pipe opoulos, 2016; Soui a is e al., 2007) o he use o
ad-hoc scales (Aziz, F iedman, & Say ullin, 2012; Giacomin e al., 2011; P ue , Shinna ,
Toney, Llopis, & Fox, 2009; Raposo, do Paço, & Fe ei a, 2008). Ca e e al. (2003) poin ou
Kol e eid’s (1996) esea ch as a g ound-se ing s udy on ca ee mo i a ions, including a
compa ison wi h non-en ep eneu s. Finally, some schola s ha e chosen o ocus on he
in luence o indi idual dimensions aken sepa a ely o in combina ion. Examples include: wo k
e o (Douglas & Shephe d, 2002); au onomy (Van Gelde en & Jansen, 2006); a need o
achie emen , weal h, and au onomy (Engle e al., 2010); a need o achie emen , locus o
con ol, and isk p opensi y (F ank, Luege , & Ko unka, 2007); o independence and inno a ion
(Zellwege , Siege , & Hal e , 2011). O e all, in a e iew, S ephan e al. (2015) iden i ied se en
speci ic mo i a ions o en ep eneu ship: achie emen , challenge, and lea ning; independence
and au onomy; income secu i y and inancial success; ecogni ion and s a us; amily and oles;
dissa is ac ion; and communi y and social mo i a ions. They also highligh ed he ac ha ew
s udies in hei sample included s uden s. Ye , s uden -based s udies exis , as illus a ed by he
lis o a icles included in ou Table 1, which p esen s 29 s udies in e es ed in ca ee
mo i a ions. Among hese, 19 we e conduc ed wi h s uden samples. In addi ion, an
o e whelming majo i y o hese s udies ocus on he in en ion s age (Table 1).
[Inse Table 1]
8
in age o gende we e emo ed. This le an ini ial usable sample o 2,188 esponses (desc ibed
in Table 2 below).
[Inse Table 2]
The ollow-up da a we e collec ed i e yea s la e , in 2016, o iden i y he indi iduals’
p o essional s a us and whe he hey had been in ol ed in an en ep eneu ial p ojec since 2011.
This le enough ime o he esponden s o s a hei ca ee and be conside ed as young
p o essionals, and elimina ed he bias o using s uden samples o en p esen in
en ep eneu ship esea ch (Shinna e al., 2017). In addi ion, i enabled he inclusion o
indi iduals conside ing bo h en ep eneu ial and employee ca ee s (Ca e e al., 2003; K uege
e al., 2000). A e y high a i ion a e was expe ienced, as could be expec ed gi en he ex ended
ime lapse be ween he wo da a collec ions, and he subs an ial changes in pe sonal si ua ions
ha a e common a e g adua ion. E en so, 155 alid esponses we e collec ed. Based on he
in o ma ion collec ed in 2011, we compa ed he cha ac e is ics o he ollow-up subsample wi h
ha o he ull 2011 sample and ound no e idence o non- esponse bias in a e age age (21.31
o he ollow-up esponden s e sus 21.30 o he o iginal ull sample), ole models (63%
e sus 64%), en olmen in business (29.7% e sus 29.0%) o enginee ing schools (53.6 %
e sus 55.1%), o gende (41.3% e sus 47%, no s a is ically signi ican ).
Measu es
Ou dependen a iable measu es whe he he esponden s had been in ol ed in c ea ing
an o ganiza ion (Ga ne , 1988) be ween 2011 and 2016. When designing such s udies, one
should seek o a oid su i o bias, and o include hose who wi hd ew be ween he wo da a
collec ions, o a e s ill in he p ocess o s a ing (Ca e e al., 2003). Thus, ou measu e o
15
en ep eneu ial beha iou is he (bina y) answe o he ques ion: “Since 2011, ha e you been
di ec ly in ol ed in a s a -up p ojec (as a membe o he managemen eam)?” Among he 155
esponden s, 31 (20.0%) indica ed ha hey had (answe ed yes). Thei p ojec s a us a he ime
o he 2016 da a collec ion was as ollows: 14 we e up and unning, six had been launched bu
hen s opped, i e we e s ill in he p e-s a -up phase and, inally, six had wi hd awn du ing he
p epa a ion phase.
En ep eneu ial in en ion was measu ed in 2011 based on he h ee i ems used by
Kol e eid (1996) and wo addi ional i ems used o assess he pe cei ed likelihood o s a ing a
en u e in a gi en ime pe iod (one yea and i e yea s a e inishing he s udies). These wo
i ems a e equen ly used in en ep eneu ship esea ch (Au io, Keeley, Klo s en, Pa ke , & Hay,
2001; Dohse & Wal e , 2012; Rauch & Hulsink, 2015).
