541
CAUCE, Re is a de Filología y su Didác ica, nº 24, 2001 / págs. 541-563
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE:
A COMPUTER-ASSISTED, TEXT-BASED APPROACH
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE*AND MIKE HANNAY**
V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, Ne he lands
ABSTRACT
The Lex aa dig p ojec , de eloped a he V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam,
aims o help ad anced s uden s o o eign languages o de elop lexical com-
pe ence by p o iding hem wi h a body o anno a ed ex s om which hey
can choose eely, an in o mal in oduc ion o lexicology and a pe sonal da a-
base. A e an ini ial aining in ecep ion, p oduc ion and esou cing skills,
s uden s imp o e hei awa eness o lexical issues by iden i ying and no ing
phenomena in ex s o hei own choosing: hey explo e di e en kinds o lex-
ical uni , disco e i ems wi h in e es ing phonological, o hog aphic and mo -
phological cha ac e is ics, in es iga e he syn ac ic and seman ic p ope ies o
wo ds, and inqui e in o hei a ious social, cul u al and his o ical aspec s. The
p ojec seeks o pu many o he insigh s in con empo a y lexicological
esea ch in o p ac ice, hoping he eby o gi e s uden s posi i e mo i a ion
owa ds ocabula y lea ning. By ins illing espec o he immeasu able com-
plexi y o he lexicon, Lex aa dig c ea es a cons uc i e a i ude o he ask o
acqui ing a ich and lexible command o he a ge lexicon, while also gi -
ing he s uden s an in oduc ion o hands-on linguis ic and ex ual analysis in
an a ac i e compu e ized lea ning en i onmen .
KEY WORDS
Ad ance o ganizing, applied lexicology, au onomous lea ning, compu e -
based wo kbench, Elec onic Ca d Index, in e encing, lexical ph ase, p agma ic
o mula, esou cing, wo d amilies.
* Lachlan Mackenzie is P o esso o English Language a he V ije Uni e si ei ,
Ams e dam. He eaches a ange o subjec s wi hin his discipline, bo h p ac ical and
heo e ical. His esea ch is conce ned wi h de eloping Func ional G amma as a heo-
y o e bal communica ion and wi h he implica ions o unc ionalis linguis ics o
ad anced language eaching.
** Mike Hannay is senio lec u e in English language a he V ije Uni e si ei ,
Ams e dam. He eaches and does esea ch in unc ional linguis ics, ansla ion and w i -
ing skills, and in addi ion coo dina es acul y de elopmen s in ICT and language each-
ing. His publica ions include, as edi o -in-chie , he concise Van Dale Du ch-English and
English-Du ch dic iona ies.
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
542
RESUMEN
El p oyec o ‘Lex aa dig’, desa ollado en la Uni e sidad Lib e de Ams e -
dam (V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam), iene como obje i o ayuda al es udian e
de lenguas ex anje as de ni el a anzado a desa olla la compe encia léxica
p opo cionándole un co pus de ex os ano ados de en e los que puede ele-
gi lib emen e, una in oducción in o mal a la lexicología y una base de da os
pe sonal. T as una p epa ación inicial en las des ezas de ecepción, p oduc-
ción y la del uso de ob as de e e encia, el es udian e mejo a su conciencia
sob e las cues iones léxicas median e la iden i icación y la obse ación de
enómenos en ex os de su p opia elección: explo a ipos di e en es de uni-
dad léxica, descub e ejemplos con ca ac e ís icas onológicas, o og á icas y
mo ológicas in e esan es, in es iga las p opiedades sin ác icas y semán icas
de las palab as, e indaga en sus di e sos aspec os sociales, cul u ales e his-
ó icos. El p oyec o busca pone en p ác ica muchas de las ideas en la in es-
igación lexicológica con empo ánea, y con ello espe a da al es udian e mo i-
ación posi i a pa a el ap endizaje del ocabula io. Al inculca espe o po la
inconmensu able complejidad del léxico, Lex aa dig c ea una ac i ud cons-
uc i a hacia la a ea de adqui i un dominio ico y lexible del lexicón me a,
al mismo iempo que p opo ciona al es udian e una in oducción al análisis
lingüís ico y ex ual p ác ico en un a ac i o en o no de ap endizaje in o ma-
izado.
