in oduc ion
Ma ina Cos a Lobo
Filipe Ca ei a da Sil a
José Ped o Zúque e
edi o s
14 ci izenship in c isis
This olume o e s an in e disciplina y pe spec i e on ci izenship in a ime o
c isis. C isis has been a wo d ecu en ly used o desc ibe poli ical and social
p ocesses in Po ugal, Eu ope and elsewhe e, bu one ha dese es u he
analysis. E en hough i is common o all gene a ions o belie e ha hey
a e li ing h ough c i ical junc u es, a he isk o losing sigh o wha ac ually
cons i u es a c isis si ua ion and how exac ly his di e s om a pe iod o non-
c isis (i. e. decay, eco e y, ins abili y, e c.), i does seem sa e o apply “c isis” o he
2008 inancial si ua ion. Wi h i s o igins in he usa’s inancial sys em, i quickly
sp ead o o he pa s o he wo ld, hi ing he Eu ozone in pa icula whe e,
especially in smalle pe iphe al economies, i o en led o d ama ic economic
p oblems. The du a ion and se e i y o he nega i e economic consequences o
he c isis has had a p o ound impac on he poli ical and social ealm. Poli ical
consequences include he s eng hening o he adical igh , as well as populis
leade s, he ela i e decline o cen is pa ies, in pa icula he elec o al decline
o social-democ a /socialis pa ies, oge he wi h an inc ease in he adical
le , especially in Sou he n Eu ope. No only ha e he e been epe cussions a
he na ional le el, bu he eu has been called in o ques ion due o di icul ies
in eaching a consensus on how bes o espond o a c isis ha has o en led o
g ea ensions be ween go e nmen s o deb o na ions and c edi o na ions.
Mo eo e , B exi means ha o he i s ime a membe s a e will lea e he eu,
po en ially signalling he beginning o he end o he decades-old p ocess o
Eu opean in eg a ion. The c isis, o cou se, is no only a Eu opean phenomenon.
As men ioned abo e, i quickly sp ead a ound he wo ld. Despi e he appa en
p o ec ion ha ela i ely insula ed banking sys ems o coun ies such as B azil
p o ided in he immedia e a e ma h o he c isis, La in Ame ican coun ies
e en ually p o ed unable o escape he poli ical and economic ipple e ec s.
Some ha e seen signs o a poli ical backlash agains economic globalisa ion
and i s d ama ic social implica ions in his, calling he exis ing global o de in o
ques ion. The elec ion o Donald J. T ump as P esiden o he Uni ed S a es,
in No embe 2016, only ein o ced his associa ion o a global c isis in he
inancial and economic ealms wi h he ques ioning o democ a ic ins i u ions
and he meaning and exe cise o ci izenship i sel .
The wo d “c isis” he e o e, con eys a mul iplici y o meanings and
dese es u he a en ion. As esea che s in he Ins i u e o Social Sciences
o he Uni e si y o Lisbon, we wan o b ing oge he a numbe o di e en
disciplina y and epis emological app oaches ha ha e been employed in he
s udy o his issue in he las decade o so.
in oduc ion 15
This olume ocuses on he causes, cha ac e is ics and consequences o he
c isis o ci izenship. Following T. H. Ma shall, we ake ci izenship o en ail h ee
dimensions: ci ic, poli ical and social. The ci ic elemen includes he igh s
necessa y o indi idual eedom – eedom o he pe son, igh o exp ession,
hough and ai h, igh o p ope y and o conclude alid con ac s, and he
igh o jus ice. The poli ical dimension o ci izenship includes he igh o
pa icipa e in he exe cise o poli ical powe , as a membe o an ins i u ion wi h
poli ical au ho i y o as a o e o such ins i u ions. Social igh s o ci izenship
include he igh o heal h ca e, he igh o social secu i y, he igh o wo k,
and he igh o educa ion. So-called ou h-gene a ion igh s, associa ed wi h
ecen de elopmen s in a eas such as bio echnology o he In e ne , al hough
absen om Ma shall’s o iginal analysis, a e also conside ed he e.
