Vol.:(0123456789)
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10566-024-09826-4
ORIGINAL PAPER
The Role o Dosage andFamily P o iles inaChild Wel a e
Home Visi ing P og am
Vic o ia Hidalgo Ga cía1 · Ja ie Pé ez‑Padilla2,3 ·
Ca los Camacho Ma ínez‑Va a de Rey4 · Lucía Jiménez Ga cía1
Accep ed: 6 Sep embe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac
Backg ound Among he di e en modali ies o amily suppo , home isi ing p og ams
ha e p o ed o be one o he mos e ec i e seconda y p e en ion models o amilies
in ol ed in child wel a e se ices. Despi e he p omising ou comes and he ex ensi e a ail-
able li e a u e, u he esea ch is needed o in es iga e a ge popula ion cha ac e is ics
and implemen a ion ac o s ha may explain he he e ogenei y in he ou comes o hese
p og ams o amilies ecei ing child wel a e se ices.
Objec i e This longi udinal s udy explo ed he ole o dosage and amily cha ac e is ics
ela ed o he e ec i eness o he Family In e en ion P og am (FIP), which is a home-
based Spanish child wel a e se ice o suppo ing amilies a psychosocial isk.
Me hod To his end, a quasi-expe imen al design was ollowed, including a ime-se ies
e alua ion o he 289 amilies ecei ing he FIP. In o de o examine he impac o he
FIP, he e olu ion o child well-being (CWB) was e alua ed wi h Child Well-Being Scales
e e y 6 mon hs.
Resul s The esul s showed ha he highes a e age CWB sco e was obse ed a e
39mon hs o in e en ion, obse ing no imp o emen s in CWB om ha poin . Simila ly,
he esul s showed ha he FIP was mo e e ec i e o single pa en amilies a highe soci-
oeconomic le els.
Conclusions This a icle p o ides new knowledge o he unde s anding o home isi ing
p og ams success, concluding ha he p og ams a e no equally e ec i e o all amily p o-
iles, and ha i is necessa y o adjus each p og am o he speci ic cha ac e is ics o he
a ge popula ion.
Keywo ds Home isi ing p og am· P og am e alua ion· Dosage· Child wel a e· Child
wellbeing
In oduc ion
The e is a widesp ead consensus among esea che s and policymake s on he need o
e ec i e in e en ions o p omo ing child well-being in amilies a psychosocial isk, since
hese amilies a e unable o adequa ely mee he needs o hei child en (Jiménez e al.,
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
/ Published online: 19 Sep embe 2024
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452
2019). To unde s and he unc ioning o amilies a psychological isk, he mos sui able
heo e ical amewo k is he ecological- ansac ional pe spec i e (B on enb enne , 1979;
B on enb enne & Ceci, 1994; Cicche i & Lynch, 1993). F om his app oach, i has been
highligh ed ha pa en ing depends on ac o s ela ed o he cha ac e is ics o he pa en s
(e.g., de elopmen al ajec o y, pe sonali y, pa en ing skills, e ce e a), he cha ac e is ics
o he child en (e.g., age, empe amen , de elopmen al needs, e ce e a) and he psycho-
social en i onmen ha su ounds he amily (e.g., social suppo , communi y esou ces,
e ce e a) (Belsky, 1984). In acco dance wi h his explana o y model o pa en ing, i is
possible o iden i y bo h isk and p o ec i e ac o s a each o he di e en domains and
ecological le els. The balance be ween he isk and p o ec i e ac o s p esen in he ecol-
ogy o each amily would explain whe he pa en s a e capable o adequa ely mee ing he
needs o child en (Cicche i & Valen ino, 2006). To se e amilies ha do no adequa ely
co e child en’s needs, amily p ese a ion se ices a e cu en ly a social and poli ical p i-
o i y o mos coun ies suppo ed by in e na ional ag eemen s (Council o Eu ope, 2011
and 2016; Uni ed Na ions, 1989). Acco ding o hese egula ions, ca e o a - isk amilies
has e ol ed om a adi ional de ici -based model o a posi i e amily suppo app oach
wi h he p omo ion o pa en ing skills and communi y s eng hening as he main pu poses
o in e en ions (e.g., Daly e al., 2015; Da ies e al., 2019; Gen les-Gibbs, 2016). In he
esea ch a ena, his app oach has led o he iden i ica ion o co e componen s and main
quali y s anda ds o e idence-based p ac ices and p og ams (Ax o d, 2012; Ba low &
Co en, 2018; Ba e , 2010). In he scope o p ac ices, his app oach has in ol ed he di e -
si ica ion o in e en ion modali ies o add ess di e se amily needs (Walsh e al., 2015).