PALABRAS CLAVE
Ap endizaje au ónomo, esc i o io in o ma izado, amilias de palab as, iche o
elec ónico, ó mula p agmá ica, ase léxica, uen es de e e encia, in e encia,
lexicología aplicada, o ganización p e ia.
RÉSUMÉ
Le p oje ‘Lex aa dig’, élabo é à l’Uni e si é Lib e d’Ams e dam (V ije Uni-
e si ei Ams e dam), a pou objec i d’aide l’é udian de langues é angè es
de ni eau a ancé à dé eloppe sa compé ence lexicale en lui ou nissan un
choix de ex es anno és, une in oduc ion in o melle à la lexicologie e une
banque de données pe sonnelle. G âce à une é lexion p éalable su la écep-
ion e la p oduc ion lexicales e une ini ia ion à l’u ilisa ion d’ou ages de
é é ence, l’é udian se sensibilise aux ques ions lexicales en iden i ian e
obse an des phénomènes pe inen s dans des ex es qu’il a lui-même choi-
sis. Il explo e di é en s ypes d’uni é lexicale, décou e des exemples qui
mani es en des ca ac é is iques phonologiques, o hog aphiques e mo pholo-
giques in é essan es, es amené à examine les p op ié és syn axiques e
séman iques des mo s, e à se penche su la dimension sociocul u elle e his-
o ique de ces mo s. Le p oje me en p a ique di e ses idées e déma ches
qui p o iennen des eche ches lexicologiques con empo aines a in de c ée
chez l’é udian une mo i a ion posi i e à l’éga d de l’app en issage du ocabu-
lai e. En inculquan le espec de la complexi é incompa able du lexique,
Lex aa dig c ée une a i ude cons uc i e qui pe me l’acquisi ion d’une maî ise
iche e lexible de la langue cible. En même emps, l’é udian es ini ié à la
p a ique de l’analyse linguis ique e ex uelle dans un en i onnemen a ayan
d’app en issage in o ma isé.
MOTS-CLÉ
App en issage au onome, a élie in o ma isé, amilles de mo s, ichie élec-
onique, o mule p agma ique, in é ence, lexicologie appliquée, locu ions igées,
o ganisa ion p éalable, ou ages de é é ence.
1. LEXICAL COMPETENCE
The pu pose o his a icle is o epo on a p ojec ha is being
ca ied ou in he Facul y o A s a he V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam,
The Ne he lands. We will ocus on he Depa men o English, bu he
p ojec applies acul y-wide, speci ically o he Depa men s o English,
F ench and Ge man; ou epo is hus, mu a is mu andis, equally el-
e an o ou colleagues’ wo k in F ench and Ge man s udies1.
Fi s -yea s uden s emba king on a ou -yea cou se o s udies owa ds
a deg ee in English Language and Cul u e al eady possess a basic com-
mand o English ocabula y. They gene ally ha e su icien wo ds and
exp essions a hei ac i e disposal o ge by in e e yday si ua ions.
Mos o hese beginne s display conside able luency and sel -con i-
dence, based on long- e m exposu e o English, which is a language
ha young people alue highly and encoun e e y equen ly in he
Ne he lands. Ne e heless, hese s uden s end o ope a e unde an
in isible ceiling: hei e y linguis ic aplomb, bols e ed by complimen s
ecei ed on o eign holidays, blinds hem o he ac ha hey a e in
ac con inually ecycling a a he es ic ed epe oi e and he eby deny-
ing hemsel es exp essi e possibili ies mo e ypical o he compe ence
o educa ed na i e speake s. A majo goal o uni e si y ui ion in ocab-
ula y is o make he s uden s awa e o hei sel -imposed limi a ion on
he use o English, and he eby o help hem b eak h ough o enhanced
lexical compe ence.
Skills a e o cou se only one componen o uni e si y aining in a
o eign language: beginning s uden s no only make hei i s acquain-
ance wi h English li e a u e(s), hey a e also in oduced in hei i s
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
543
1The o he membe s o he eam we e: Tine G eidanus, Onno Hube , Ma ieke
K ajenb ink, F eya Ma in, Ria an Minnen, Floo Oos ing and Mau ice Vliegen.