Rega ding mo i a ions, he ini ial esea ch ins umen included he 33 i ems iden i ied by
Kol e eid (1996) as po en ial easons o ca ee choice, and classi ied by his au ho in o 11
ca ego ies ( i e hough o a ou o ganiza ional employmen and six sel -employmen ).
Speci ically, he esponden s we e asked he ollowing ques ion: “Fo each o he ollowing
elemen s, please indica e i s impo ance o you ca ee choice on a scale going om ‘no
impo an ’ (1) o ‘ e y impo an ’ (7).” The i ems we e andomly o de ed in he ques ionnai e.
Examples o i ems ela ed o o ganiza ional employmen include “job secu i y” o “ha ing a
simple, no complica ed job”, while “economic oppo uni y” o “independence” a e i ems
ela ed o sel -employmen (see Table 4 below).
In addi ion, he li e a u e highligh s a se ies o impo an aspec s ela ed o he p o ile o
indi iduals ha may ha e an impac on en ep eneu ial ca ee choices (Hindle, Kly e , &
Jennings, 2009), which we he e o e include as con ol a iables: gende , ields o s udy, he
p esence o en ep eneu ial ole models, and age. Rega ding gende , being a emale has long
been associa ed wi h lowe en ep eneu ial in en ions and in ol emen (Kelley e al., 2017).
16
Simila ly, conce ning he ield o s udies, business s uden s appea o ha e highe
en ep eneu ial in en ion le els han hei coun e pa s pu suing science and echnology o
humani ies acks (Schwa z, Wdowiak, Alme -Ja z, & B ei enecke , 2009). Nex , con ac wi h
ole models is also egula ly p esen ed in he li e a u e as in luencing a pe son’s p o essional
alues (Boissin, B anche , Delanoë, & Velo, 2011) and ac ual en ep eneu ial ac i i ies
(Shi oko a e al., 2016). Finally, age is also egula ly included as a con ol (Renko e al., 2012;
Schwa z e al., 2009; Zellwege e al., 2011). These a iables a e measu ed as ollows: a bina y
a iable o gende (1 = emale), a h ee-ca ego y a iable o ield o s udies (business school,
enginee ing school, gene al uni e si y), a bina y a iable o knowing an en ep eneu ial ole
model (1 = yes), and he numbe o yea s o age.
Analysis
Explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA) was used o depu a e he in en ion and a i ude scales
(Henson & Robe s, 2006; Ma sunaga, 2010). The p incipal axis ac o ing me hod,
ecommended as he mos adequa e o iden i ying and unde s anding la en cons uc s, was
used oge he wi h an oblique o a ion (oblimin) o acili a e he in e p e a ion o esul s
(Conway & Hu cu , 2003; Cos ello & Osbo ne, 2005). S ic c i e ia we e se o e en ion o
i ems (Hai , Black, Babin, & Ande son, 2014): ac o loading had o be highe han .5 (a limi
aimed a p o iding con e gen alidi y and p ac ical signi icance), c oss-loading on a di e en
ac o lowe han .30 (in o de o p o ide adequa e disc iminan alidi y be ween ac o s), and
he i ems had o exhibi a communali y o a leas .40 o be e ained (Cos ello & Osbo ne, 2005).
The depu a ion p ocess consis ed in unning he EFA i e a i ely. A e each i e a ion, he i em
no mee ing he c i e ia—ha ing he lowes ac o loading and/o highes c oss-loading, and/o
he lowes communali y—was excluded and he EFA was epea ed. This p ocess was ei e a ed
un il all emaining i ems me he inclusion c i e ia and he esul s we e ully sa is ac o y.
17
Finally, we checked he C onbach’s alphas o he esul ing scales o e i y hei in e nal
consis ency.
In en ion scale. The EFA was i s used o depu a e he in en ion scale. This esul ed in
he emo al o one i em om Kol e eid’s (1996) o iginal lis , namely he e e se-coded
ques ion “how likely is i ha you will pu sue a ca ee as employed in an o ganiza ion?” due o
i s low loading (.394). Table 3 p esen s he ac o loadings and C onbach’s alpha.