Among he di e en modali ies o amily suppo , home isi ing p og ams ha e p o ed
o be one o he mos e ec i e seconda y p e en ion models o amilies in ol ed in child
wel a e se ices (e.g., Acquah & Thé enon, 2020; Lee e al., 2018; Paulsell e al., 2011).
Since he la e wen ie h cen u y, home-based pa en ing suppo has gained inc easing ec-
ogni ion as a use ul s a egy o p e en child abuse and neglec , o imp o e pa en ing skills
and o p omo e child de elopmen (Council o Communi y Pedia ics, 2009). In ac , home
isi ing is cu en ly he mos widely used child mal ea men p e en ion s a egy in he
Uni ed S a es (Casillas e al., 2016; Supple e al., 2012), and i is a ype o in e en ion
used as a amily suppo ool in mos Eu opean coun ies (e.g., Jungmann e al., 2015;
Vee man & De Meye , 2015). Home isi ing p og ams a e de ined as amily p e en i e
and p ese a ion in e en ions ha use home isi ing as he p ima y se ice deli e y s a -
egy. These se ices in ol e assessing amily needs, p o iding educa ion and suppo s o
pa en s and connec ing amilies o communi y suppo esou ces. Home isi ing p og ams
a y widely in hei app oach, mainly, in e ms o a ge popula ion ( isk p o ile, cul u al
g oup, iming o pa en hood), home isi o quali ica ions (p o essional o ained pa ap o-
essional), dosage and in ensi y o he in e en ions ( om a ew mon hs o se e al yea s),
and he cu iculum and isi con en (Casillas e al., 2016; Segal e al., 2012).
Posi i e e ec s o home isi ing p og ams on pa en ing belie s and p ac ices, child
heal h and de elopmen in a - isk amilies, as well as hei e ec i eness in p e en ing child
mal ea men , ha e been demons a ed in bo h empi ical s udies and me a-analyses (A el-
la & Supplee, 2013; Duggan e al., 2018; Paulsell e al., 2010, 2014; Sama-Mille e al.,
2017, 2019; Van Assen e al., 2020). The e is also some e idence o he long- e m e ec s
o home isi ing p og ams (Michalopoulos e al., 2017). Despi e hese p omising ou comes
and he ex ensi e a ailable li e a u e, he e idence suppo ing he e ec i eness o home
isi ing p og ams is s ill inconclusi e, wi h e iews epo ing mixed esul s, pa icula ly
o amilies in ol ed in he child wel a e sys em (Cha in e al., 2012; Chaiyacha i e al.,
2018; Lee e al., 2018). Among he easons o e ed o explain he a iabili y in he ob ained
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452
436
esul s, he conside able di e si y in he p og am componen s and implemen a ion ac o s
has been he mos equen explana ion (Kaye e al., 2018; Segal e al., 2012).
In ela ion o p og am componen s associa ed wi h home isi ing e ec i eness, he
e iew conduc ed by Gubbel e al. (2021) e ealed ha p og ams ha ocused on imp o -
ing he pa en al expec a ions and esponsi eness o a child’s needs yielded ela i ely la ge
e ec s. In he e iew by Kaye e al. (2018), p oblem-sol ing s a egies we e a key ing e-
dien o e idence-based p og ams. P og ams wi h high le els o pa icipan in ol emen ,
a s eng hs-based app oach, and a componen o social suppo ha e also been linked o
e ec i eness (MacLeod & Nelson, 2000). The consis ency be ween he heo y o change,
he needs o he a ge popula ion and he p og am objec i es and ac i i ies has also been
demons a ed (Boo h & Lea i , 2011; Segal e al., 2012).