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
544
yea o he linguis ic analysis o English. T adi ionally, p o iciency ain-
ing and linguis ics ha e been ega ded as qui e sepa a e aspec s o he
cu iculum, ypically no e en augh by he same u o s. Whe eas i
may be s a ed wi h some jus i ica ion ha he e is li le connec ion
be ween phonological o syn ac ic heo y and s uden s’ mas e y o p o-
nuncia ion o he p oduc ion o e ec i e sen ences, he lexicon, we will
be a guing, is an a ea pa excellence whe e heo y and p ac ice come
oge he . I s uden s can be sensi ized o he ca ego ies ha ha e been
applied in linguis s’ a emp s o b ing o de o he lexicon, hey will
b ing an in o med mind o he seemingly mons ous ask o acqui ing
housands o new wo ds and exp essions wi hin a ew yea s. This is
he hinking behind he p ojec o be desc ibed.
The p ojec (which is called Lex aa dig, om he Du ch wo ds lex-
icale aa digheid ‘lexical skill’) akes wo c ucial ea u es o s uden
expe ience wi h he acqui ing he ocabula y o he a ge language as
i s s a ing poin . Fi s ly, s uden s ha e mos o hei con ac wi h Eng-
lish ou side ha pa o he cu icula en i onmen which is p o-
g ammed o ocabula y lea ning, i.e. ei he in he eading o lis ening
hey ha e o do o o he cou ses o in ex amu al ac i i y ( ele ision,
in e ne , English-speaking iends, e c.). As a esul , much o hei
ocabula y lea ning is in poin o ac inciden al and au onomous. Sec-
ondly, he new wo ds and exp essions hey a e mo i a ed o lea n occu
abo e all in ex s which hey hemsel es choose o ead, anging om
li e a y wo ks o magazines and websi es. Wha he p ojec does is o
accep hese ac s as gi en, and o guide and s uc u e he s uden s’
lea ning p ocess by p o iding hem wi h a compu e -based package,
consis ing o h ee componen s (see §7 below): a body o anno a ed
ex s om which hey can choose eely; an in oduc ion o lexicology;
a pe sonal da a base.
The p ojec hus di e s adically om a emp s o impose wo d lis s
upon s uden s, s a ing om he mos equen and gene al ocabula y
and g adually wo king ou wa ds o a e o mo e specialized wo ds.
Ra he , he s uden s a e ained o de elop hei own lexical compe-
ence, o become wo dwise. They a e gi en he whe ewi hal o hink
abou and imp o e hei own unde s anding o he English lexicon, and
abo e all o become awa e o wha hey encoun e in hei eading and
lis ening: a he han guessing wildly wha is mean , o simply dis e-
ga ding un amilia lexical i ems, hey now ha e he ools o analyse
hei di icul ies and o lea n om he expe ience o u u e occasions.
And a second ad an age ha appeals o he s uden s o oday, each o
whom has he 2own pe sonal backg ound expe ience o he English
language, is he indi idualiza ion o ocabula y lea ning: whe eas he
lea ne is sub ly s ee ed h ough he whole p ocess, i is essen ially he
indi idual s uden who decides wha she inds use ul o lea n. F om a
didac ic iewpoin , his is no p oblem, because wha is lea ned is less
impo an han how i is lea ned. I he skills a e he e, he knowledge
will come.
In de ising he ma e ials o be p esen ed he e, we ha e a emp ed
o ansla e he majo esul s achie ed in he ocabula y acquisi ion
esea ch o ecen decades, esea ch in o such ma e s as lexical knowl-
edge, in e encing s a egies and lexical ph ases, in o pedagogical p ac-
ice ha is app op ia e o he con ex o ad anced lea ne s in he Du ch
con ex . Acco dingly, he ollowing sec ions will concen a e on he
p ac ical implemen a ion o he ma e ials. We begin by ske ching how
he s uden s’ ask is o ganized in ad ance (§2), going on in §3 o deal
wi h he di e en kinds o lexical uni o which s uden s mus a end.
The ollowing sec ions de ail he a ious ypes o knowledge abou lex-
ical uni s which a e poin ed ou o s uden s, co e ing phonological,
o hog aphical and mo phological ma e s (§4), he syn ax-seman ics in e -
ace (§5) and inally social, cul u al and his o ical aspec s (§6). §7 p es-
en s he 3 componen s o he compu e ized package ha is placed a
he disposal o all s uden s, and leads o he conclusions (§8).