[Inse Table 3]
A i ude scale. The depu a ion me hod was hen applied o he a i ude i ems. Howe e ,
while he ini ial lis p oposed by Kol e eid (1996) included 33 i ems, we i s checked ha hese
i ems we e indeed indi idually signi ican ly ela ed o in en ion.2 Using he 0.10 signi icance
le el, only 24 o he 33 o iginal i ems had a signi ican co ela ion wi h in en ion. We hus
emo ed he nine i ems ha ailed o mee ha c i e ion and an he EFA on he emaining 24
i ems.3 The ini ial EFA o he 24 a i ude i ems yielded i e ac o s wi h eigen alues g ea e
han one, also con i med by he analysis o he Sc ee plo (Cos ello & Osbo ne, 2005). The
i e a i e p ocess desc ibed abo e was hen ollowed, leading o he 12-i em solu ion p esen ed
in Table 4.
[Inse Table 4]
The eme ging ac o s ha e clea meanings and ep esen one, o he me ging o wo, o
he o iginal sub-scales used by Kol e eid (1996) (Table 4 includes he wo ding o each i em).
The i s one, au onomy, includes h ee ou o ou o Kol e eid’s (1996) o iginal au onomy
i ems. The second one, a oiding job esponsibili y, includes wo i ems om he a oid
18
esponsibili y and one om he wo kload subscales. Fac o s h ee and ou a e he same as in
he o iginal scale: job secu i y and managing he whole p ocess. Finally, ac o i e, economic
ewa d, includes wo o he h ee o iginal i ems om he economic subscale. Fu he mo e, he
dimensions ep esen ed by hese ac o s exhibi sa is ac o y le els o in e nal consis ency, as
shown by C onbach’s alphas abo e o close o he .70 ecommended h eshold. Only economic
ewa d shows a low, al hough accep able, alpha o .629 (Hai e al., 2014).
Rela ionship Be ween Ca ee Mo i a ions, In en ion, and En ep eneu ial
Beha iou
As a con i ma ion o he use ulness o he depu a ed ca ee mo i a ion dimensions, he
mean sco es (Hai e al., 2014) we e compu ed o each o he esul ing scales and he
ela ionships be ween hem and en ep eneu ial in en ion and beha iou we e es ed (Table 5).
As sugges ed by ou i s hypo hesis, p omo ion- ela ed mo i a ions exhibi posi i e
co ela ions wi h in en ion (au onomy being by a he s onges ), while p e en ion- ela ed ones
show a nega i e ela ionship (job secu i y being he s onges ).
[Inse Table 5]
Fu he mo e, o es ou hypo heses, Pa ial Leas Squa es (PLS) analysis wi h Sma PLS
3.2.4 so wa e (Ringle, Wende, & Becke , 2015) was used o assess he ela ionship be ween
mo i a ions, en ep eneu ial in en ion, and en ep eneu ial beha iou . As be o e, an i e a i e
p ocess was ollowed. The leas signi ican pa h was emo ed a each i e a ion and he p ocess
epea ed un il all emaining pa h coe icien s we e signi ican a leas a he p < 0.10 le el.
Ini ially, a sa u a ed model was p oposed in which all i e mo i a ions explain in en ion
and beha iou , and in en ion also explains beha iou . Addi ionally, all mode a ion e ec s om
19
mo i a ions on he in en ion-beha iou link we e also included in he o m o in e ac ions.
Backg ound a iables we e also included (age, gende , ole model, business school and
enginee ing school s uden s) as a ec ing en ep eneu ial in en ion and beha iou . The i e a i e
p ocess was implemen ed using a boo s apping me hod wi h 500 samples. The esul ing model
is p esen ed in Figu e 2.
[Inse Figu e 2]
The measu emen model is sa is ac o y (Hai , Hul , Ringle, & Sa s ed , 2017). All
loadings a e abo e he usual 0.7 h eshold excep he i s au onomy i em (0.655, which may be
conside ed accep able). All cons uc s p esen sa is ac o y le els o composi e eliabili y (CR
indexes abo e 0.811, and C onbach’s alphas abo e 0.7 excep au onomy wi h 0.697) and
a e age a iance ex ac ed ( he lowes is 0.592, well abo e he usual 0.5 h eshold). The model
explains o e 36% o he a iance in in en ion (adjus ed R2 = 0.368) and almos 30% o he
a iance in beha iou (adjus ed R2=0.299).
