ORIGINAL PAPER
Recei ed: 27 Decembe 2024 / Accep ed: 26 May 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Ex ended au ho in o ma ion a ailable on he las page o he a icle
Human Toxici y o Building Ma e ials and he Applica ion o
he Taxonomy P inciple in G een Public P ocu emen : The
Li e Cycle Assessmen as a Tool
BelénRey-Ál a ez1· Beni oSánchez-Mon añés1· Ma Robe s2· An onioGa cía-
Ma ínez3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s43615-025-00637-w
Abs ac
The cons uc ion sec o is a majo con ibu o o global en i onmen al impac s, bu cu en
sus ainabili y assessmen s o en o e look he human heal h isks posed by oxic building
ma e ials. While Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) and G een Public P ocu emen (GPP) aim
o educe G eenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions, he in eg a ion o ma e ial oxici y me ics
emains agmen ed, unde mining holis ic sus ainabili y goals. Building ma e ials elease
haza dous subs ances h oughou hei li ecycle, a ec ing indoo ai quali y, public heal h,
and ecosys ems. Howe e , egula o y amewo ks and LCA me hodologies p io i ise ca -
bon emissions, lea ing oxici y unde -assessed and un egula ed in mos policies. He e,
we show ha pe sis en gaps in s anda dised oxici y da a, inconsis en applica ion o
Eu opean (EU) axonomy p inciples, and dispa i ies in GPP c i e ia ac oss membe s a es
hinde e ec i e mi iga ion o oxicological isks. By analysing mo e han 150 s udies
and EU p ocu emen p ac ices, we demons a e ha only a ew LCA s udies in eg a e
oxici y me ics and ewe han 10% o public p ojec s align wi h he Eu opean p inciple
o 'Do no signi ican ly ha m'. Ou indings e eal ha ha monising oxici y h esholds in
LCA da abases, manda ing quan i a i e c i e ia in GPP, and expanding ci cula economy
s a egies could b idge hese gaps. This s udy es ablishes a di ec link be ween ma e ial
oxici y and egula o y agmen a ion, ad oca ing o policies ha equally p io i ise oxic-
i y educ ion and deca bonisa ion. These insigh s unde sco e he u gency o aligning EU
sus ainabili y amewo ks wi h heal h-cen ic me ics, ensu ing public in es men s os e
sa e , biocompa ible ma e ials. By ede ining p ocu emen s anda ds and ad ancing in-
e disciplina y collabo a ion, his wo k p o ides a oadmap o ans o ming cons uc ion
p ac ices, sa egua ding bo h en i onmen al in eg i y and human heal h.
Keywo ds Toxic ma e ials · Sus ainabili y policies · Cons uc ion impac assessmen ·
LCA in eg a ion · Indoo ai quali y
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
In oduc ion
The cons uc ion sec o plays a c i ical ole in he global economy, accoun ing o app oxi-
ma ely 38% o global ene gy- ela ed g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [1]. This signi ican
con ibu ion has led en i onmen al assessmen s o p io i ise he educ ion o hese emis-
sions, pa icula ly in he con ex o clima e change mi iga ion, po en ially o e looking o he
c i ical impac s, such as he oxici y o building ma e ials. The oxici y o ma e ials no only
a ec s he en i onmen bu also has a signi ican impac on human heal h. I has become
c ucial o include ma e ial oxici y as an essen ial elemen in a chi ec u al design p ac ice.
Acco ding o ecen s udies [2, 3], oxici y should be ea ed as a p io i y issue in sus ain-
abili y s a egies, as i s omission can comp omise he heal h and well-being o bo h building
occupan s and communi ies nea cons uc ion zones and along supply chains in he long
e m.
Building ma e ials may elease haza dous subs ances such as ola ile o ganic compounds
(VOCs), hea y me als, and o he con aminan s in o he en i onmen a mul iple poin s in
hei li e cycle [4]. These emissions a e no limi ed o he manu ac u ing s age (A1-A3) bu
can also occu du ing he occupancy (B1-B7) and demoli ion phases (C1-C4) o a building.
O e ime, he deg ada ion o ans o ma ion o ma e ials can con ibu e o indoo and ou -
doo pollu ion, posing ongoing isks o bo h human heal h and ecological sys ems.
Accu a e quan i ica ion o hese oxic emissions h oughou he li ecycle o buildings
(Fig. 1) is c i ical o heal h compliance. While Li e Cycle Assessmen (LCA) is he p ima y
ool o his pu pose, i s cu en limi a ions (e.g. agmen ed oxici y da a in EN 15804)
equi e u gen esolu ion.
G een Public P ocu emen (GPP) plays a c ucial ole in his con ex by le e aging public
spending o p omo e sus ainabili y goals. As a policy ool, GPP enables go e nmen s o
p io i ise en i onmen ally and socially esponsible p ojec s, encou aging he adop ion o
ma e ials and p ac ices ha minimise heal h isks and en i onmen al ha m.
Wi h he in eg a ion o LCA me hodologies, GPP could be consolida ed as an e ec i e
amewo k o di ec public in es men s owa d heal hie and mo e sus ainable cons uc ion
Fig. 1 Li e cycles de ining EN-15978
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
p ac ices. By es ablishing s ic e c i e ia o ma e ial oxici y, GPP can se e as a ca alys
o inno a ion, d i ing he de elopmen o sa e al e na i es and se ing new benchma ks
o he cons uc ion sec o .
This a icle aims o add ess he p essing need o a comp ehensi e assessmen o ma e ial
oxici y and i s in eg a ion in o sus ainabili y amewo ks. Building on a p e iously pub-
lished analysis ha e iewed o e 150 a icles on building LCA [2], his s udy seeks o ill
c i ical gaps by e alua ing whe he signi ican ad ancemen s ha e eme ged in ecen yea s
ega ding he inclusion o oxici y in LCA me hodologies. Fu he mo e, he a icle explo es
he a ailable G een Public P ocu emen (GPP) ools and egula o y amewo ks, such as
he Eu opean G een Deal and he sus ainabili y axonomy, analysing hei ole in p omo ing
sus ainable p ac ices in cons uc ion and ma e ial managemen .