Po ugal is an especially ele an case when analysing he causes and
mul iple consequences o he c isis. The 2008 in e na ional inancial c isis,
which led o he coun y’s bailou in 2011, had a s ong sense o déjà u o
hose who emembe he wo p e ious bailou s ha had o be nego ia ed in
1978 and 1983. In ac , Po ugal’s democ a ic expe ience since 1974 has been
punc ua ed by ecu en economic c isis. I s equency does no de ac om
he di e si ua ion which has ma ked Po ugal in ecen yea s. In 2011, he
coun y was unable o inance i sel , ha ing los access o in e na ional capi al
ma ke s. This o ced he Po uguese au ho i ies o eques a bailou loan o
78 billion Eu os. In mid-2011, he Po uguese go e nmen and he T oika o
lende s signed a Memo andum o Unde s anding de ailing he condi ions
unde which his loan was o be g an ed. The bailou ’s condi ionali y, ollowing
he so-called “Washing on consensus” on p i a isa ion, de egula ion and ade
libe aliza ion, ocused on educing public de ici , educing he segmen a ion o
labou ma ke s and e o ming wel a e p o ision. This esul ed in a long pe iod
o economic ecession, eco d-high unemploymen a es and signi ican le els
o immig a ion. Po ugal ound i sel among he mos g a ely hi coun ies in
he Eu ozone, close o G eece, I eland, Spain, Cyp us and I aly. A he same
ime, s a ing in he summe o 2013, a wa e o hund eds o housands o
Sy ian and No h A ican e ugees began eaching Eu opean sho es, pu ing
immense p essu e on Eu opean go e nmen s o in eg a e hem. Eu opean
public opinion, al eady anxious abou he i s wa e o e o a acks on
Eu opean soil since he 1970s, ecei ed he news o his sudden in low o
e ugees wi h mixed eelings. Pa ly gi en o i s geog aphical loca ion on he
A lan ic sho e, pa ly o he lack o economic oppo uni ies, Po ugal has
16 ci izenship in c isis
ecei ed only a esidual numbe o hese immig an s. This may pa ly help
explain why, unlike in o he Sou he n and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies, he e
has been no ise o populis mo emen s o leade s in Po ugal. I any hing, he
c isis seems o ha e ein o ced, a he han ques ioned, he commi men o
he Po uguese o he ci izenship igh s won on 25 h Ap il, 1974.
The main goal o his olume is o discuss he ways in which ci izenship, i s
exe cise and ou unde s anding o wha i means o be a ci izen, has e ol ed
in he con ex o hese e en s. The assump ion is ha he c isis, in i s a ious
dimensions, has c ea ed signi ican challenges o he way in which ci izenship
has been exe cised. A second goal is, whene e ele an and possible, o ake a
longe - e m and compa a i e app oach. This includes p ima acie he Eu opean
con ex , which has gained addi ional ele ance gi en he ole o he Eu o and
he eu in he o igins and managemen o he c isis, as well as he La in Ame ican
con ex , whose Ibe ian oo s a o d impo an poin s o ansa lan ic compa ison.
A hi d and ela ed goal is o ques ion whe he 21s cen u y economic
globalisa ion and i s inancial dimension can be e ec i ely egula ed by elec ed
o ms o go e nmen , and whe he he eu and o he mul ila e al and egional
o ganisa ions a e supplying use ul ci izenship and go e nance o he na ional
dimension. Due conside a ion will also be gi en o a po en ial end owa ds a
poli ical e e sal o globalisa ion, a closing o bo de s, and i s implica ions o
he concep o ci izenship.
The disciplina y backg ounds o he h ee edi o s o his olume a e,
espec i ely, in poli ical sciences, sociology, his o y and in e na ional ela ions.
Toge he , we ep esen wo esea ch g oups in he Ins i u e o Social Sciences
o he Uni e si y o Lisbon (ics-ul), namely he spa c and he Resea ch
G oup on Regimes and Ins i u ions. Ou aim has been o b ing oge he
con ibu ions whe e he concep o c isis igu es as ei he a dependen o an
independen a iable; sociological and poli ical science s udies del ing in o
he consequences o c isis o ci izenship; s udies in in e na ional ela ions and
his o y ha p o ide a mo e long- e m pe spec i e; as well as c oss-coun y
compa isons adding dep h o he esea ch on he way in which ci izenship has
been challenged in imes o c isis. The hi een chap e s making up his olume,
and which we summa ise below, all in o h ee sec ions: (1) Ques ioning he
c isis; (2) Ac o s in c isis; (3) Consequences o he c isis.