Rega ding he s uc u al model, only h ee o he i e mo i a ions emain as signi ican
p edic o s o ei he he en ep eneu ial in en ion o beha iou , bu hey all a e in he expec ed
di ec ion. En ep eneu ial in en ion is e y s ongly ela ed o he mo i a ions o au onomy
(posi i ely) and job secu i y (nega i ely), as hypo heses H1a and H2a p edic ed. In u n,
beha iou is explained by managing he whole p ocess (posi i ely) and job secu i y
(nega i ely), in line wi h hypo heses H1b and H2b. Addi ionally, job secu i y nega i ely
mode a es he ela ionship be ween en ep eneu ial in en ion and beha iou , in line wi h
hypo hesis H4. No suppo is ound o hypo hesis H3. The e o e, job secu i y seems o be he
mos impo an (p e en i e- ocused) mo i a ion in he en ep eneu ial p ocess. I no only
lowe s he en ep eneu ial in en ion o he esponden s, bu also diminishes he chances ha
20
hey will pa icipa e in any s a -up, bo h di ec ly and nega i ely mode a ing he e ec o
in en ion. On he o he hand, au onomy ( h ough i s di ec e ec on in en ion) and managing
he whole p ocess ( h ough i s di ec e ec on beha iou ) a e he mos impo an p omo ion-
ocused mo i a ions.
Discussion
In hei s udy in ol ing nascen en ep eneu s al eady in he p ocess o se ing up hei
ac i i y, Ca e e al. (2003, p.21) indica ed ha hey belie ed ha “when ques ions a e asked
be o e he ac , he easons o e ed by po en ial en ep eneu s o ge ing in o business will no
be signi ican ly di e en om he easons o e ed by a simila compa ison g oup o indi iduals
in o he ypes o ca ee s.” On he con a y, ou s udy shows ha , when aking a longi udinal
app oach, di e ences eme ge. We now discuss ou indings, which show ha en ep eneu ial
beha iou depends no only on in en ion, bu also on he di e en balance o ca ee mo i a ions
d i ing indi iduals.
Summa y
In his s udy, we aimed o in es iga e he ela ionships be ween a ious ca ee
mo i a ions, en ep eneu ial in en ion and subsequen en ep eneu ial beha iou . Using a la ge
sample o F ench indi iduals ini ially su eyed du ing hei s udies and again i e yea s la e ,
ou ex ended da a collec ion enabled us o show he di e en oles played by a ious ca ee
mo i a ions h oughou he en ep eneu ial p ocess, which, o ou knowledge, has no been done
be o e. By ela ing hese mo i a ions o p omo ion- and p e en ion- ela ed s ances, we we e
able o show he impac o such cogni i e pos u es o young adul s en e ing hei p o essional
li e. We he e o e belie e ha he p esen s udy p o ides e y in e es ing insigh s o bo h
21
schola s and p ac i ione s. Fo schola s, i p esen s a ho ough analysis o he mechanisms
h ough which a ious p omo ion- and p e en ion- ela ed ca ee mo i a ions in e ac o
in luence en ep eneu ial in en ion and beha iou di e en ly. Speci ically, we show ha he
p e en ion- ela ed mo i a ion o job secu i y plays a p edominan inhibi ing ole h oughou
he p ocess. Meanwhile, au onomy and managing he whole p ocess, bo h p omo ion- ela ed
aspec s, exe hei posi i e in luence a di e en s ages o he en ep eneu ial jou ney,
espec i ely en ep eneu ial in en ion o ma ion and beha iou . Fu he mo e, om a
me hodological s andpoin , he s udy elies on longi udinal da a collec ion and igo ous da a
analysis. This enables he iden i ica ion o hese e ec s based on a pa simonious ye
comp ehensi e mul i-dimensional ca ee mo i a ion scale ele an no only in analyzing
in en ion o ma ion, bu also ac ual en ep eneu ial ac ion. Finally, he s udy o e s implica ions
o p ac i ione s and policy make s looking o suppo aspi ing en ep eneu s h oughou hei
en ep eneu ial jou neys.
Con ibu ions o Schola ship
F om a heo e ical s andpoin , ou abili y o demons a e di ec links be ween some ca ee
mo i a ions ela ed o di e en egula o y oci (B ockne e al., 2004; Fische e al., 2018;
Higgins, 1997), en ep eneu ial in en ion and en ep eneu ial beha iou , bu also mode a ion
e ec s, is o pa icula impo ance. In ac , based on Ajzen’s (1991) p oposi ions, he as
majo i y o en ep eneu ship s udies conside ca ee mo i a ions o exe hei in luence on
ac ual en ep eneu ial beha iou only indi ec ly ia he o ma ion o en ep eneu ial in en ion.