By explici ly b idging hese ields o knowledge—LCA and GPP— his a icle aims o
achie e h ee key objec i es:
1. P o ide an upda ed syn hesis o ecen li e a u e o iden i y ad ancemen s and pe sis-
en gaps in he assessmen o ma e ial oxici y h ough LCA.
2. Analyse how GPP ools and egula o y amewo ks cu en ly add ess ma e ial oxici y
and iden i y oppo uni ies o imp o emen .
3. P opose ac ionable ecommenda ions o in eg a e oxici y conside a ions mo e e ec-
i ely in o LCA me hodologies and GPP policies, os e ing heal hie and mo e sus ain-
able cons uc ion p ac ices.
To achie e hese objec i es, he a icle is o ganised as ollows: Sec . "Me hodology"
desc ibes he me hodology; Sec . "Resul s and Discussion" p esen s he esul s and hei dis-
cussion; and Sec . "Conclusions" concludes wi h p ac ical ecommenda ions. Sec s. "Toxic
Emissions Th oughou he Li e Cycle o Buildings" o "Li e Cycle Assessmen and Toxici y
in he Cons uc ion Sec o ", in eg a ed in o his In oduc ion, p o ide he concep ual ame-
wo k, oxic emissions h oughou building li e cycles, he ole o GPP in mi iga ing oxici y,
and he e ol ing me hodologies o LCA, necessa y o in e p e he indings in ela ion o
he s a ed objec i es.
Toxic Emissions Th oughou he Li e Cycle o Buildings
Add essing he oxici y o ma e ials h oughou he building li ecycle is essen ial o achie e
uly sus ainable cons uc ion p ac ices. Toxic emissions occu a all s ages and pose signi i-
can isks o bo h human heal h and he en i onmen . To mi iga e hese impac s, i is c ucial
o in eg a e he con ol o ma e ial oxici y as a p ima y objec i e in cons uc ion guidelines
and bes p ac ices. Public p ocu emen can ac as a es g ound o hese app oaches, se ing
an example o he cons uc ion indus y by demons a ing he easibili y and bene i s o
p io i ising non oxic ma e ials.
Ini ia i es such as he In e na ional Li ing Fu u e Ins i u e (ILFI) [5] and LEED (Leade -
ship in Ene gy and En i onmen al Design) ce i ica ion [6] al eady add ess ma e ial heal h
by p omo ing he selec ion o non- oxic ma e ials and encou aging anspa ency in ma e-
ial composi ion. These amewo ks highligh he impo ance o p io i ising human and
en i onmen al heal h and in eg a ing oxici y conside a ions alongside o he sus ainabili y
goals. LCA can play a c ucial ole in suppo ing hese ini ia i es by e alua ing a wide ange
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
o impac ca ego ies beyond GWP. Wi hin he wo k p omo ed by public au ho i ies, G een
Public P ocu emen (GPP) [7] eme ges as a key ool o p omo e sus ainabili y, pa icula ly
in his sec o , whe e public esou ces can di ec ly in luence en i onmen al quali y and social
well-being. By aligning he GPP wi h he p inciples o hese es ablished g een building
ce i ica ions and using LCA o add ess oxici y, public au ho i ies can lead he way owa d
a heal hie and mo e sus ainable cons uc ion indus y.
GPP is amed in a egula o y con ex ha p omo es he adop ion o mo e en i onmen-
ally iendly p ac ices in eg a ing en i onmen al c i e ia in he p ocu emen p ocess o
goods, se ices and wo ks. Among he mos ele an amewo ks ha p omo e his app oach
a e he Eu opean G een Deal [8] and he EU Taxonomy [9]. The Eu opean G een Deal,
launched in 2019, aims o make Eu ope he i s clima e-neu al con inen by 2050, p omo -
ing he educ ion o ca bon emissions and os e ing a ci cula and sus ainable economy in
all sec o s in ol ed [8]. The EU Taxonomy, which came in o o ce in 2022, es ablishes a
classi ica ion sys em ha de ines which economic ac i i ies can be conside ed en i onmen-
ally sus ainable [9]. This axonomy has speci ic c i e ia o clima e change mi iga ion and
adap a ion, while also conside ing he p o ec ion o aqua ic and ma ine esou ces, he an-
si ion o a ci cula economy, among o he s. Today, quali a i e c i e ia ha e p edomina ed
in he e alua ion o he sus ainabili y o p ojec s, especially in public p ocu emen . These
c i e ia include gene al assessmen s o ene gy e iciency, ma e ial sou cing, and en i on-
men al compliance. Fo example, in he e alua ion o cons uc ion p oduc s, a ma e ial can
be ce i ied o come om enewable sou ces o o be"non-pollu ing"wi hou quan i ying
he oxic e ec s i may ha e du ing i s manu ac u e, use o disposal [2]. Howe e , quali a-
i e app oaches, while use ul, do no p o ide an accu a e measu emen o en i onmen al
impac s, limi ing hei abili y o de ec p oblems in he building's li e cycle.
We need o in oduce quan i a i e c i e ia o imp o e he accu acy and anspa ency o
ma e ial oxici y in he en i onmen al impac assessmen o p ojec s, especially hose ha
a e publicly unded. Public in es men s should se he s anda d o sus ainabili y, ensu ing
ha unds a e no alloca ed o p ojec s ha con ibu e o he c ea ion o oxic buildings,
which could pose long- e m isks o public heal h and he en i onmen . Inco po a ing he
quan i ica ion o oxic emissions, in addi ion o GHG emissions, will allow an objec i e
compa ison be ween di e en op ions, acili a ing mo e in o med decision making. This
will no only ensu e ha public in es men s a e aligned wi h sus ainable de elopmen goals,
such as hose se ou in he Eu opean G een Deal and he EU Taxonomy bu also ensu e ha
p ojec s do no cause colla e al damage o he en i onmen o public heal h.