in oduc ion 17
ques ioning he c isis
The i s chap e in his sec ion is “The c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion:
he Po uguese case (2002-2015)” by Manuel Villa e de Cab al and Susana
Salgado. Making use o a longi udinal analysis o pos elec o al su eys, as
well as o he quan i a i e da a, he ex se s ou o discuss how Po uguese
ci izens e alua e poli ical pa ies and poli icians. This, in u n, enables he
au ho s o add ess he b oade ques ion o whe he he idea o a “c isis o
poli ical ep esen a ion” is indeed he mos app op ia e in accoun ing o his
si ua ion. Con i ming Be na d Manin’s hypo hesis ha he deepening o such
a c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion may occu simul aneously wi h a scena io
o consolida ed democ acy and high le els o o mal educa ion, he au ho s
conclude ha his has indeed been he case in Po ugal, namely i one akes
in o accoun he combina ion o low le els o u nou in elec ions and ci izens’
esponses o he pos elec o al su eys.
The second chap e is “Re isi ing he poli icisa ion o he eu. A h ee-
dimensional app oach” by Ma ina Cos a Lobo and Jan Ka emans. This ex
p oposes o inc ease ou unde s anding o he ways in which Eu ope has
eme ged in na ional poli ical deba es (bo h a he media and pa liamen a y
le el), and wi h wha consequences o na ional democ acy, in e ms o
ci izen a i udes and poli ical beha iou . One o he majo consequences o
he inancial c isis has been o b ing he na u e and consequences o Eu opean
in eg a ion o he hea o na ional poli ics. A e we wi nessing a pe iod o
inc easing lack o choice among eu membe -s a es democ acy o , in con as ,
a e we on he pa h o he o ma ion o a Eu opean democ acy and Eu opean
public space? The au ho s’ o e iew o he li e a u e ames he e ms o an
impo an deba e on he s a e o democ acy in Eu ope.
The hi d chap e is by Ped o C. Magalhães and Tiago Ab il, and is en i led
“Fa ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness, and poli ical suppo : esul s
om a su ey expe imen ” I begins wi h he obse a ion ha i is o en he
case ha , in hei ela ionship wi h au ho i ies, people ca e no only abou
ge ing hei p e e ed ou comes bu also abou he way hose ou comes
a e gene a ed, pa icula ly abou he ex en o which decision-making
p ocedu es a e ai . The ex ocuses on he case o poli ical au ho i ies, which
is pa icula ly ele an o he exe cise o ci izens’ igh s in ha d imes. Making
use o a su ey expe imen , he au ho s each h ee di e en conclusions.
Fi s , om a p ocedu al poin o iew, ai ules ha e a signi ican la ge o al

18 ci izenship in c isis
e ec on poli ical suppo o au ho i ies, an e ec ha is la gely media ed by
pe cep ions o ai ness bu can also, in some cases, be a di ec e ec . Second,
hey show ha his inding holds ega dless o he dimension o p ocedu al
ai ness – Voice, Neu ali y/Impa iali y and Accessibili y/T anspa ency. This
sugges s ha , o e all, ai ness ma e s mo e han ou come a ou abili y. Thi d,
hey show ha in high anspa ency e en s/si ua ions, ecei ing a a ou able
ou come is o li le impo ance, bu in low anspa ency e en s/si ua ions,
ecei ing a a ou able ou come o no coun s mo e.
The las chap e in his sec ion is “Economic c isis and poli ical decision:
wo ds and meaning” by Vi gínia Hen iques Calado and Luís Cunha. Thei
a gumen is buil on he assump ion ha he “c isis”, ei he as a phenomenon
o concep , does no exis independen ly o he social agen s’ meaning-
making p ac ices. A c isis is, he e o e, a undamen ally discu si e o ma ion.
Na a i es, as p ac ices o p oduc ion o discou se, a e hus hypo hesised o
ha e a signi ican impac on how c isis, hei o igins and consequences, a e
pe cei ed by he public and managed poli ically. The ex ’s main con ibu ion
is i s o iginal analysis o he speeches by Po uguese p ime minis e s in S a e
o he Na ion deba es o e en yea s (2008-17). I shows how he no ions o
c isis and e o m bu also o adjus men , ideology and eali y we e mobilised
o p oduce decisi e e ec s, and ha he ideological eno o poli ical speeches
inc eases when one is in he opposi ion and diminishes when one is in o ice.
ac o s in c isis
The second sec ion s a s wi h a chap e on “Child en, ci izenship and
c ises: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda” by Ana Nunes de Almeida, Ana
So ia Ribei o and Jussa a Rowland. The ex discusses he ela ion be ween
child en, ci izenship and c ises. D awing upon he indings o wo esea ch
p ojec s, i ad oca es he impo ance o including child en’s pe spec i es
in c isis na a i es ( he igh o be hea d), as well as a pa icipa o y agenda
ecognising child en’s agency and compe encies o be ac i e pa icipan s in
policy p ocesses ha conce n no only hei p esen , bu also hei u u e.