Se e al ecen e iews ha e analyzed he impac o implemen a ion ac o s on he de e -
mina ion o home isi ing p og ams’ success (Casillas e al., 2016; Paulsell e al., 2014;
Segal e al., 2012). Implemen a ion ideli y appea s o be a c ucial e ec i eness mode a-
o o home isi ing p og ams, as no ed by implemen a ion scien is s (Du lak & DuP e,
2008; Fixsen e al., 2005). The me a-analy ic e iew o Casillas e al. (2016) e ealed ha
se e al implemen a ion ac o s, such as aining, supe ision, and ideli y moni o ing, had
a signi ican e ec on p og am ou comes. Despi e hese ad ances, he e a e no conclusi e
da a on o he aspec s o p og am deli e y ha may be impo an o p og am success, such
as dosage and du a ion o in e en ions. In ela ion o dosage, some s udies ha e ound no
e ec o se ice du a ion o in ensi y (Li ell & Schue man, 2002). Howe e , he e idence
also shows ha in e en ions o longe du a ion and g ea e in ensi y a e mo e e ec i e
(Bilukha e al., 2005; Howa d & B ooks-Gunn, 2009; Lage be g, 2000). In mos cases,
dosage is epo ed as aw da a, wi hou analyzing he dosing h esholds equi ed o achie e
he expec ed esul s acco ding o he p og am model (Paulsell e al., 2014). To imp o e
he unde s anding o dosage, s udies wi h p e es –pos es designs may no be su icien ,
since i is necessa y o ha e successi e measu emen s h oughou he in e en ion p ocess
o know when he ou comes a e achie ed (Singe & Wille , 2003).
In addi ion o he obse ed di e ence in he e ec i eness o home isi ing p og ams in
e ms o he implemen a ion condi ions, ano he elemen ha adds a iabili y is he one
ela ed o he amily p o ile, since he exis ing da a show ha hose in e en ions a e no
equally e ec i e o all amilies. In ela ion o a ge popula ion p o ile, al hough mos s ud-
ies ha e used e hnically and socioeconomically di e se samples, he esul s a e epo ed o
he o al s udy sample, wi hou p o iding da a di e en ia ed by subg oups based on pa -
icula cha ac e is ics (Sama-Mille e al., 2019). The sca ce da a a ailable on his aspec
a e no consis en . Some s udies indica e g ea e e ec i eness wi h low-income, single and
i s - ime mo he s wi hou men al heal h, iolence o addic ion p oblems (Gu e man e al.,
2014; Segal e al., 2012). O he s udies ha e epo ed ha pa en s o a lowe socioeco-
nomic s a us ha e poo e ou comes (MacLeod & Nelson, 2000). In mos cases, da a come
mainly om p og ams de eloped in he Uni ed S a es. Analyzing he di e ences be ween
he amilies ha ob ain be e esul s and hose who ob ain lowe bene i s om he in e -
en ion, as well as gene a ing in o ma ion om he esul s o hese in e en ions in o he
cul u al con ex s, is essen ial o be e unde s anding he e ec i eness o home isi ing
p og ams (Swee & Appelbaum, 2004).
In he case o Spain, he social and cul u al con ex ela ed o amily and child wel-
a e p esen s impo an di e ences wi h espec o ha o he Uni ed S a es. A uni e sal-
is model o social se ices is well es ablished since he las decade o he las cen u y,
while inc easingly ambi ious policies ega ding child en’s igh s and amily suppo ha e
been p og essi ely in oduced. Cu en ly, he e a e mode n policies and laws ega ding
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452 437
childhood and amily ( igh s o same-sex ma iage, adop ion e o ms and p o ec ion o
child en om si ua ions o iolence) ha ha e placed Spain among he bes - anked Eu o-
pean coun ies in e ms o ecogni ion o amily di e si y (Pé ez-Ca amés, 2014) and p o-
mo ion o posi i e pa en ing (Jiménez e al., 2019). Howe e , amilism, which is deeply
oo ed in Spain, has mean ha public spending alloca ed o amily policies, as well as
inancial suppo o amilies, emains pa ially below he Eu opean Union a e ages in
e ms o bene i s in cash, se ices and ax b eaks (Chu chill e al., 2020). Among o he
in e en ion ac ions wi h amilies a isk, home isi p og ams ha e also begun o sp ead
in Spain in ecen yea s (Hidalgo e al., 2018), making i necessa y o ob ain e idence o
hei e ec i eness in his social con ex .