Toxici y wi hin G een Public P ocu emen
The Eu opean Union has p omo ed G een Public P ocu emen (GPP) [10] as a ca alys o
he ansi ion o a low ca bon economy, d i ing key indus ial sec o s o adop cleane and
mo e sus ainable p ac ices. In he cons uc ion sec o , he GPP ocusses no only on he
educ ion o ca bon emissions, bu also on o he en i onmen al impac s such as he use o
esou ces and he oxici y o ma e ials used in buildings [11]. GPP is a pa icula ly ele an
egula o y amewo k o p omo ing he con ol o oxici y in cons uc ion o se e al ea-
sons and incen i ises inno a ion (e.g., En i onmen al P oduc Decla a ion (EPD), ce i ied
ma e ials) h ough ma ke -d i en demand, as demons a ed in EU case s udies.
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
Taking ad an age o he ma ke in luence o public p ocu emen (14% o EU G oss
Domes ic P oduc (GDP)), he GPP incen i ises supplie s o adop en i onmen al c i e ia,
pa icula ly in cons uc ion (e.g., ecycled con en manda es, low- oxici y ma e ial equi e-
men s).). This pu chasing powe , which accoun s o a signi ican pe cen age o GDP in
many EU coun ies [12], o e s he abili y o s ee he ma ke owa ds ma e ials and p o-
cesses ha a e mo e espec ul o he en i onmen and human heal h. By inco po a ing spe-
ci ic equi emen s o oxici y educ ion, GPP has he po en ial o es ablish new s anda ds in
he design and cons uc ion o buildings.
The GPP may be mo e e ec i e han o he en i onmen al policies due o i s ocus on
p ac ical implemen a ion. Fo example, ini ia i es such as he EU’s Ci cula P ocu emen
[13] amewo k ha e demons a ed how GPP can d i e angible ou comes by manda ing
he use o ecycled ma e ials in public cons uc ion p ojec s, educing was e and p omo -
ing ma e ial ci cula i y [14, 15]. Al hough many en i onmen al egula ions ocus on di ec
egula ion o emissions o ma e ial p oduc ion. The GPP could use he pu chasing powe o
he public sec o o equi e low- oxic impac ma e ials no only in he design and cons uc-
ion phase o p ojec s bu also du ing hei use. This holis ic app oach would ensu e oxici y
con ol a all s ages o he building li e cycle, om ma e ial selec ion o inal disposal.
Li e Cycle Assessmen and Toxici y in he Cons uc ion Sec o
I is essen ial o use ools and me hodologies ha allow o comp ehensi e analysis. Tak-
ing a mo e holis ic iew can enable he op imisa ion o bo h p ocesses and ma e ials in he
cons uc ion indus y. One o he mos widely used me hodologies in his con ex is LCA.
LCA has p o en use ul in assessing indi idual ma e ials [16]; cons uc ion assemblies [17];
whole buildings [18] and has suppo ed he de elopmen o he policy and oadmap o
deca bonisa ion [19]. LCA makes i possible o calcula e he po en ial impac s o a p oduc
o p ocess h oughou all phases o i s li e cycle, om aw ma e ial ex ac ion (A1), p o-
duc ion (A2), assembly (A3) and cons uc ion (A4-A5), o use (B1-B7), ecycling o inal
disposal (C1-C4) (Fig. 1) [20]. This me hodology has been s anda dised h ough in e na-
ional s anda ds, such as ISO 14040/14044, and, in he ield o cons uc ion, wi h EN 15804
s anda ds o p oduc s and EN 15978 o buildings.
LCA me hodologies p io i ise GHG emissions o e oxici y, pa ly due o gaps in s an-
da dised oxici y da ase s (e.g., EN 15804 olun a y human oxici y c i e ia, Fig. 3). Con-
s uc ion is esponsible o a signi ican po ion o he oxic emissions eleased in o he
en i onmen du ing he li e cycle o buildings [21, 22]. These oxic emissions can o igina e
a all s ages o he li e cycle o a building [23] bu a e in he use phase o a building whe e
he oxici y o ma e ials o humans is o pa icula in e es . Chemical pollu an s p esen in
building ma e ials, such as ola ile o ganic compounds (VOCs) o pe sis en subs ances,
can be slowly eleased in o he indoo ai o e he li e ime o he building, di ec ly a ec -
ing he ai quali y and, he e o e, he heal h o he occupan s. This phenomenon is known
as sick building synd ome [24]. I has been iden i ied as a g owing p oblem in buildings
ha ha e no been designed o conside he long- e m oxici y o ma e ials, which is s ill an
o e whelming majo i y. Despi e hei ele ance, oxici y con ol and e alua ion in he use
phase emain a eas unde de eloped in e alua ion p o ocols, as we ha e de eloped in ou
p e ious wo k [2].
1 3

Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
Cons uc ion con inues o be a key sec o in gene a ing en i onmen al impac s, no only
due o ca bon emissions o he de as a ion o esou ces bu also due o he use o highly pol-
lu ing and oxic ma e ials ha a ec bo h he en i onmen and human heal h. I is necessa y
o LCAs o in eg a e oxici y mo e e ec i ely. Thus, allowing o a mo e ho ough assess-
men o he impac s o building ma e ials and acili a ing in o med decision making, bo h
in a chi ec u al design and in GPP policies. In his sense, GPP can play a c ucial ole in he
p omo ion and gene alisa ion o he use o low- oxici y ma e ials, incen i ising companies
o de elop p oduc s and echniques ha ollow s ic e en i onmen al c i e ia. Jus as GPP
has consolida ed low-ca bon companies and p oduc s, i can achie e he same wi h low-
oxici y p oduc s, d i ing a shi in he ma ke owa ds sa e and mo e sus ainable op ions.
In his way, public demand can no only imp o e he en i onmen al quali y o publicly
unded cons uc ion p ojec s, bu also es ablish new s anda ds o he sec o , p omo ing he
ansi ion o mo e oxici y- esponsible ma e ials.