2. RECEPTION, PRODUCTION AND RESOURCING
S uden s who se ou on he pa h o g ea e lexical compe ence
mus ha e clea insigh in o how hei unde s anding o wo ds is going
o change. This ‘ad ance o ganizing’ (c . Ellis, 1994, p. 537) o ien s hem
o he h ee ac i i ies o :
(a) ecep ion
(b) p oduc ion
(c) esou cing
In he e y i s weeks o hei uni e si y educa ion, he s uden s a e
gi en aining in how bes o o ganize hese h ee ac i i ies, which will
now be b ie ly deal wi h in u n.
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
545
2Since he g ea majo i y o ou s uden s a e emale, we will use he eminine
o m o gene ic e e ence o s uden s.

J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
546
Recep ion is p esen ed as being in his con ex i s and o emos
a ma e o iden i ying lexical uni s (see §3 below) and es ablishing hei
meaning in he clause in which hey occu , i.e. as a unc ion o he
in e ac ion wi h he o he meaning-bea ing wo ds in ha clause. Bu i
is equally impo an o s ess ha lexical i ems a e chosen in i ue o
gene al communica i e s a egies and hus also make a con ibu ion o
he cohe ence and pu pose o la ge ex ual uni s such as sen ences o
pa ag aphs, and s uden s need o be sensi i e o his wide con ex o
in e p e a ion (c . Hoey, 1991). In many poe ic con ex s, o example,
all he po en ial meanings o a wo d a e po en ially in play, whe eas
in a legal documen ideally only one sense will apply. These ac o s
need o be conside ed e en wi h ocabula y ha is amilia o he s u-
den . Howe e , whe e he s uden is igno an o a wo d in a ex , o
no ices some hing peculia abou an i em she has al eady acqui ed,
mo e skills a e called upon.
In he con ex o Lex aa dig, s uden s a e encou aged no o g ab
he dic iona y as soon as hey encoun e an i em hey do no know.
Ra he , hey should go h ough a numbe o in e encing s a egies. They
a e encou aged no only o iden i y he wo d class(es) in ol ed and o
unde s and wo ds and exp essions in hei clausal en i onmen , bu also
o s udy he p eceding and abo e all he ollowing con ex , de e min-
ing o example whe he he i em e u ns, o whe he he con ex migh
con ain a synonym o some o he clue. Only a e all hese s ages ha e
been a e sed and hey ha e made an in elligen guess abou he o m
and i s meaning should he s uden s look up he i em in a dic iona y,
o see i hei guess is igh ; i i is no igh , hey should y and wo k
ou whe e and why hei easoning ailed. S uden s who wo k in his
way ind ha he ex a e o pu in o ‘ esea ching’ he i em aids he
memo abili y o i ems and s eng hens hei abili y o employ in e ence
in he unde s anding o ex .
P oduc ion ac i i ies in ol e skills in selec ing lexical i ems which
will e ec i ely con ey he speake /w i e ’s in ended meaning. A he
same ime, he i ems should be used co ec ly as o spelling o p o-
nuncia ion. Alongside hese a he ob ious equi emen s, s uden s also
need o become sensi i e o he pa icula combina o ial p ope ies o
lexical i ems wi hin he clause, as well as he ways in which he use
o wo ds con ibu es o ex ual cohesion o is de e mined by gen e con-
en ions. These ma e s will e u n a g ea e leng h in §5 and §6.
Jus as wi h ecep ion, p oduc ion o en con on s he s uden wi h
gaps in he knowledge. Lex aa dig d aws he a en ion o a ious com-
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
547
pensa ion s a egies ha allow he o e ain he luency in speech o
in w i ing by using lexical dummies (wo ds like hingummy in speech
o , say, phenomenon in w i ing), supe o dina e e ms (piece o u ni-
u e o co e igno ance o he wo d couch), o pa aph ases (ad ise
someone no o eplacing he unknown discou age). And by paying
a en ion o coinages in he ex s ha hey ead, s uden s will gain a
eeling o he ci cums ances unde which hey, oo, can da e o c e-
a e a new wo d.