We show ha he e ec may also be di ec ly impac ing en ep eneu ial ac ion and he likelihood
o ans o ming en ep eneu ial in en ion in o eal endea ou s. In addi ion, exis ing s udies
o en look a he o e all p omo ion and p e en ion oci o en ep eneu s wi hou in es iga ing
he ela ed mo i a ional cha ac e is ics (Fische e al., 2018). By p oposing o look a ca ee
22
mo i a ions as ei he p omo ion- o p e en ion- ela ed, we con ibu e o b inging oge he hese
wo app oaches. O e all, and a e con olling o he esponden s’ p o iles, ou model explains
o e 36% (36.8%) o he en ep eneu ial in en ion le el o indi iduals, abo e ha iden i ied by
o he schola s (Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014), and almos 30% o he a iance in en ep eneu ial
in ol emen , which compa es ai ly well wi h he 28% o 33% ound by an Gelde en e al.
(2015).
Abou he ca ee mo i a ion scale, he esul s a e no ably obus and enable us o p opose
a new, mo e pa simonious, ac o s uc u e de i ed om Kol e eid’s (1996) o iginal scale
(Table 4). Since Kol e eid’s (1996) s udy, he wo ld economy has wi nessed s ong e olu ions,
such as he e olu ion o in o ma ion and communica ion echnology, o men ion only one. In
ac , ou sample includes indi iduals bo n owa d he end o he so-called Gene a ion Y,4 and
aised wi h he ad en o he In e ne , while Kol e eid’s sample was comp ised o people bo n
in he la e pe iod o Gene a ion X. I is likely ha pe cep ions owa d en ep eneu ial o
o ganiza ional ca ee s e ol ed concomi an ly wi h he e olu ions aking place in ou
economies.
We di e en ia ed be ween p e en ion- ela ed mo i a ions (a oiding job esponsibili y
and seeking job secu i y) and p omo ion- ela ed mo i a ions (au onomy, economic ewa d, and
managing he whole p ocess). Thanks o ou analysis, we show ha job secu i y appea s o be
o u mos impo ance when choosing be ween an en ep eneu ial and an employee ca ee , as i
is he only mo i a ion exhibi ing pe sis ence h oughou he p ocess. I is di ec ly and nega i ely
ela ed wi h he o ma ion o bo h en ep eneu ial in en ion and ac ual en ep eneu ial
beha iou , and i mode a es he s eng h o he link be ween en ep eneu ial in en ion and
ac ion. In o he wo ds, i ac s as a s ong inhibi o o en ep eneu ial unde akings h oughou
he p ocess. This is pa icula ly impo an o schola s who end o ocus on posi i e in luences
o en ep eneu ship, bu a en ion should also be paid o hose aspec s limi ing en ep eneu ial
23
ac i i y. Au onomy, on he o he hand, is impo an in os e ing en ep eneu ial in en ion
None heless, when i comes o ac ual ans o ma ion, i s impac anishes. Hence, i is impo an
in he mo i a ional phase, bu no o he implemen a ion o ac ual en ep eneu ial unde akings.
Ra he , when i comes o s a ing a en u e, wan ing o manage he whole p ocess becomes
impo an . Managing he whole p ocess has a di ec in luence on ac ual en ep eneu ial
in ol emen . This mo i a ion is posi i ely co ela ed wi h au onomy, bu mo e conc e e and
hands-on, and hence i s speci ic impo ance o speci ic achie emen s. Responden s mo i a ed
by his a i ude may no be ini ially hinking abou s a ing up, bu hey p obably ealize ha i
will be di icul o hem o sa is y his mo i a ion as an employee, and i he e o e becomes an
impo an d i e o ul ima ely pa icipa ing in a s a -up p ojec .
O e all, we belie e he ocus on hese ac o s make i possible o cap u e a highe
comp ehension o he en ep eneu ial p ocess mo e pa simoniously han Kol e eid’s (1996)
ini ial p oposi ion.
Applied Implica ions
Applied implica ions de i ed om he ole o di e en mo i a ions o en ep eneu ship
ela e o p omo ion policy and en ep eneu ship educa ion. As discussed abo e, ega ding he
speci ic mechanisms h ough which ca ee mo i a ions ope a e, he ela ionships wi h
en ep eneu ial in en ion o he i e ca ee mo i a ions a e as expec ed (see he co ela ions in
Table 5). Howe e , when conside ed al oge he , au onomy and job secu i y s and ou as he
main de e minan s o en ep eneu ial in en ion. Tu ning in en ion in o ac ion is a di e en
ma e , howe e . Success ul ca ee s in la ge companies a e a e y equen op ion o hese
young adul s. They o en ind ha hey can ul ill hei au onomy and economic achie emen
in la ge companies, while also achie ing a highe sense o secu i y han in an en ep eneu ial
p ojec . The e o e, he mo i a ion o pa icipa e in he whole p ocess is mo e ele an in making
24
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Table 1:
Ca ee mo i a ions s udies
S udy Type o sample (#
pa icipan s)
Ope a ionaliza ions
(# o i ems)
Dependen
Va iable
Boissin e al.