Un il ecen ly, he ocus has been on ze o-ene gy buildings. The ocus o he indus y
has le he analysis o o he ecological aspec s, including human heal h and he oxici y o
ma e ials, o he backg ound. This is also e lec ed in cu en legisla ion, whe e analysis o
human oxici y is no a manda o y equi emen , unlike o he en i onmen al impac s such as
clima e change o acidi ica ion [23]. Al hough compa isons o CO2 emissions and embodied
ene gy a e common in sus ainabili y analyses, his is no he case wi h oxici y. LCA da a-
d i en compa isons allow building ma e ials o be p io i ised and anked acco ding o hei
impac and should also include his c ucial aspec o ensu e ha design and pu chasing deci-
sions a e uly sus ainable and heal hy.
Me hodology
An upda ed e iew o he exis ing li e a u e and a e iew o G een Public P ocu emen
(GPP) ools and egula o y amewo ks has been ca ied ou o achie e esea ch objec i es.
The ollowing subsec ions ou line he me hodology used o each axis o wo k p esen ed
he ein.
Re iew o he Exis ing Li e a u e
The li e a u e e iew was s uc u ed in h ee sys ema ic s ages o upda e and ex end he
p e ious analysis on he in eg a ion o oxici y in o LCA and public policy. In he i s s age,
he sea ch s a egy employed in he o iginal 2022 s udy [2] was upda ed using he Scopus,
Web o Science and Science Di ec da abases wi h key e ms such as “ oxici y”, “building
ma e ials”, “human heal h” and “LCA”, es ic ing he sea ch o a icles published be ween
2023 and 2025. In he second s age, inclusion/exclusion c i e ia we e applied: 95 a icles
we e selec ed a e an ini ial selec ion o 657 a icles o hema ic ele ance, elimina ing
hose ocused exclusi ely on g eenhouse gas emissions wi hou add essing oxicological
me ics. Finally, in he hi d s age, a hema ic analysis o he 12 selec ed s udies was ca ied
ou , ca ego ising he indings in o: (a) me hodological ad ances in he e alua ion o LCA
oxici y and (b) empi ical da a on oxic emissions in use, con as ing hem wi h he esul s
o he p e ious s udy o iden i y p og ess and pe sis en gaps. The inal scheme o his p o-
cedu e can be seen in Fig. 2.
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
Re iew o G een Public P ocu emen Tools and Regula o y F amewo ks
This me hodological axis was di ided in o h ee phases. The i s phase in ol ed he selec-
ion o key policies: he Eu opean G een Pac , he EU Taxonomy, he EN 15804 s anda d
and na ional CPV cases (Ge many, I aly, Poland, G eece). In he second phase, legisla i e
documen s and public p ocu emen da abases we e analysed, assessing how each amewo k
add esses oxici y (e.g. manda o y s. olun a y c i e ia). In he hi d phase, a c oss-cu ing
compa a i e e alua ion was pe o med, examining consis ency in he implemen a ion o
oxici y h esholds, moni o ing mechanisms, and he use o LCA da abases ac oss coun ies.
Resul s and Discussion
Human Toxici y Th oughou he Building Li e Cycle: Key Findings
The e iewed s udies highligh pe sis en gaps in he e alua ion o heal h and en i onmen-
al isks (Table 1), pa icula ly he unde p io i iza ion o oxici y in LCA amewo ks. Fo
example, 78% o he analysed s udies ocused on g eenhouse gas emissions, while only
22% in eg a ed oxici y me ics, a dispa i y oo ed in inconsis en me hodologies [2, 25,
26]. Some s udies explici ly ci e he absence o eliable da a on speci ic oxican s, such as
VOCs and hea y me als, as a key eason o omi ing hese ac o s om hei analyses [27].
O he s highligh he complexi y o modelling oxic emissions in a ious phases o he li e-
Fig. 2 Desc ip ion o sys ema ic li e a u e e iew me hodology
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
cycle, including he use phase (B1-B7) and end-o -li e scena ios (C1-C4), whe e exposu e
pa hways a e less unde s ood o ha de o quan i y [28].
Se e al s udies in es iga ed he impac s o speci ic building ma e ials du ing he use
phase [26, 29, 30]. The VOC emissions, pa icula ly om insula ion ma e ials, signi ican ly
a ec indoo ai quali y and human heal h [30]. Compounds such as o maldehyde ha e
been associa ed wi h se ious heal h isks, including cance s such as acu e myeloid leuke-
mia and nasopha yngeal cance [31]. These indings unde sco e he u gen need o eplace
o maldehyde-based ma e ials wi h sa e al e na i es and es ablish s ingen indoo ai qual-
i y con ols [31, 32].
In addi ion o VOCs, he deg ada ion o in e io inishing ma e ials unde ul a iole
(UV) exposu e con ibu es o mic oplas ic gene a ion, inc easing isks h ough de mal con-
ac , inhala ion, and inges ion. These indings call o s ic e egula ions on ma e ial design
and he de elopmen o UV- esis an ma e ials o minimise mic oplas ic gene a ion [16].
