CHANGING
SOCIETIES:
LEGACIES
AND CHALLENGES
Ci izenship
in c isis
Ma ina Cos a Lobo
Filipe Ca ei a da Sil a
José Ped o Zúque e
edi o s
CHANGING
SOCIETIES:
LEGACIES
AND CHALLENGES
Ci izenship
in c isis
Ma ina Cos a Lobo
Filipe Ca ei a da Sil a
José Ped o Zúque e
edi o s
José Luís Ca doso
An ónio Cos a Pin o
Jo ge Vala
edi o ial boa d
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais
da Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal de Be encou , 9
1600-189 Lisboa – Po ugal
Tele . 21 780 47 00 – Fax 21 794 02 74
www.ics.ulisboa.p /imp ensa
E-mail: imp [email p o ec ed]
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais – Ca aloguing-in-Publica ion Da a
Changing socie ies: legacies and challenges.
Vol. ii. Ci izenship in c isis.
[elec onic esou ce]
eds., Ma ina Cos a Lobo, Filipe Ca ei a da Sil a,
José Ped o Zúque e.
Lisboa: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 2018.
3 ols.
isbn 978-972-671-504-7
cdu 316.3
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047
© Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, 2018.
C ea i e Commons License
A ibu ion 3.0 Unpo ed (cc by 3.0)
P oo eading: John S ewa Hu s o ;
Mick G ee (In oduc ion; chap e s 1, 5 and 9).
G aphic design:
Fi s Published: Sep embe 2018
Table
o con en s
in oduc ion ......................................................................................................................................... 13
Ma ina Cos a Lobo, Filipe Ca ei a da Sil a and José Ped o Zúque e
pa i
Ques ioning he c isis
1.
The c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion: he Po uguese case (2002-2015) .................. 27
Manuel Villa e de Cab al and Susana Salgado
2.
Re isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu. A h ee-dimensional app oach .................... 51
Ma ina Cos a Lobo and Jan Ka emans
3.
Fa ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness, and poli ical suppo :
esul s om a su ey expe imen ............................................................................................... 73
Ped o C. Magalhães and Tiago Ab il
4 able o con en s
4.
Economic c isis and poli ical decision: wo ds and meaning ......................................... 87
Vi ginia Hen iques Calado and Luís Cunha
pa ii
Ac o s in c isis
5.
Child en, ci izenship and c ises: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda ............................ 113
Ana Nunes de Almeida, Ana So ia Ribei o and Jussa a Rowland
6.
You h and gene a ions in imes o c isis: Po ugal in he global si ua ion ........... 135
Ví o Sé gio Fe ei a
7.
The c isis impac on he poli ical discou se o Po uguese social pa ne s ......... 161
Raquel Rego, Miguel Won, B uno Ma ins, Amália Mendes, I ia del Río,
Pie e Lejeune
8.
Pa y-ci izen online challenges: Po uguese pa ies’ Facebook usage
and audience engagemen ........................................................................................................... 185
So ia Se a-Sil a, Diana Dias Ca alho, Júlio Fazendei o
pa iii
Consequences o he c isis
9.
Racisms and no ma i e p essu es: a new ou b eak o biological acism? ............ 217
Jo ge Vala and Cíce o Robe o Pe ei a
10.
Why no populism in Po ugal? ................................................................................................. 249
Filipe Ca ei a da Sil a and Susana Salgado

able o con en s 5
11.
In wel a e we us ? Poli ical us in Po ugal and Spain, 2008-2014 ................... 269
Edalina Rod igues Sanches, José San ana Pe ei a and Isabella Razzuoli
12.
C i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking.
Insigh s om Po ugal .................................................................................................................. 295
Robe o Falanga
13.
Poli ical consequences o socio- e i o ial con lic s.
Concep ualizing changing pa hs o ci izenship and democ a ic go e nance
in he Andean Region o La in Ame ica ............................................................................... 319
Gonzalo Delamaza
6 able o con en s
Lis
o igu es
3.1 Su ey model ...................................................................................................................................... 76
3.2 Dis ibu ion o p e e ed policy ou comes by condi ion ..................................................................... 78
3.3 A e age pe cep ion o oice on a scale o 1 o 10 pe condi ion
(one con ol g oup and six expe imen al g oups) ...................................................................................... 79
3.4 A e age pe cep ion o neu ali y on a scale o 1 o 10 pe condi ion
(one con ol g oup and six expe imen al g oups) ...................................................................................... 79
3.5 A e age pe cep ion o anspa ency on a scale o 1 o 10 pe condi ion
(one con ol g oup and six expe imen al g oups) ...................................................................................... 79
3.6 E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, Voice expe imen . S anda dized coe icien s ................. 80