The six h chap e in he olume is “You h and gene a ions in imes o
c isis: Po ugal in he global si ua ion” by Ví o Sé gio Fe ei a. The au ho
posi s ha he lexibili y es ablished in he labou condi ions and i s po en ial
ex ension h oughou he li e cou se ocuses on inequali ies in he discussion
in oduc ion 19
on gene a ions, de aching i om he me e cul u al alues and e hics o li e
di e ences. I is hypo hesised ha “p eca iousness”, al hough expe ienced
in e y dis inc ways due o young people’s unequal social suppo , can be
pa o he co e o a new gene a ional conscience as a s uc u al condi ion
conside ed du ing a li e ime. I can ha e deep and ex ended e ec s going
beyond he sphe e o he wo king li e, ei ying a con ex ha is a ou able o
he on ological insecu i y o he younge ci izens.
Mo ing om a sociological pe spec i e o a poli ical one, he nex wo
chap e s in his sec ion deal wi h social pa ne s and pa ies. The se en h
chap e is “The c isis impac on he poli ical discou se o Po uguese social
pa ne s” by Raquel Rego, Miguel Won, B uno Ma ins, Amália Mendes,
I ia del Río, Pie e Lejeune. Like Calado and Hen iques’ chap e abo e, his
con ibu ion also ocuses on discou se. I o e s an analysis o he e olu ion
o he poli ical discou se by ade unions and employe associa ions be ween
2011 and 2014, he pe iod in which he coun y was unde he inancial
u elage o he T oika. I is hypo hesised ha he social pa ne s would assume
asymme ic posi ions gi en hei opposing ideological pe cep ions ega ding
he neo-libe al policies imposed by he Memo andum o Unde s anding.
Thei indings gi e c edence o his hypo hesis. In ac , his o iginal analysis
o social pa ne s’ discou ses shows ha he bellige en one o he discou se
is no only a ea u e o ade union discou se, bu also o employe discou se.
Bo h o ganisa ions ha e clea enemies, abs ac , and pola ised: he “capi al”
o cg p, and he “s a e” o cip.
The eigh h chap e is “Pa y-ci izen online challenges: Po uguese pa ies’
Facebook usage and audience engagemen ” by So ia Se a-Sil a, Diana Dias
Ca alho and Júlio Fazendei o. I add esses he con empo a y challenges o
ci izenship by looking a he cu en ela ionship be ween pa ies and ci izens
in he digi al con ex , a space whe e poli ical ac ion and ac i e ci izenship
is inc easingly unde aken. Focussing on how poli ical pa ies use ic and
social media, namely Facebook, he au ho s conclude ha since 2010 all majo
poli ical pa ies ha e inc eased hei in es men in Facebook con en . In
ecen yea s, mos pa ies ha e been mo ing owa ds a s a egy o inc easingly
include mo e mul imedia con en so as o diminish hei dependence upon
Facebook. The main inding e e s o pan – Pessoas-Animais-Na u eza
(People-Animals-Na u e). Despi e being a small and ecen pa y, when
aking in o conside a ion he ela i e numbe o “like s”/ iends, i showed
he second highes le el o use engagemen . This esul highligh s how he
20 ci izenship in c isis
use o new echnologies can a ou new pa ies and help hem o e come hei
limi a ions. pan’s success ul Facebook communica ion migh be explained
because i eme ged in a mo e ecen echnological con ex when compa ed
o pa ies, such as he Po uguese Communis Pa y (pcp), he Socialis Pa y
(ps) and he Social Democ a Pa y (psd), which de eloped a a ime when
he p in ed mass media was he dominan communica ion channel be ween
leade s and ci izens.