Pe sis en oxican s such as polychlo ina ed biphenyls (PCBs), polyb omina ed diphenyl
e he s (PBDEs), and ph hala es, ound in in e io ma e ials and u ni u e, exace ba e isks
associa ed wi h espi a o y and neu ological diso de s, as well as ca cinogenic e ec s. Thus,
Table 1 Resul s o sys ema ic li e a u e e iew
Pape Main ocus Key Findings Recommenda ions
[14] Biocomposi es Do no unde es ima e possible
oxici y
Mo e s udios a e needed
[23] Impac o insula ion
ma e ials
Emissions o o maldehyde Design wi h low-impac ma e-
ials and op imize he balance
[15] Fo maldehyde in en o ies
in dwellings
Fo maldehyde is associa ed wi h
cance s
Replace o maldehyde wi h
sa e al e na i es
[16]E ec s o UV deg ada ion UV exposu e gene a es
mic oplas ics
Implemen s ic e egula ions
[18] Heal h isks ela ed o
oxican s
Subs ances such as PCBs and
ph hala es a ec indoo ai quali y
Implemen s ic egula ions
o educe exposu e
[24] ea hen cons uc ions s
con en ional cons uc ions
Ea hen buildings ha e less en i-
onmen al impac
P omo e no ma i e s anda ds
o ea hen cons uc ions
[19] Analysis o CDW CDW con ains oxic subs ances
such as hea y me als
Implemen s ic egula ions
[25] Sa e and Sus ainable by
Design amewo k
Only 26% o esponden s applied
he amewo k
Inc ease coope a ion be ween
indus y, academia and
go e nmen s
[26] oxici y o cons uc ion
ma e ials in hei di e en
s ages
The ex ac ion and use o ma e i-
als con ibu e
GHG
Inco po a e a holis ic ap-
p oach o ma e ials om hei
li e cycle
[21] E alua e emissions o
(VOCs) using models and
da a
Need o mo e accu a e p edic ion
o VOC exposu e
Use in eg a ed models o
op imize design choices
[17] examine he oxici y and
sus ainabili y o o malde-
hyde-based esins
Fo maldehyde esins, ha e nega-
i e impac s on heal h
Limi he use o o maldehyde
esins
[27] In eg a ion o ci cula i y
and sus ainabili y in LCA
Bio-based ma e ials may
inc ease o he impac s such as
eu ophica ion
Design ci cula s a egies ha
conside ade-o s be ween
en i onmen al impac s and
apply in eg a ed app oaches
such as WBCI-LCA
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
u he highligh ing he necessi y o educing exposu e o hese subs ances and ensu ing
sa e disposal o oxic ma e ials in olde buildings [18].
As summa ised in Table 1, he key indings emphasise li ecycle oxici y dispa i ies (eg,
ea hen s. con en ional ma e ials) and da a gaps in use phase impac s (B1-B7) [18]. In
addi ion, cons uc ion and demoli ion was e (CDW), o en con aining hea y me als and
o he oxic subs ances, p esen s a signi ican challenge o sus ainable managemen . Recy-
cling and eusing ma e ials can educe hese impac s, bu land ill disposal emains a pe sis-
en p oblem [19].
Eu opean amewo ks such as he Sa e and Sus ainable by Design ini ia i e also show
gaps in implemen a ion, wi h only 26% o esponden s ac i ely applying hese guidelines
[33]. S eng hened collabo a ion be ween indus y, academia, and go e nmen is c ucial
o imp o e he adop ion and e ec i eness o such amewo ks [20]. Simila ly, he in eg a-
ion o ci cula i y and sus ainabili y indica o s in buildings has shown ade-o s, such as
biobased ma e ials ha educe he po en ial o global wa ming bu inc ease he isks o
eu ophica ion [25]. These indings highligh he need o in eg a ed app oaches such as he
Whole Building Ci cula i y Indica o wi h Li e Cycle Assessmen (WBCI-LCA) o balance
en i onmen al impac s [17].
Toge he , hese indings emphasise he u gency o imp o ing oxici y assessmen me h-
odologies, s eng hening egula ions, and conside ing he en i e li ecycle o building ma e-
ials o design sa e and mo e sus ainable al e na i es. By adop ing models ha combine
emissions da a wi h li ecycle analyses, such as hose used o VOCs [21], and limi ing he
use o ha m ul componen s like o maldehyde esins [17], he cons uc ion indus y can
make in o med ma e ial choices ha p io i ize heal h and sus ainabili y. Fu he mo e, he
public heal h isks associa ed wi h pe sis en oxican s and mic oplas ics u he unde sco e
he need o s ic e ma e ial egula ions and inno a i e design s a egies ha mi iga e hese
isks. Ul ima ely, aligning hese measu es wi h amewo ks, such as he EU's'Sa e and Sus-
ainable by Design'ini ia i e, can acili a e he ansi ion o a mo e sus ainable and en i on-
men ally conscious cons uc ion model [22].
In eg a ing Ma e ial Toxici y in o Eu opean G een Policies and G een Public
P ocu emen
The analysis o egula o y amewo ks e ealed c i ical di e gences in he ea men o
ma e ial oxici y in EU membe s a es. Fo example, Ge many includes quan i a i e oxic-
i y h esholds, such as o maldehyde limi s below 0.1 ppm, in app oxima ely 40% o i s
public p ocu emen p ocedu es. On he con a y, coun ies such as I aly and G eece ely on
quali a i e desc ip o s such as'non oxic ma e ials', which lack s anda dised and en o ceable
c i e ia. A he EU le el, nea ly 80% o En i onmen al P oduc Decla a ions de eloped
unde EN 15804 ea human oxici y as an op ional indica o , despi e he clea guidance o
he Do No Signi ican Ha m (DNSH) p inciple wi hin he EU Taxonomy. This agmen ed
implemen a ion unde mines he capaci y o G een Public P ocu emen (GPP) o e ec i ely
mi iga e sys emic oxicological isks.
This gap is pa icula ly signi ican gi en he e ol ing egula o y landscape. While
Eu opean sus ainabili y policies, such as he Eu opean G een Deal, con inue o p io i ise
deca bonisa ion, eme ging amewo ks such as DNSH a e pushing o mo e comp ehensi e
impac assessmen s ha explici ly include human and en i onmen al oxici y. GPP is well
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
●B oadening he Focus: Complemen ing he emphasis on deca bonisa ion wi h equally
p io i ised goals, such as educing oxic impac s, ensu es ha he DNSH p inciple is
applied quan i a i ely in p ojec e alua ions.
These ac ions will no only enhance he cohe ence o sus ainabili y s a egies in Eu ope
bu also ensu e ha public in es men s con ibu e e ec i ely o en i onmen al and human
heal h.
Conclusions
This a icle unde sco es he c i ical impo ance o inco po a ing he oxici y o building
ma e ials in o en i onmen al impac assessmen s, pa icula ly using a li e cycle assessmen .
Key challenges include agmen ed oxici y da a and me hodological inconsis encies in
LCA. To ad ance holis ic sus ainabili y, EU policies mus in eg a e oxici y me ics equally
wi h GHG emissions. Add essing hese issues equi es os e ing inno a ion, imp o ing p o-
duc ion echniques, and p omo ing he subs i u ion o oxic componen s wi h sa e al e na-
i es, as well as he inc eased use o ecycled and sal aged ma e ials.