3.7 E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, Voice expe imen . Fai ness-ou come in e ac ion .......... 83
3.8 E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, Neu ali y expe imen . Fai ness-ou come in e ac ion ... 83
3.9 E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, T anspa ency expe imen .
Fai ness-ou come in e ac ion ..................................................................................................................... 83
7. 1 cg p and cip occu ences o selec ed key-ph ases ........................................................................... 178
8.1 Volume o pos s pe mon h published by pa ies ............................................................................. 197
8.2 Popula i y pe mon h among pa ies and o e yea s ...................................................................... 202
8.3 Commi men pe mon h among pa ies and o e yea s ................................................................. 203
8.4 Vi ali y pe mon h among pa ies and o e yea s .......................................................................... 205
8.5 Engagemen le el ac oss pa ies ...................................................................................................... 206
able o con en s 7
11.1 T us in poli ical ins i u ions in Po ugal and Spain (2008, 2012, 2014) .................................... 279
11.2 Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance (2008) .................. 284
11.3 Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance (2012) .................. 284
11.4 Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance (2014) .................. 285
11.5 Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance and cogni i e
mobiliza ion (2008) ................................................................................................................................. 286
11.6 Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance and cogni i e
mobiliza ion (2012) ................................................................................................................................. 287
11.7 Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance and cogni i e
mobiliza ion (2014) ................................................................................................................................. 287
8 able o con en s
Lis
o ables
1.1 Abs en ion in pa liamen a y elec ions in Po ugal (pe cen ages) ...................................................... 35
1.2 Abs en ion in p esiden ial elec ions in Po ugal (pe cen ages) .......................................................... 35
1.3 Abs en ion in Eu opean Pa liamen a y elec ions (pe cen ages) ........................................................ 35
1.4 Poli ical ep esen a ion and poli ical pa ies (%) ............................................................................... 39
1.5 Poli ical ep esen a ion and he poli ical eli e (%) ............................................................................. 40
1.6 Poli ical ep esen a ion and poli ical pa ies o e ime (2002-2015) ................................................ 41
1.7 Eli es and he wo king class conce ning poli ics, in Po ugal and he eu (a e ages) ........................ 44
2.1 The e olu ion o he s udy o eu-poli iciza ion – An o e iew .......................................................... 55
3.1 S uc u al equa ion models (s anda dized coe icien s) .................................................................... 82
7. 1 Poli ical documen s analysed ........................................................................................................... 168
7. 2 Top h ee inno a i e ele an key-ph ases be o e and a e he T oika ........................................... 176
8.1 Poli ical pa ies and Facebook ......................................................................................................... 194
8.2 Me ics se ........................................................................................................................................ 195
8.3 Facebook ools used by Poli ical pa y o e he yea s ..................................................................... 199
in oduc ion 15
This olume ocuses on he causes, cha ac e is ics and consequences o he
c isis o ci izenship. Following T. H. Ma shall, we ake ci izenship o en ail h ee
dimensions: ci ic, poli ical and social. The ci ic elemen includes he igh s
necessa y o indi idual eedom – eedom o he pe son, igh o exp ession,
hough and ai h, igh o p ope y and o conclude alid con ac s, and he
igh o jus ice. The poli ical dimension o ci izenship includes he igh o
pa icipa e in he exe cise o poli ical powe , as a membe o an ins i u ion wi h
poli ical au ho i y o as a o e o such ins i u ions. Social igh s o ci izenship
include he igh o heal h ca e, he igh o social secu i y, he igh o wo k,
and he igh o educa ion. So-called ou h-gene a ion igh s, associa ed wi h
ecen de elopmen s in a eas such as bio echnology o he In e ne , al hough
absen om Ma shall’s o iginal analysis, a e also conside ed he e.