The hi d ac i i y, which – ollowing Chano (1987)– we call
‘ esou cing’, ela es o he use o he many esou ces ha a e a ailable
o oday’s lea ne . F eshmen gene ally ha e limi ed expe ience in he
use o dic iona ies, and ha e a bes inciden al knowledge o wha In e -
ne has o o e . As we will see in g ea e de ail in §7, Lex aa dig makes
use o a compu e ized en i onmen which p o ides s uden s wi h all
he ools hey need o s uc u e hei ac i e lea ning: anno a ed ex s,
wi h s uc u ed assignmen s, an elec onic handbook on applied lexi-
cology, and an ‘elec onic ca d index’ in which hey can no e all hei
disco e ies. They also ha e a ious elec onically accessible monolin-
gual and bilingual dic iona ies a hei disposal.
Al hough dic iona ies play an indispensable ole in language lea n-
ing, s uden s ha e gene ally ecei ed li le guidance a school on hei
use. Pa o he eshmen’s p epa a o y aining is he e o e o ien ed o
helping hem ake maximum ad an age o he a ious ypes ha a e
a ailable (c . Schol ield, 1997). Pa icula ly wi h highly polysemous
i ems, s uden s need a lo o explici help wi h de i ing in o ma ion
om dic iona y en ies. Elec onic dic iona ies also ha e ex emely use-
ul sea ch unc ions bu he use o hese, oo, needs o be augh and
p ac ised.
A med wi h his backg ound unde s anding o he h ee ac i i ies
hey a e abou o ca y ou ( ecep ion, p oduc ion and esou cing), he
s uden s can now u n o he ask o iden i ying he phenomena hey
will be s udying. I is his ask ha is desc ibed in he ollowing sec ion.
3. LEXICAL UNITS
S uden s ha e a s ong endency, which is un o una ely no unde -
mined by mos dic iona ies, o equa e he lexical uni wi h he wo d.
Any cou se in lexicology mus s a by d awing s uden s’ a en ion o
he ac ha he indi idual wo d is only one o he o ms in which a
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
548
meaning uni may be packaged. Wha hey will be lea ning a e lexical
uni s (c . C use, 1986). These can be o any leng h o complexi y, and
may in ol e ‘lexical ph ases’ in he sense o Na inge and DeCa ico
(1992):
black box adjec i e + noun
on a …. basis p eposi ional ph ase
spick and span binomial exp ession
Bea s me. clausal agmen
The mo e … he mo e …clause-linking o mula
Like a he , like son. p o e bial sen ence
Ou Fa he , which …
o e e and e e . Amen. en i e ex (The Lo d’s P aye )
Due a en ion is gi en o idioma ic exp essions, and in pa icula
o how he e a e limi a ions on how hese can be buil in o he claus-
es ha con ain hem. Thus s uden s do no only lea n ha ake one’s
ha o o means ‘p aise, exp ess one’s espec o ’, bu a e also encou -
aged o disco e how he exp ession is used. Thus hey may ind ou
ha i is usually used in he p esen ense wi h a i s -pe son subjec
o pe o m an ac o p aise, as in I ake o my ha o him, and ha i
is gene ally no ound in he pas ense and ne e in he passi e oice:
?I ook o my ha o him; *My ha is/was aken o o him. They canno
make hese disco e ies by consul ing a dic iona y: o his, hey need
o consul a co pus o o y ou di e en o ms on a na i e speake .
Simila ly o he disco e y ha ba king up he w ong ee canno occu
in he simple aspec . F om a e y ea ly s age, s uden s eel like lan-
guage esea che s: hey ealize ha a g ea deal o wha can be known
abou he language hey a e lea ning is no codi ied in exis ing ex -
books and wo ks o e e ence, and ha s udying a an academic ins i-
u ion in ol es hem om he ou se in a p ocess o o mula ing and
es ing hypo heses.
S uden s need o ex end hei ocabula y o wo pu poses: o
enhance hei unde s anding o ex s, and o imp o e hei own ac i e
use o he language. I is in pa icula wi h he la e pu pose in mind
ha hei a en ion needs o be d awn o he s uc u e-building de ices
ha a e so impo an o bo h he managemen o con e sa ions and
he p oduc ion o w i en ex s. Since s uden s will end o “ ead o e
he op” o hese i ems, hey a e encou aged o obse e and no e such
opening gambi s as:
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
549
No e ha …
I canno be denied ha …
A u he poin is ha …
as well as mo e ypically spoken-language o mulae like:
I hope you don’ mind me saying so, bu …
Wha do you mean (my cooking is aw ul)?
Tha eminds me, (I ha en’ done my shopping ye ).