The p ima y obs acles o an e ec i e oxici y assessmen a e he lack o consis en
in o ma ion and a iable c i e ia ac oss ools and da abases. S anda dising p o ocols and
egula o y amewo ks is essen ial o imp o e he compa abili y and eliabili y o oxici y
assessmen s. Comp ehensi e da abases ha include de ailed in o ma ion on building ma e-
ials, suppo ed by e i ied LCA-based eco-labels, a e needed o enable mo e p ecise and
holis ic e alua ions. Al hough e o s such as EPDs a e expanding, he e is a p essing need
o hese ools o inco po a e oxici y da a and ex end hei scope beyond he p oduc ion
phases(A1-A3) o include he use and disposal s ages (C1-C4).
This s udy emphasises he impo ance o adop ing a li e-cycle pe spec i e ha in eg a es
oxici y conside a ions alongside ca bon educ ion e o s. The ansi ion o a mo e sus-
ainable cons uc ion sec o mus no only add ess ca bon emissions bu also p io i ise he
de elopmen o biocompa ible ma e ials, hose ha minimise oxic impac s on bo h he
en i onmen and human heal h. Ad ancing his holis ic app oach equi es s anda dising
in en o y da abases, e ining LCA calib a ions, and including da a on he use phase o ma e-
ials (B1-B7).
Toxici y should be conside ed as signi ican as GHG emissions in p o ec ing biodi e -
si y and sa egua ding he heal h o building occupan s and su ounding communi ies. Toxic
building ma e ials, such as hose ha emi ola ile o ganic compounds (VOCs), pe sis en
oxican s, and mic oplas ics, ha e been linked o se ious heal h consequences, including
espi a o y diseases, endoc ine diso de s, neu ological impac s, and e en cance . These
heal h isks, combined wi h he en i onmen al deg ada ion caused by oxic emissions, high-
ligh he u gency o add essing ma e ial oxici y alongside deca bonisa ion e o s.
The e o e, en i onmen al policies mus expand hei scope o include o he c i ical ac-
o s, such as he oxicological impac s o ma e ials and he b oade en i onmen al e ec s
o indus ial p ocesses. Achie ing meaning ul change equi es a comp ehensi e app oach
ha encompasses all dimensions o en i onmen al impac , om g eenhouse gas emissions
o na u al esou ce consump ion and he oxicological e ec s o ma e ials h oughou hei
li ecycle.
1 3

Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
In he con ex o GPP, his a icle concludes ha ma e ial oxici y plays a pi o al ole in
he ansi ion o a mo e sus ainable cons uc ion model. By including quan i a i e c i e ia
o he assessmen o oxic emissions h oughou he li ecycle o he building, he GPP can
acili a e mo e in o med decision-making ha aligns wi h public heal h and sus ainabili y
goals. De eloping a simpli ied bu obus me hodology o quan i y oxic emissions is c ucial
o ensu e ha public unds a e alloca ed o p ojec s ha minimise heal h isks and en i on-
men al ha m.
To achie e holis ic sus ainabili y, EU policies mus equally p io i ise oxici y educ ion
and deca bonisa ion. The GPP dual c i e ia sys em exempli ies a p ac ical ou e, incen i -
ising sa e ma e ials h ough binding ende s. To adequa ely conside ma e ial oxici y, i
is essen ial o: (1) de elop s anda dised me hodologies o quan i ying oxic emissions
h oughou all s ages o he li e cycle, (2) expand exis ing da abases o include de ailed
oxici y pa ame e s o commonly used cons uc ion ma e ials, and (3) es ablish manda-
o y benchma ks o oxici y in public p ocu emen c i e ia. Th ough his holis ic app oach,
public p ocu emen can ac as a ca alys o heal hie and mo e sus ainable cons uc ion
p ac ices, pa ing he way o a u u e ha espec s bo h human heal h and en i onmen al
in eg i y.
Funding Funding o open access publishing: Uni e sidad de Se illa/CBUA
Decla a ions
Con lic o in e es On behal o all au ho s, he co esponding au ho s a es ha he e is no con lic o in e es .
Open Access This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License,
which pe mi s use, sha ing, adap a ion, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium o o ma , as long as
you gi e app op ia e c edi o he o iginal au ho (s) and he sou ce, p o ide a link o he C ea i e Commons
licence, and indica e i changes we e made. The images o o he hi d pa y ma e ial in his a icle a e
included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence, unless indica ed o he wise in a c edi line o he ma e ial.
I ma e ial is no included in he a icle’s C ea i e Commons licence and you in ended use is no pe mi ed
by s a u o y egula ion o exceeds he pe mi ed use, you will need o ob ain pe mission di ec ly om he
copy igh holde . To iew a copy o his licence, isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/.
Re e ences
1. AR6 Syn hesis Repo : Clima e Change 2023 - IPCC. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / w w w . i p c c . c h / e p o / s
i x h - a s s e s s m e n - e p o - c y c l e / . Accessed 09 Dec 2024
2. Rey-Ál a ez B, Sánchez-Mon añés B, Ga cía-Ma ínez A (2022) Building ma e ial oxici y and li e
cycle assessmen : a sys ema ic c i ical e iew. J Clean P od 341:130838. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / J . J C L
E P R O . 2 0 2 2 . 1 3 0 8 3 8
3. Rey-Ál a ez B, Sil es e J, Ga cía-Ma ínez A, Sánchez-Mon añés B (2024) A compa a i e app oach o
e alua e he oxici y o building ma e ials h ough li e cycle assessmen . Sci To al En i on 912:168897.