As has been widely highligh ed, e ec i eness e alua ions equi e no only knowing he
gene al impac o he in e en ions bu also analyzing he a ge use s and he condi ions
unde which he bes esul s a e ob ained (Flay e al., 2005; Go edson e al., 2015). Thus,
addi ional empi ical s udies a e necessa y o iden i y bo h dosage h esholds o p oduce
ou comes and amily cha ac e is ics associa ed wi h g ea e e ec i eness. To analyze he
mode a ing in luence o hese aspec s in he e ec i eness o home isi ing p og ams, i
is also impo an o ha e e alua ion designs and measu emen ools ha allow e i ying
how changes ake place p og essi ely in he a ge dimensions o he in e en ion. Since
he ul ima e aim o hese in e en ions is o p omo e child de elopmen while p e en ing
child abuse and neglec , he e alua ion canno be limi ed o checking he dec ease o he
ou -o -home placemen a es; i is also necessa y o assess he imp o emen s in he de el-
opmen o child en who s ay in hei homes (Be y & McLean, 2014). In his sense, he
imp o emen in child well-being can be aken as an app op ia e measu e o he e ec i e-
ness o home isi ing p og ams. Among he mos commonly used ools o measu ing child
well-being in a - isk amilies is The Child Well-Being Scales (CWBS) (Magu a & Moses,
1986). The CWBS is a use ul ool o measu ing he child well-being and has been used
in di e en Eu opean coun ies wi h sa is ac o y indica o s o alidi y and eliabili y (e.g.,
G imaldi-Puyana e al., 2019; Nunes e al., 2022; Se ba i e al., 2015a and b). Speci ically,
many s udies ha e shown he capaci y o hese scales o e alua e p og ams’ e ec i eness
and he ollow-up o amilies in ol ed in child wel a e se ices (e.g., Cash & Be y, 2003;
Se ba i e al., 2015a and b).
Aims o  heP esen S udy
Recen e idence shows home isi ing p og ams as a use ul s a egy o imp o ing pa en -
ing skills, amily unc ioning and child well-being. Howe e , e ec i eness e alua ions
equi e no only knowing he gene al impac o he in e en ions, bu also analyzing he
a ge use s and he condi ions unde which he bes esul s a e ob ained. Thus, u he
esea ch is needed o in es iga e a ge popula ion cha ac e is ics and implemen a ion ac-
o s ha may explain he he e ogenei y in he ou comes o hese p og ams o amilies
in ol ed in child wel a e se ices. Likewise, mos o he a ailable da a co espond o he
e alua ion o p og ams de eloped in he Uni ed S a es; he e o e, i is necessa y o p oduce
u he e idence in o he cul u al con ex s.
In his amewo k, his s udy aims o con ibu e wi h new knowledge o he unde s and-
ing o home isi ing p og ams’ success, explo ing dosage and amily cha ac e is ics ela ed
o he e ec i eness o he Family In e en ion P og am (FIP), a home isi ing p og am
de eloped in Spain o amilies a psychosocial isk. Speci ically, he aims o his s udy
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452
438
we e: (1) o analyze he imp o emen in child well-being h oughou he in e en ion p o-
cess, and (2) o explo e he a iabili y in he e ec i eness o he in e en ion as a unc ion
o ce ain indi idual and amily cha ac e is ics. In ela ion o he i s objec i e and acco d-
ing o he exis ing e idence in he li e a u e, we expec ha he longe he in e en ion, he
g ea e he e ec i eness. In ela ion o he second objec i e, we expec di e ences acco d-
ing o socio-economic le el, amily s uc u e and child en’s age. Speci ically, and acco d-
ing o he a ailable e idence, ou hypo hesis is ha g ea e e ec i eness will be obse ed
in single and low-income amilies wi h younge child en.
Me hod
In e en ion
The Family In e en ion P og am (FIP) is an e idence-based home isi ing p og am ha
is pa o he local esou ces o amily a en ion ca ied ou in a own in No he n Spain
(Pamplona Ci yhall, 2008), wi hin he se ices p o ided by he Child P o ec ion Sys em
(CPS) in Spain (OSB, 2015; Spanish Minis y o Heal h, Social Se ices and Equali y,
2013). The FIP is designed o a - isk amilies a ended by amily p ese a ion se ices.
The FIP is suppo ed by di e en heo e ical models, mainly he sys emic model, he cog-
ni i e-beha io al model, and he humanis ic heo ies. The con en s ackled in he FIP a e
aimed a he p omo ion o pa en al compe encies (con lic sol ing, communica ion, a en-
ion o child en’s needs, household managemen ) and o he pe sonal skills (p o essional
in eg a ion, heal h and quali y o li e), which a e wo ked on bo h in he en i e amily as a
whole and in he di e en membe s o he amily o p omo e he de elopmen and well-
being o he child en. The implemen a ion o he FIP includes 2–5 weekly isi s o 2h o
2yea s, al hough he du a ion can be ex ended i he amily di icul ies pe sis . The p o es-
sionals who ca y ou he in e en ion a e psychologis s, social educa o s and social wo k-
e s wi h specialized aining in he p og am and p e ious expe ience in amily in e en ion.