(2009)
S uden s: F ance
(655)
Being independen (4); achie ing sel - ealiza ion in one's job (4); ha ing a good ex a-p o essional quali y
o li e (3); a oiding esponsibili ies (2 i ems); ha ing high ea nings (3); ha ing a s able p o essional
si ua ion (2)
A ac i eness
Ca e e al.
(2003)
NEs: US PSED (558) Inno a ion (2), independence (2), ecogni ion/s a us (2), oles/ ollow o he s (3), inancial success (4) and
sel - ealiza ion/sel -di ec ed goals (5)
Nascen
En ep eneu
Cassa (2007)
NEs: US PSED (466) 18 i ems om PSED ep esen ing ca ee easons (same as Ca e e al. 2003) G ow h
Da idsson (1995) Indi iduals: Sweden
(1,066)
Gene al a i udes: change-o ien a ion (4); compe i i eness (5); alua ion o money (4); achie emen
mo i a ion (4); au onomy (4) / Domain a i udes: expec ed payo (9); socie al con ibu ion (4); pe cei ed
know-how (2)
Con ic ion
De Cle cq e al.
(2013)
S uden s: Canada
(946)
A ac i eness (3); lea ning o ien a ion (6); passion o wo k (5) – Pos -hoc analysis including inancial
ewa d (2 i ems) and au onomy (4)
En ep eneu ial
in en ion
dePillis and
Rea don (2007)
S uden s (208): US
and I eland
Pe sonal con ol (10); achie emen mo i a ion (10); ambigui y ole ance (16)
A i udes: Valence o en ep eneu ial pe cep ions (2); ‘ACE’ app op ia eness (4); consis ency (6 sel - and
5 na ional-) and e ec i eness o s a ing a business (2)
En ep eneu ial
in en ion
Douglas and
Shephe d (2002)
Alumni (300)
Aus alia
A i ude owa d: income; independence; isk and wo k e o .
Based on e alua ion o 17 ca ee p o iles
En ep eneu ial
in en ion
Engle e al.
(2010)
S uden s: 1,748
ac oss 12 coun ies
A i ude: need o achie emen (18); weal h (1); au onomy (7) En ep eneu ial
in en ion
Fayolle and
Gailly (2015)
S uden s: F ance
(158)
32 i ems inspi ed om Kol e eid (1996): job secu i y (2); wo kload (5); implica ion in a social milieu (5);
p o essional and inancial pe spec i es (5); need o challenges (4); au onomy (5); need o c ea i e
p ojec s (6)
En ep eneu ial
in en ion
Fi zsimmons and
Douglas (2011)
S uden s (414):
Aus alia, China,
India, Thailand
Pe cei ed desi abili y based on e alua ion o ca ee p o iles (based on Douglas and Shephe d, 2002)
A i ude owa d majo i y owne ship o he i m in which hey wo k
En ep eneu ial
in en ion
F iedman e al.
(2012)
S uden s (305): US,
Ky gyzs an, Geo gia
Mo i es: inancial gain; ecogni ion; eedom; amily adi ion En ep eneu ial
in en ion
Giacomin e al.
(2011)
S uden s (2093): US,
China, India, Spain,
Belgium
16 mo i a ions ep esen ing 5 ac o s: pu sui o p o i and social s a us (6); desi e o independence (3);
c ea ion (2); pe sonal de elopmen (2); p o essional dissa is ac ion (3)
En ep eneu ial
in en ion
Kau onen e al.
(2013)
Finnish wo king age
indi iduals (117)
15 i ems om Kol e eid (1996) g ouped in i e dimensions used o compu e a i ude: au ho i y and
au onomy (4); sel - ealiza ion (3); economic oppo uni y (2); a oidance o esponsibili y (3); secu i y (2)
En ep eneu ial
in ol emen
40
Figu e 2. Mode a ed a i ude-in en ion-beha iou model
No e. S anda dized coe icien s ( - alues in pa en heses). Signi icance le el p < .1
47