h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / J . S C I T O T E N V . 2 0 2 3 . 1 6 8 8 9 7
4. Nakanishi EY e al (2024) A sys ema ic e iew o he implica ions o cons uc ion ma e ials on occu-
pan s’ physical and psychological heal h. Else ie L d. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . b u i l d e n . 2 0 2 4 . 1 1 1 5 2 7
5. “Li ing Fu u e – A u u e wo h li ing in.” [Online]. A ailable: h ps://li ing- u u e.o g/. Accessed 9
Dec 2024
6. LEED a ing sys em| U.S. G een Building Council. [Online]. A ailable: h ps://www.usgbc.o g/leed.
Accessed 09 Dec 2024
7. G een Public P ocu emen - Eu opean Commission. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / g e e n - b u s i n e s s . e c . e u o
p a . e u / g e e n - p u b l i c - p o c u e m e n _ e n . Accessed 09 Dec 2024
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
8. Deli e ing he Eu opean G een Deal - Eu opean Commission. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / c o m m i s s i o n
. e u o p a . e u / s a e g y - a n d - p o l i c y / p i o i i e s - 2 0 1 9 - 2 0 2 4 / e u o p e a n - g e e n - d e a l / d e l i e i n g - e u o p e a n - g e e n - d
e a l _ e n . Accessed 09 Dec 2024
9. EU axonomy o sus ainable ac i i ies - Eu opean Commission. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / i n a n c e . e c .
e u o p a . e u / s u s a i n a b l e - i n a n c e / o o l s - a n d - s a n d a d s / e u - a x o n o m y - s u s a i n a b l e - a c i i i e s _ e n . Accessed 09
Dec 2024
10. S a egic p ocu emen - Eu opean Commission. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / s i n g l e - m a k e - e c o n o m y . e c .
e u o p a . e u / s i n g l e - m a k e / p u b l i c - p o c u e m e n / s a e g i c - p o c u e m e n _ e n . Accessed 09 Dec 2024
11. Hacia una comp a pública e de ‘en se io’ de la mano del p incipio DNSH: p opues a básica pa a su
necesa ia a iculación ju ídica y écnica| Obse a o io de Con a ación Pública. [Online]. A ailable: h
p s : / / w w w . o b c p . e s / o p i n i o n e s / h a c i a - u n a - c o m p a - p u b l i c a - e d e - e n - s e i o - d e - l a - m a n o - d e l - p i n c i p i o - d n s
h - p o p u e s a - b a s i c a. Accessed 09 Dec 2024
12. In o me Especial 28/2023: Con a ación pública en la UE| Eu opean Cou o Audi o s. [Online]. A ail-
able: h p s : / / w w w . e c a . e u o p a . e u / e s / p u b l i c a i o n s / s - 2 0 2 3 - 2 8 . Accessed 19 Dec 2024
13. Ci cula public p ocu emen : a amewo k o ci ies| Eu opean Ci cula Economy S akeholde Pla o m.
[Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / c i c u l a e c o n o m y . e u o p a . e u / p l a o m / e n / o o l k i s - g u i d e l i n e s / c i c u l a - p u b l i c -
p o c u e m e n - a m e w o k - c i i e s. Accessed 19 Dec 2024
14. Ababio BK, Lu W, Agyekum K, Ghansah FA (2025) Enhancing ci cula cons uc ion h ough p o-
cu emen : a concep ual s akeholde -cen ic collabo a i e amewo k o sus ainable ou comes. En i on
Impac Assess Re 112:107784. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/J.EIAR.2024.107784
15. Rangelo M, Dylla H, Si aneswa an N (2020) Using en i onmen al p oduc decla a ions o sup-
po pa emen g een public p ocu emen . Pa emen , Roadway, B idge Li e Cycle Assess 2020 111–
121.h ps://doi.o g/10.1201/9781003092278-12
16. Ding GKC (2014) Li e cycle assessmen (LCA) o sus ainable building ma e ials: an o e iew. In:
Eco-e icien cons uc ion and building ma e ials: li e cycle assessmen (LCA), eco-labelling and case
s udies, pp 38–62. h ps://doi.o g/10.1533/9780857097729.1.38
17. Ben-Alon L, Lo ness V, Ha ies KA, Coch an Hameen E (2021) Li e cycle assessmen (LCA) o na u-
al s con en ional building assemblies. Renew Sus ain Ene gy Re 144:110951. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0
1 6 / J . R S E R . 2 0 2 1 . 1 1 0 9 5 1
18. Röck M e al (2020) Embodied GHG emissions o buildings– The hidden challenge o e ec i e clima e
change mi iga ion. Appl Ene gy 258:114107. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / J . A P E N E R G Y . 2 0 1 9 . 1 1 4 1 0 7
19. Röck M, Balde eschi E, Ve ellen E, Passe A, Sala S, Allacke K (2021) En i onmen al modelling o
building s ocks– An in eg a ed e iew o li e cycle-based assessmen models o suppo EU policy mak-
ing. Renew Sus ain Ene gy Re 151:111550. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/J.RSER.2021.111550
20. Sha ma A, Saxena A, Se hi M, Sh ee V, Va un (2011) Li e cycle assessmen o buildings: a e iew.
Renew Sus ain Ene gy Re 15(1):871–875. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/J.RSER.2010.09.008
21. Song K e al (2023) Add essing new chemicals o eme ging conce n (CECs) in an indoo o ice. En i on
In 181. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.en in .2023.108259
22. Unde s anding REACH - ECHA. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / e c h a . e u o p a . e u / e g u l a i o n s / e a c h / u n d e s
a n d i n g - e a c h. Accessed 10 Dec 2024
23. UNE-EN 15804:2012+A2:2020 Sos enibilidad en la cons ucción. D... (n.d.). h p s : / / w w w . u n e . o g / e n c
u e n a - u - n o m a / b u s c a - u - n o m a / n o m a / ? c = n o m a - u n e - e n - 1 5 8 0 4 - 2 0 1 2 - a 2 - 2 0 2 0 - n 0 0 6 3 5 0 8
24. Redlich CA, Spa e J, Cullen MR (1997) Sick-building synd ome. Lance 349(9057):1013–1016. h p s
: / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / S 0 1 4 0 - 6 7 3 6 ( 9 6 ) 0 7 2 2 0 - 0
25. P uden e LT (2024) Li e-cycle assessmen o he en i onmen al impac o ea hen buildings e sus
con en ional buildings on human heal h. In: Sus ainabili y and oxici y o building ma e ials. Else ie ,
pp 289–306. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / B 9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 8 3 3 6 - 5 . 0 0 0 1 4 - 5
26. Senapa i KK (2024) Sa e y, oxici y, and li e cycle assessmen s o biocomposi es. In: Ad ances in bio-
composi es and hei applica ions. Else ie , pp 345–363. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / B 9 7 8 - 0 - 4 4 3 - 1 9 0 7 4 - 2 .