In e en ion me hods include cogni i e-beha io echniques (e.g., modeling), psycho-edu-
ca ional guidelines and o ien a ion, emo ional suppo and playing-based ac i i ies. Case
moni o ing wi h child wel a e se ice p ac i ione s was ca ied ou on a mon hly basis.
Pa icipan s
All he amilies who we e unde he in e en ion o he FIP pa icipa ed in he s udy. Thus,
289 amilies ook pa in his FIP ial, which las ed 27mon hs on a e age, wi h an in en-
si y o h ee weekly sessions (M = 2.95, SD = 0.78, Min. = 2, Max. = 5), which las ed 2 h
pe session. The p o essionals in cha ge o he implemen a ion classi ied he amilies as
being a medium–high psychosocial isk in a 11-poin scale a ing om 0 ( e y low isk)
o 10 (ex emely high isk). Acco ding o his assessmen , 93.03% o he sample ob ained
a sco e o 5 o mo e wi h a mean o 7.15 poin s (SD = 1.69, Min. = 1, Max. = 10). The
mos equen amily s uc u e was he single pa en amily (61.24%), al hough mos o
hem we e de ined by he s abili y o hei composi ion (86.85%). The amilies we e cons i-
u ed by app oxima ely 4 membe s (M = 3.70, SD = 1.36) wi h a ound 2 child en (M = 1.96,
SD = 0.95). The esul s ega ding he economic le el indica e ha 10.03% we e ex emely
poo , 24.22% we e p eca ious and 36.33% p esen ed low income.
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452 439

Among he pa en s o he pa icipa ing amilies, 43.59% p esen ed a basic educa ion
le el and 31.49% had no educa ion. Only 6.57% o he pa en s had uni e si y s udies and
18.35% comple ed high school. Mo eo e , he e was a high pe cen age o mig an pa -
en s (39.58%), who had li ed in Spain o an a e age o 9.71yea s (SD = 4.64, Min = 1,
Max = 30).
The child en o hese amilies we e equi ably dis ibu ed in e ms o sex, since 59.17%
we e boys and 40.83% we e gi ls. The mean age o he child en was 10.76yea s (SD = 4.40,
Min = 0, Max = 18).
Measu es
Socio‑Demog aphic P o ile
We used an ad hoc ques ionnai e o collec sociodemog aphic in o ma ion a bo h he am-
ily and indi idual le els, epo ing amily composi ion (numbe o amily membe s and
child en a home), amily s uc u e (single-pa en / wo-pa en s uc u e), amily s abili y (in
e ms o composi ion), and amily socio-economic le el (ex eme: he amily does no ha e
an income o he han ha coming om inancial suppo om public o p i a e o ganiza-
ions; p eca ious: uns able and sca ce amily income, whe e some o he adul s wo k, e en
spo adically, and some imes depend on inancial suppo o co e basic needs; low: s able
and su icien amily income, whe e a leas one o he pa en s has a s able job wi h li le o
no quali ica ion and he amily has no impo an inancial needs; medium: amily income
is s able and comes om medium-skill jobs; high: household income is s able and comes
om highly quali ied jobs). In o ma ion abou ca egi e s was p o ided in e ms o na ion-
ali y (non-mig an /mig an , yea s o esidence) and educa ion le el (no educa ion -p ima y
school no comple ed-, basic educa ion le el -p ima y school comple ed-, and high school
o uni e si y s udies). The sex and age o he child en a home we e also epo ed.
Psychosocial Risk Assessmen
The p ac i ione s epo ed a p e es abou he psychosocial isk le el o each amily in
e ms o sa is ac ion o he child en’s needs in a Like scale om 0 ( e y low isk) o 10
(ex emely high isk).