Ano he ca ego y o which hei a en ion is d awn is he ‘p agma ic
o mula’. These a e a he mo e cha ac e is ic o he spoken language,
and a e ixed exp essions which ha e a ce ain ecognized illocu ion-
a y s a us in social in e ac ion: exclaiming Bless you! when someone
sneezes is an ob ious example. Social in e ac ion is o cou se hea ily
in luenced by cul u al con en ions: i may well be ha e en Bless you!
is no app op ia e in all si ua ions whe e in Spanish-speaking cul u es
one migh exclaim ¡Jesús!. S uden s a e, o example, asked o hink
abou he a ious exp essions used du ing a ansac ion in a Du ch
shop, and he eby iden i y he p agma ic o mulae used in hei own
cul u e. The challenge is hen o disco e how a compa able ansac-
ion would be ca ied ou in an English-speaking en i onmen . One
componen o a Du ch ansac ion is he op ional o mula He is een
cadeau (li e ally, ‘I ’s a p esen ’). In he Du ch con ex , his is said by
a cus ome as a eques ha he salespe son gi w ap he pu chase ( o
ee). In an English-speaking con ex , he e is no such compa able o -
mula: one could say Could you pe haps w ap i up o me, I’m gi ing
i as a p esen , bu his is no a s anda d o mula, and i is unlikely ha
he shop will o e he se ice ee o cha ge anyway.
Each lexical uni no ed by he s uden will be classi ied acco ding
o i s s a us as a simple o complex lexical uni , a p o e b, a s uc u e-
building de ice o a p agma ic o mula.
4. PHONOLOGY, ORTHOGRAPHY AND MORPHOLOGY
Since he s uden s ecei e hei aining in lexicology a he e y
beginning o hei s udies, hey ha e no ye had any ui ion in pho-
ne ics and phonology. Ne e heless, pa icula ly wi h a language as o ho-
g aphically whimsical as English, s uden s will o en need o no e he
p onuncia ion o i ems. A his s age, we ole a e he use o in o mal
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
556
(j) disjunc s su p isingly, impo an ly,
c ucially
The pu pose o he p epa a o y ui ion in wha we migh call
‘applied lexicology’ is o p epa e s uden s o se abou he ask o enhanc-
ing hei lexical skills in he b oades sense. They a e gi en a se o
concep s which will enable hem o hink analy ically abou he ex s
hey encoun e . These ex s will now appea as da a, he a ious dic-
iona ies and wo ks o e e ence as equipmen , and –pe haps mos
impo an ly– hey will eel like esea che s, a eeling ha will be
s eng hened by he ine i able ac ha hey will om ime o ime be
making disco e ies ha a e new no only o hem, bu also o hei
eache s and o he a ious e e ence books. The wo k hey do will
hus no only be o p ac ical bene i : om he e y beginnings o hei
uni e si y educa ion, hey will know hey a e doing academic wo k.
Le us now u n o he Lex aa dig package, he compu e -based
wo kbench which is an in eg al pa o he s uden s’ equipmen .
7. LEXVAARDIG: THE PACKAGE
The package consis s o h ee sepa a e bu in eg a ed p oduc s, all
o which ha e been de eloped a he V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam and
a e accessible o he s uden on and h ough he Facul y compu e ne -
wo k. In addi ion, o he ma e ials needed o assignmen s, such as
monolingual and bilingual dic iona ies, a conco dance and a ious co -
po a, a e also a ailable on he ne wo k o h ough In e ne , and s u-
den s a e encou aged o ha e hese open while wo king wi h he Lex-
aa dig p oduc s.
The i s is an Elec onic Tex Bank (ETB), cu en ly consis ing o
some 120 sho ex s in English (and compa able numbe s o ex s in
F ench and Ge man). These a e d awn om some se en gen es, which
ha e been selec ed o appeal o s uden use s: (a) mass media, (b) go -
e nmen al and co po a e ex s, (c) scien i ic and schola ly ex s, (d) li -
e a y ex s, (e) p i a e communica ion, ( ) legal ex s, (g) ex s se o
music. The ex s ha e been chosen o be a ac i e o he use s’ age
g oup, eadable, and ich in ele an lexical phenomena. The use can
access and selec he ex s in a ious ways: (a) by gen e, (b) by alpha-
be ically o de ed i le, o (c) by subjec ma e (a ex abou ‘lo e’ could
o example all unde gen es a, d, e o g).

DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
557
The ex s ha e been anno a ed in he sense ha a numbe o wo ds
and exp essions ha exempli y one o mo e o he lexicological issues
discussed abo e a e p o ided wi h a hype ex commen a y; mos anno-
a ions also con ain an assignmen , which di ec s and ac i a es he s u-
den s’ in e es . Howe e , only some o he ele an ma e ial in he ex
has been ma ked in his way: i is equally impo an ha s uden s
should lea n o iden i y phenomena wi hou explici guidance.
The s uden also has access o a numbe o comme cial p oduc s
which she can use in doing he assignmen s: a conco dance , which
applies o a ious co po a a ailable on he acul y ne wo k and o high-
quali y bilingual elec onic dic iona ies (English-Du ch and Du ch-Eng-
lish); he s uden can also access he web, and is expec ed o no e he
indings in he ECI (see below), which is also linked o his sc een.
The s uden can be asked o (a) ind examples o a pa icula phe-
nomenon in a ex ; (b) sea ch o mo e examples o a phenomenon in
he elec onic dic iona y (which allows a ious ypes o sea ch); o (c)
disco e colloca ions, equencies, e c. by using he conco dance o
ex ac da a om co po a.
The second p oduc is an Elec onically Accessible Handbook (EAH),
which in p in ed o m con ains some 100 pages o backg ound in o -
ma ion on he phenomena ske ched in sec ions 4 o 6 abo e. The i s
pa o he handbook con ains a sys ema ized o e iew o he a ious
dimensions ha mus be b ough o bea on he unde s anding o a
lexical uni . The second pa is a p ac ical guide on he use o dic-
iona ies, bo h monolingual and bilingual. The whole o he EAH can
be accessed di ec ly om he ETB, and he e a e speci ic links o he
ele an pa s o he EAH om each anno a ion, so ha s uden s puz-
zled by a e e ence in one o hese anno a ions o, say, ‘clipping’ o
‘polysemy’ can immedia ely check he meaning and use o hese e ms.
The hi d p oduc is pe haps he mos dis inc i e. This is he Elec-
onic Ca d Index (ECI), a acili y which allows s uden s o compile hei
e y own, pe sonalized da abase. This, a he han he dog-ea ed jo e
o yes e yea , is whe e hey s o e hei wo d-wisdom. The ECI is a com-
pu e p og am s uc u ed in such a way as o in eg a e seamlessly wi h
he a ious ca ego ies se ou in he EAH: he e is a place in he sys-
em o any hing a s uden wishes o no e abou a lexical uni (p o-
nuncia ion, spelling, complemen a ion, socio-cul u al cons ain s, e c.).
The s uden ’s ECI is a o ally indi idual eco d o lexical phenomena
which she has ound wo h no ing. She con inues o add o i h ough-
ou he s udies. The ECI p og am can be copied on o he compu e a
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
558
home (i she has one), and she can keep he pe sonal ECI on a diske e,
adding o i ei he in he acul y o in he p i a e qua e s.
I will be clea ha Lex aa dig i s in o he philosophy o au onomous
lea ning: he s uden is se ee o make he own disco e ies and o
pu oge he he own epo on hose disco e ies. This p ocess s imu-
la es he lexicological cu iosi y and he eby inc eases he abili y o acqui e
a mo e lexible lexical compe ence h ough a las ing p ocess o con-
scious eading and lis ening. The amewo k o he lea ning is o
cou se p e-s uc u ed in a ious ways: he de elope s ha e selec ed he
ex s in he ETB, hey ha e w i en he EAH and hey ha e c ea ed he
s uc u e o he ECI; wha is mo e, he indi idual u o s es ablish ce -
ain minimum equi emen s in e ms o he numbe and a ie y o
assignmen s, o example ha o e e y 50 ECI en ies, a leas 10 mus
men ion colloca ion, a leas 10 (no necessa ily an en i ely di e en 10)
mus pay a en ion o lexicosyn ac ic issues, and a leas 10 mus con-
ain a desc ip ion o he sociocul u al condi ions on use.
The u o ’s ole in his lea ning p ocess becomes ha o a men o .