0 0 0 1 2 - 5
27. Bhoonah R, Mau y-Micolie A, Jollie O (2023) In eg a ed empi ical and modelled de e mina ion o he
human heal h impac s o building ma e ial VOCs. Build En i on 242. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . b u i l d e n
. 2 0 2 3 . 1 1 0 5 2 3
28. Molla AS, She W, Tang W, Baha MM, Bekele DN (2024) “Composi e building ma e ials and cons uc-
ion and demoli ion was e (C&DW): eco oxicological pe spec i es. In: Sus ainabili y and Toxici y o
Building Ma e ials, pp 601–625. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / B 9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 8 3 3 6 - 5 . 0 0 0 2 7 - 3
29. Pe o ić EK (2024) The impo ance o ecognising he oxici y o building ma e ials in manu ac u e,
use and disposal s ages o plane a y sus ainabili y and es o a ion. In: Sus ainabili y and oxici y o
building ma e ials. Else ie , pp 3–14. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / B 9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 8 3 3 6 - 5 . 0 0 0 0 1 - 7
1 3
Ci cula Economy and Sus ainabili y
30. Mau y-Micolie A, Huang L, Taillandie F, Sonnemann G, Jollie O (2023) A li e cycle app oach o
indoo ai quali y in designing sus ainable buildings: human heal h impac s o h ee inne and ou e
insula ions. Build En i on 230. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . b u i l d e n . 2 0 2 3 . 1 0 9 9 9 4
31. Mondal I, G o es M, D i e EM, Vi o i W, Halden RU (2024) Ca cinogenic o maldehyde in U.S.
esiden ial buildings: mass in en o ies, human heal h impac s, and associa ed heal hca e cos s. Sci To al
En i on 944. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . s c i o e n . 2 0 2 4 . 1 7 3 6 4 0
32. K is ina Pe o ić E, Thomas CA (2024) Sus ainabili y and oxici y o o maldehyde-based esins o
composi e wood p oduc s like plywood, pa icleboa d and medium densi y ib eboa d. In: Sus ainabili y
and oxici y o building ma e ials. Else ie , pp 389–415. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / B 9 7 8 - 0 - 3 2 3 - 9 8 3 3 6 - 5 . 0
0 0 1 8 - 2
33. Leso V e al (2024) Sa e y and sus ainabili y by design: an explo a i e su ey on concep s’ knowledge
and applica ion. En i on Sci Policy 162. h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.en sci.2024.103909
34. Lee S, Chang H, Lee J (2024) Cons uc ion and demoli ion was e managemen and i s impac s on he
en i onmen and human heal h: Mo ing o wa d sus ainabili y enhancemen . Else ie L d. h p s : / / d o i . o
g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . s c s . 2 0 2 4 . 1 0 5 8 5 5
35. G een Business - Biblio eca. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / c i c a b c . e u o p a . e u / u i / g o u p / 4 4 2 7 8 0 9 0 - 3 a e - 4 5
1 5 - b c c 2 - 4 4 d 5 7 c 1 d 0 d 1 / l i b a y / 1 2 9 4 d 6 4 1 - 9 e 8 c - 4 8 2 d - a 8 - d d e 0 5 d d 4 8 . Accessed 11 Dec 2024
36. Kang Y, Jo HH, Kim S (2025) E ec s o UV deg ada ion on building ma e ials wi h emphasis on mic o-
plas ic gene a ion po en ial. J Haza d Ma e 483. h p s : / / d o i . o g / 1 0 . 1 0 1 6 / j . j h a z m a . 2 0 2 4 . 1 3 6 5 2 1
37. Commande publique| Minis è e de l’Économie, des Finances e de l’Indus ie e Minis è e cha gé du
Budge e des Comp es publics. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / w w w . e c o n o m i e . g o u . / d a j / c o m m a n d e - p u b
l i q u e . Accessed 19 Dec 2024
38. Pla a o ma de Con a ación del Sec o Público. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / c o n a a c i o n d e l e s a d o . e s / w p
s / p o a l / p l a a o m a . Accessed 19 Dec 2024
39. P og am - acquis in e epa. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / w w w . a c q u i s i n e e p a . i / o p e n c m s / o p e n c m s / p o g
a m _ e n g . h m l . Accessed 19 Dec 2024
40. Homepage - Public P ocu emen O ice - Go .pl websi e. [Online]. A ailable: h p s : / / w w w . g o . p l / w e b /
u z p - e n . Accessed 19 Dec 2024
41. HSPPA - HOME. [Online]. A ailable: h ps://www.eaadhsy.g /index.php/en/. Accessed 19 Dec 2024
42. Joi a D, Dob o ã CE, Popescu C (2023) ‘Do No Signi ican Ha m’ P inciple and cu en challenges
o he EU axonomy owa ds ene gy ansi ion. Co po a e Go e nance o Clima e T ansi ion, pp.
187–208. h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/978-3-031-26277-7_7
Publishe 's No e Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in published maps and
ins i u ional a ilia ions.
Au ho s and A ilia ions
BelénRey-Ál a ez1· Beni oSánchez-Mon añés1· Ma Robe s2· An onioGa cía-
Ma ínez3
Belén Rey-Ál a ez
[email p o ec ed]
1 HUM-1008 Resea ch G oup, E.T.S A qui ec u a, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille, Spain
2 Cen e o he Buil En i onmen , Uni e si y o Cali o nia, Be keley, CA, USA
3 TEP-130 Resea ch G oup, Ins i u o Uni e si a io de A qui ec u a y Ciencias de La
Cons ucción, IUACC, Uni e sidad de Se illa, Se ille, Spain
1 3