Child Well‑Being
The sa is ac ion o he basic child needs was assessed using he Spanish e sion o he
Child Well-Being Scales (CWBS, Magu a & Moses, 1986), which was alida ed in he
Spanish con ex by De Paul & A uaba ena (1999). The CWBS consis s o 43 i ems and
p o ides a amily sco e (28 i ems, e.g., “Consis ency o discipline”), a child sco e (14
i ems, e.g., “Academic pe o mance”) and a global sco e (43 i ems, e.g., “Pa en al ela-
ions”); he amily sco e was used in his s udy. The i ems a e a ed by p ac i ione s as
in o man s on 4- o 6-poin scales, anging om adequacy o inc easing deg ees o inad-
equacy, which a e hen con e ed o scales o 1–100 poin s, wi h 100 indica ing ha he
e alua ed dimension is sa is ied. CWBS e alua es he deg ee o exis ing p oblems and
no he deg ee o compe ence, hus any sco e below 100 indica es ha child well-being is
comp omised.
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452
440
P ocedu e
The esul s p esen ed in his pape e e o he longi udinal assessmen o child well-being
(CWB) and ela ed a iables om all amilies ha bene i ed om FIP h oughou he s udy
in he no he egion o Spain. A ime-se ies e alua ion design (T1–T12) o he popula ion
o amilies ecei ing he FIP in e en ion h oughou he s udy was ollowed, allowing us
o examine he CWB slopes as a unc ion o he FIP in e en ion leng h in ela ion o child
and amily a iables (Yano i zky & VanLea , 2008).
CPS p ac i ione s e e o he FIP o hose amilies ha , a e an in-dep h, igo ous
assessmen , exhibi inadequa e pa en ing compe ences and ela ed child o adolescen
isk o nega i e de elopmen al ou comes. Child wel a e se ice p ac i ione s con ac ed
he amilies o en oll in he FIP in e en ion i hey me he ollowing c i e ia: (1) being
en olled in child wel a e se ices; (2) ha ing a child unde 18 conside ed o be a isk o
nega i e de elopmen al ou comes; (3) inadequa e pa en ing compe encies wi h oom o
imp o emen as de e mined by child wel a e se ices; and (4) bo h pa en s and child en
consen ing he ea men .
Fo hose amilies en olled in he FIP in e en ion, ec ui men o pa icipa e in he
s udy was ca ied ou by he FIP p ac i ione s du ing he i s mon h since s a ing he ea -
men . In he ec ui men session, he pa icipan s we e in o med abou he main cha ac-
e is ics o he ea men , as well as he objec i es o he ial. The amilies we e in o med
abou he aims o he p ojec and he con iden ial and anonymous na u e o he da a. E e y
amily pa icipa ed in his s udy olun a ily, a e signing an in o med consen o m in
acco dance wi h he Decla a ion o Helsinki. This s udy is adhe ed o he legal equi e-
men s o da a p o ec ion in Spain, and e hical app o al was ob ained om he se ice ha
implemen s he FIP. No mone a y incen i es we e o e ed.
The FIP p ac i ione s illed in he measu es desc ibed abo e. The socio-demog aphic
p o ile and he isk assessmen we e in o med a p e es . Child well-being scales we e illed
in T1 ( h ee mon hs om p e es ) and e e y six mon hs up o he end o he in e en ion,
collec ing da a up o T12 (up o mon h 69). Thus, a T1, 289 subjec s comple ed he e alu-
a ion, whe eas, a T2, he sample dec eased o 237 pa icipan s (comple ed he ea men :
n = 26, o he easons: n = 26), and 162 pa icipan s emained a T3 (comple ed he ea -
men : n = 40, o he easons: n = 35). A T4, he e we e 111 pa icipan s (comple ed he
ea men : n = 39, o he easons: n = 12), d opping o 70 a T5 (comple ed he ea men :
n = 34, o he easons: n = 17), and, inally, 19 pa icipan s comple ed he e alua ion in T6
(comple ed he ea men : n = 33, o he easons n = 18). Then, om T6 o T12, hese sub-
jec s emained in he s udy un il he end o he ea men . The main eason o lea ing he
ial was ending he ea men . O he equen easons included: abandoning he ea men ;
child en’s in eg i y in jeopa dy, equi ing an ou -o -home measu e; and mo ing o ano he
ci y. Less equen easons e e ed o he absence o posi i e esul s om he ea men o
child en eaching legal adul hood.
Da a Analyses
The e ec s o he in e en ion we e examined a he amily le el. P elimina y and desc ip-
i e analyses we e pe o med using SPSS so wa e .18 (SPSS Inc., 2009).