The s uden epo s egula ly o he u o , who akes a sample om
he ECI, es ing whe he she has sa is ied he minimum equi emen s
bu abo e all sugges ing new pa ame e s which she migh conside
wo h no ing: an unsuspec ed e ymological connec ion, o a peculia i-
y o complemen a ion ha has escaped he a en ion. Du ing hese
u o ial sessions, which a e one- o-one, i becomes appa en ha s u-
den s end each o ha e hei own lea ning s yle: some ha e become
almos obsessed wi h one pa icula phenomenon, e.g. adjec i es wi h
ixed p eposi ions ( ond o , simila o, …); some d aw all hei exam-
ples om one kind o ex (one s uden ook all his om ock ly ics);
some scou ex s o wo ds o g ea a i y, as i o challenge hei u o
o know hem all. Bu hese a e ex emes, which gen le pe suasion can
usually cu e. Gene ally, he ECI wo ks well, as s uden s come o see
he in ellec ual ewa d ha epays he ex a e o hey mus pu in,
lea ning o ope a e he p og am, selec ing he ele an pa ame e s pe
wo d and hen esea ching each lexical i em.
8. CONCLUSIONS
Despi e being cen al o he acquisi ion o a o eign language,
ocabula y lea ning has had a bad p ess wi h s uden s. Mos beginne s
s a ou wi h an ing ained dislike o lea ning wo ds, no leas because
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
559
many schools ha e no p og essed beyond demanding he memo iza-
ion o uns uc u ed lis s. The pu pose o he Lex aa dig p ojec ou -
lined abo e is o ins il espec o he immeasu able complexi y o he
lexicon and concu en ly o p o ide hem wi h he whe ewi hal o se
ou on hei own pe sonal oyage o disco e y h ough ha angled
jungle. Vocabula y acquisi ion is a slow, g adual business, which con-
inues h oughou one’s li e ime. I he ou yea s o uni e si y s udy
a e also yea s o egula , in o med esea ch in o how wo ds and ph as-
es a e used, hose ou yea s will ha e c ea ed a cons uc i e a i ude
o he ask o acqui ing a ich and lexible command o he a ge lex-
icon.
APPENDICES
J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
560
Figu e 1. The sc een h ough which s uden s choose which ea u es
o a lexical uni hey wish o eco d. This sc een is in Du ch, since i
is designed o s uden s o all o eign languages.
The sc een p eselec s ou ca ego ies: lexical uni , co e wo ds, language
and ype o uni
The s uden may u he choose om:
Meaning: de ini ion; ansla ion
Meaning ex a: example o use, ansla ion o example, colloca ions,
synonym, an onym, hyponym, supe o dima e, conno a ion, cul u al speci-
ici y
Lexical g amma : g amma ical peculia i ies, selec ion es ic ions
Condi ions on use: geog aphical, language le el, social, ja gon, ch ono-
logical
Fo mal cha ac e is ics: spelling, p onuncia ion, o mal a ian s, mo -
phology
O he : pe sonal ema ks, e ymology, equency, o be lea ned
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
561
Figu e 2-6. Examples o pages om a s uden ’s ECI.

J. LACHLAN MACKENZIE AND MIKE HANNAY
562
Figu e 2-6. Examples o pages om a s uden ’s ECI.
DEVELOPING LEXICAL COMPETENCE: A COMPUTER-ASSISTED…
563
Figu e 2-6. Examples o pages om a s uden ’s ECI.
REFERENCES
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—, NATION, P. (1993), “Wo d amilies”, In e na ional Jou nal o Lexicog aphy,
6, pp. 253-279.
CHAMOT, A. U. (1987), “The lea ning s a egies o ESL s uden s”, in A. Wenden
and J. Rubin (eds.), Lea ning s a egies in language lea ning, Engelwood
Cli s NJ, P en ice-Hall, pp. 71-84.
CRUSE, D. A. (1986), Lexical seman ics, Camb idge, CUP.
ELLIS, R. (1994), The s udy o second language acquisi ion, Ox o d, OUP.
HOEY, M. (1991), Pa e ns o lexis in ex , Ox o d, OUP.
NATTINGER, J. R.; DECARRICO, J. S. (1992), Lexical ph ases and language eaching,
Ox o d, OUP.
SCHOLFIELD, P. (1997), “Vocabula y e e ence wo ks in o eign language lea n-
ing”, in N. Schmi and M. McCa hy (eds.), Vocabula y: desc ip ion, acqui-
si ion and pedagogy, Camb idge e c., CUP, pp. 279-302.