consequences o he c isis
The inal sec ion, on he “Consequences o he c isis”, begins wi h a socio-
psychological app oach o ci izen a i udes wi h he chap e “Racisms and
no ma i e p essu es: a new ou b eak o biological acism?” by Jo ge Vala and
Cíce o Robe o Pe ei a. The au ho s p esen di e en s ands o esea ch –
bo h old and new – which hey ha e unde aken on acism in con empo a y
Eu opean socie ies, namely on i s impac on social ela ions in di e en
socie ies. The esea ch is amed by he concep o social ep esen a ion
and social no ms and uses he me apho o acism as an “e ol ing i us”
o unde s and he mu a ions o acism in con empo a y socie ies. The
au ho s p opose ha acism has unde gone adap i e ans o ma ions,
making i possible o main ain he undamen al aspec s o adi ional acial
belie s, wi hou jeopa dising democ a ic ins i u ions and a non- acis , non-
p ejudiced sel - ep esen a ion. I is he mu a ion ha acism has unde gone,
he sub le shi om he biological o he cul u al sphe e, which allows i s
o e widesp ead and socially e ec i e pe sis ence. Thei esul s illus a e how
exp essions o acism a y ac oss coun ies depending on he dynamic o
social ela ions aming he mo i a ions unde lying social iden i ies, and he
con en o social ep esen a ions abou human g oups.
The en h chap e is “Why no populism in Po ugal? ” by Filipe Ca ei a
da Sil a and Susana Salgado. This ex o e s a bluep in o a possible answe
o he ques ion why he e is no populism in Po ugal. Populism has been a
common consequence o he economic c isis, bo h in Eu ope and elsewhe e.
Ye despi e he deep economic ecession Po ugal su e ed be ween 2011 and
2013, he ac emains ha he e was no “populis e ol ” in he coun y,
ei he in he o m o a social mo emen like he Indignados mo emen (and
he subsequen Podemos pa y) in neighbou ing Spain, o in he o m o a
in oduc ion 21
changed discou se by an es ablished poli ical o ce. This ex p oposes a
no el esea ch design in o de o answe his ques ion: me hodologically, he
nega i e case p esen ed by Po ugal is o be s udied in con as wi h a posi i e
case, Spain. Theo e ically, populism is unde s ood o unc ion acco ding o
he logic no o enmi y, bu esen men . The logic o esen men includes bo h
socio-poli ical indigna ion, which e e s o democ a ic no ms and has he
po en ial o ein o ce democ acy, and adical en y, which can slide in o acism
and poli ical iolence. The seeming absence o populism in he coun y would
be explained, om his pe spec i e, by he pe o ma i e ailu e o poli ical
agen s in using ei he o hese sub-logics o esen men o p omo e a populis
esponse o he c isis.
The ele en h chap e is “In wel a e we us ? Poli ical us in Po ugal and
Spain, 2008-2014” by Edalina Rod igues Sanches, José San ana Pe ei a and
Isabella Razzuoli. The au ho s seek o iden i y he sou ces o poli ical (dis)
us in wo coun ies ha we e p o oundly a ec ed by he Eu ozone c isis:
Po ugal and Spain. They assess he ela ionship be ween wel a e pe cep ions
and poli ical us in he wo Ibe ian coun ies, hypo hesising di e en
impac s o hose pe cep ions on he wo coun ies acco ding o he iming
o he so e eign deb c isis. Thei indings show ha pe cep ions o wel a e
pe o mance a e a s ong p edic o o poli ical us , and ha i s impac is
s onge on Spain han Po ugal. Howe e , he impac o wel a e pe o mance
pe cep ions was weake in 2012, a he peak o he c isis, han in 2008 o 2014.
Cogni i e mobilisa ion also led o hese pe cep ions ha ing a s onge impac ,
bu only on Spain and in 2014.
The wel h chap e in his sec ion is Robe o Falanga’s “C i ical ends
o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking. Insigh s om Po ugal”. The ex
discusses h ee c i ical ends pinpoin ed by he in e na ional li e a u e
wi h ega ds o he ins i u ional design o pa icipa o y p ocesses, namely
pa icipa o y budge s: he de achmen o local pa icipa o y p ac ices om
global issues; he shi owa ds echnoc a ic app oaches in de imen o
poli ical-o ien ed p ac ices; and he sca ci y o e alua ion in con as o he
mush ooming o pilo s. Findings show ha wi h he i s end, al hough he
implemen a ion o he na ional pa icipa o y budge challenges in e na ional
p e e ence o local scale, he weak ins i u ional a icula ion wi h he massi e
p esence o local p ocesses may impai s a e e o m goals. As o he second
end, models o delibe a ion ocused on he capaci y o he indi iduals
o ne wo k and campaign wi hou ei he in e media ion o inclusion o