E olu ion o CWB om T1 o T12 was analyzed o de e mine he impac o he FIP
leng h and, hus, he op imum leng h o he in e en ion. To his end, mul i-le el eg ession
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452 441
equa ions we e pe o med using SPSS so wa e .18 (SPSS Inc., 2009). PseudoR2 was
examined as he e ec size indica o . This alue was ob ained by squa ing he co ela ion
be ween he alue p edic ed in he dependen a iable by he model and he eal alue o
ha dependen a iable (Singe & Wille , 2003).
The indi idual ajec o ies on child well-being h ough he in e en ion and he mode -
a ing ole o indi idual and amily a iables in such change om T1 o T7 we e examined
h ough linea hie a chical model analyses using HLM -7 s a is ical so wa e (Rauden-
bush e al., 2011). Six models we e es ed: he null model examined be ween-pe son a i-
abili y in CWB o e ime; model 1 o andom in e cep s and slopes es ed be ween-pe -
son a iabili y on in e cep s and on slopes (le el-1 model); and models 2–6 analyzed he
e ec o mode a ing a iables bo h on in e cep s and on slopes (M2: socio-economic le el,
1 = ex eme, 2 = p eca ious, 3 = low, 4 = medium, 5 = high; M3: amily s uc u e, 0 = wo-
pa en , 1 = single-pa en ; M4: na ionali y, 0 = non-mig an , 1 = mig an ; M5: child sex,
0 = boy, 1 = gi l; M6: child age, yea s). Two ypes o indexes we e examined as goodness-
o - i indica o s. Fi s ly, he de iance index o each model was p o ided ( he lowe he be -
e , Raudenbush & B yk, 2002), as well as he compa a i e de iance be ween consecu i e
models (wi h a signi icance es on he di e ence be ween chi squa e s a is ics). Secondly,
pseudoR2, le el-1 pseudoR2 ( educ ion in esidual a iance om le el 1 compa ed o he
null model), in e cep pseudoR2 ( educ ion in in e cep esidual a iance om le el 2 in
consecu i e models) and slope pseudoR2 ( educ ion in slope esidual a iance om le el
2 in consecu i e models) we e compu ed (Singe & Wille , 2003). PseudoR2 sco es we e
in e p e ed as negligible i < 0.02, small i > 0.02 and < 0.15, medium i > 0.15 and < 0.35,
and la ge i > 0.35.
Resul s
In o de o examine he e olu ion o CWB, he desc ip i e s a is ics om T1 o T12 a e
p o ided in Table1.
CWB was 86.72 in T1 and inc eased o 90.58 in T7, whe e he highes mean CWB
sco e was obse ed. The e o e, a mul i-le el eg ession equa ion was compu ed conside -
ing T1- o-T7 sco es. The eg ession slope was 0.10, wi h a signi icance le el o p = 0.001
Table 1 CWB means and
s anda d de ia ions om T1–T12 Min. – Max M SD
T1–3mon hs 54.24-100 86.72 6.92
T2–9mon hs 66.24-100 87.52 7.18
T3–15mon hs 57.78-100 88.61 7.83
T4–21mon hs 60.08-100 88.99 7.54
T5–27mon hs 56.12-100 88.42 8.76
T6–33mon hs 55.90-97.93 89.20 9.99
T7–39mon hs 79.37-98.83 90.58 5.79
T8–45mon hs 80.79-100 90.32 6.09
T9–51mon hs 76.16-93.45 85.43 6.80
T10–57mon hs 87.33-94.03 89.51 2.41
T11–63mon hs 84.49-95.62 88.94 4.83
T12–69mon hs 84.08-93.21 88.64 6.46
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452
442
and an associa ed PseudoR2 o 0.013, indica ing a signi ican inc ease o CWB om T1
o T7, wi h 1.3% o a iance being explained by ime. A second eg ession equa ion was
compu ed om T7 o T12, in o de o es he s abiliza ion o CWB du ing ha pe iod. The
eg ession slope was 0.001 wi h a signi icance le el o p = 0.993 and an associa ed Pseu-
doR2 o 0.003, indica ing no signi ican inc ease o CWB om T7 o T12.
Once CWB s abiliza ion was es ablished in T7, linea hie a chical models on CWB
indi idual ajec o ies and he mode a ing ole o indi idual and amily a iables we e
examined om T1 o T7. Table2 shows he be a alues, - alues and signi icance le el o
each a iable in each model. Goodness-o - i indexes in e ms o (compa a i e) de iance
and pseudoR2s a e p o ided. Va iance componen s o es ed models a e also epo ed.
The null model showed signi ican be ween-pe son di e ences o e ime in CWB, such
as
𝜎2
0
=
41.497
, χ2 (276) = 2330.45, p < 0.001. This alue, along wi h he esidual a iance
(
𝜎2
e
=
16.963
) allowed calcula ing he in aclass co ela ion, as ollows:
The in aclass co ela ion o he null model exp essed ha 70.98% o a iabili y in
CWB was due o be ween-pe son di e ences. The null model de iance was 5615.60.
M1 o andom in e cep s and slopes showed be ween-pe son a iabili y on he in e -
cep s (
𝜎2
0
= 40.741, p < 0.001) and on he slopes (
𝜎2
1
= 0.103, p < 0.001), exp essing di e -
ences be ween amilies in baseline and di e en ajec o ies h ough he in e en ion, as
well as an imp o emen o 47.8% in wi hin- a iance by inco po a ing ime in o he
equa ion.
The compa ison wi h he null model showed a signi ican dec ease in he de iance (
Δ
de iance = 191.63, p < 0.001). PseudoR2 o M1 was 0.013, se ing as a s a ing poin o
compa ing wi h le el-2 models.
The inclusion o he amily socio-economic le el in M2 showed a signi ican dec ease in
he de iance (
Δ
de iance = 14.39, p < 0.001) and a ele an inc ease o PseudoR2 o 0.072.
Thus, he amily socio-economic le el inc eased he p edic i e capaci y o he model o
7.2%. The β slope was 0.07, wi h a signi ican alue ( 275 = 2.26, p < 0.05), indica ing
highe imp o emen on CWB o hose amilies wi h be e socio-economic s a us.
M3 showed a signi ican dec ease in he de iance (
Δ
de iance = 17.31, p < 0.001) and a
ele an inc ease o PseudoR2 o 0.138. Thus, he amily s uc u e inc eased he p edic i e
capaci y o he model o 13.80%. The slope showed ha single-pa en amilies inc eased
CWB o a g ea e ex en wi h espec o wo-pa en amilies (β = 0.08, 274 = 2.27, p < 0.05).
M4 did no show a signi ican dec ease in he de iance (
Δ
de iance = 3.33, non-sig-
ni ican ), bu an inc ease o PseudoR2 o 0.162. Thus, na ionali y inc eased he p edic i e
capaci y o he model o 16.20%. The slope showed ha mig an and non-mig an amilies
d aw pa allel ajec o ies h oughou he in e en ion (β = 0.07, 273 = 1.12, non-signi ican ).
Simila ly, M5 did no p o ide a signi ican dec ease in he de iance (
Δ
de iance = 0.36,
non-signi ican ), bu a sligh inc ease o PseudoR2 o 0.166. Thus, he child en’s sex
inc eased he p edic i e capaci y o he model o 16.60%. The slope indica es simila
ajec o ies h oughou he in e en ion ega dless o he sex o he child en (β = -0.02,
272 = -0.34, non-signi ican ).
𝜌
=
𝜎
2
0
𝜎2
0
+𝜎2
e
=
41.497
41.497 +16.963 =
0.7098
R
2
e
=
16.963 −8.850
16.963
=
0.478
Child & You h Ca e Fo um (2025) 54:435–452 443
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97814 52272 054. n4
Publishe ’s No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and
ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Au ho s and A ilia ions
Vic o ia Hidalgo Ga cía1 · Ja ie Pé ez‑Padilla2,3 ·
Ca los Camacho Ma ínez‑Va a de Rey4 · Lucía Jiménez Ga cía1
* Ja ie Pé ez-Padilla
[email p o ec ed]
Vic o ia Hidalgo Ga cía
[email p o ec ed]
Ca los Camacho Ma ínez-Va a de Rey
a [email p o ec ed]
Lucía Jiménez Ga cía
[email p o ec ed]
1 De elopmen al andEduca ional Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y
o Se ille, Se ille, Spain
2 Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Humani ies andEduca ional Sciences, Uni e si y o Jaen,
Campus de Las Lagunillas, 23071Jaén, Spain
3 Resea ch G oup HUM604: Li es yle De elopmen in heLi e Cycle andHeal h P omo ion
o Uni e si y o Huel a, Huel a, Spain
4 Expe imen al Psychology Depa men , Facul y o Psychology, Uni e si y o Se ille, Se ille, Spain
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