Po ugal is an especially ele an case when analysing he causes and
mul iple consequences o he c isis. The 2008 in e na ional inancial c isis,
which led o he coun y’s bailou in 2011, had a s ong sense o déjà u o
hose who emembe he wo p e ious bailou s ha had o be nego ia ed in
1978 and 1983. In ac , Po ugal’s democ a ic expe ience since 1974 has been
punc ua ed by ecu en economic c isis. I s equency does no de ac om
he di e si ua ion which has ma ked Po ugal in ecen yea s. In 2011, he
coun y was unable o inance i sel , ha ing los access o in e na ional capi al
ma ke s. This o ced he Po uguese au ho i ies o eques a bailou loan o
78 billion Eu os. In mid-2011, he Po uguese go e nmen and he T oika o
lende s signed a Memo andum o Unde s anding de ailing he condi ions
unde which his loan was o be g an ed. The bailou ’s condi ionali y, ollowing
he so-called “Washing on consensus” on p i a isa ion, de egula ion and ade
libe aliza ion, ocused on educing public de ici , educing he segmen a ion o
labou ma ke s and e o ming wel a e p o ision. This esul ed in a long pe iod
o economic ecession, eco d-high unemploymen a es and signi ican le els
o immig a ion. Po ugal ound i sel among he mos g a ely hi coun ies in
he Eu ozone, close o G eece, I eland, Spain, Cyp us and I aly. A he same
ime, s a ing in he summe o 2013, a wa e o hund eds o housands o
Sy ian and No h A ican e ugees began eaching Eu opean sho es, pu ing
immense p essu e on Eu opean go e nmen s o in eg a e hem. Eu opean
public opinion, al eady anxious abou he i s wa e o e o a acks on
Eu opean soil since he 1970s, ecei ed he news o his sudden in low o
e ugees wi h mixed eelings. Pa ly gi en o i s geog aphical loca ion on he
A lan ic sho e, pa ly o he lack o economic oppo uni ies, Po ugal has

16 ci izenship in c isis
ecei ed only a esidual numbe o hese immig an s. This may pa ly help
explain why, unlike in o he Sou he n and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies, he e
has been no ise o populis mo emen s o leade s in Po ugal. I any hing, he
c isis seems o ha e ein o ced, a he han ques ioned, he commi men o
he Po uguese o he ci izenship igh s won on 25 h Ap il, 1974.
The main goal o his olume is o discuss he ways in which ci izenship, i s
exe cise and ou unde s anding o wha i means o be a ci izen, has e ol ed
in he con ex o hese e en s. The assump ion is ha he c isis, in i s a ious
dimensions, has c ea ed signi ican challenges o he way in which ci izenship
has been exe cised. A second goal is, whene e ele an and possible, o ake a
longe - e m and compa a i e app oach. This includes p ima acie he Eu opean
con ex , which has gained addi ional ele ance gi en he ole o he Eu o and
he eu in he o igins and managemen o he c isis, as well as he La in Ame ican
con ex , whose Ibe ian oo s a o d impo an poin s o ansa lan ic compa ison.
A hi d and ela ed goal is o ques ion whe he 21s cen u y economic
globalisa ion and i s inancial dimension can be e ec i ely egula ed by elec ed
o ms o go e nmen , and whe he he eu and o he mul ila e al and egional
o ganisa ions a e supplying use ul ci izenship and go e nance o he na ional
dimension. Due conside a ion will also be gi en o a po en ial end owa ds a
poli ical e e sal o globalisa ion, a closing o bo de s, and i s implica ions o
he concep o ci izenship.
The disciplina y backg ounds o he h ee edi o s o his olume a e,
espec i ely, in poli ical sciences, sociology, his o y and in e na ional ela ions.
Toge he , we ep esen wo esea ch g oups in he Ins i u e o Social Sciences
o he Uni e si y o Lisbon (ics-ul), namely he spa c and he Resea ch
G oup on Regimes and Ins i u ions. Ou aim has been o b ing oge he
con ibu ions whe e he concep o c isis igu es as ei he a dependen o an
independen a iable; sociological and poli ical science s udies del ing in o
he consequences o c isis o ci izenship; s udies in in e na ional ela ions and
his o y ha p o ide a mo e long- e m pe spec i e; as well as c oss-coun y
compa isons adding dep h o he esea ch on he way in which ci izenship has
been challenged in imes o c isis. The hi een chap e s making up his olume,
and which we summa ise below, all in o h ee sec ions: (1) Ques ioning he
c isis; (2) Ac o s in c isis; (3) Consequences o he c isis.
in oduc ion 17
ques ioning he c isis
The i s chap e in his sec ion is “The c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion:
he Po uguese case (2002-2015)” by Manuel Villa e de Cab al and Susana
Salgado. Making use o a longi udinal analysis o pos elec o al su eys, as
well as o he quan i a i e da a, he ex se s ou o discuss how Po uguese
ci izens e alua e poli ical pa ies and poli icians. This, in u n, enables he
au ho s o add ess he b oade ques ion o whe he he idea o a “c isis o
poli ical ep esen a ion” is indeed he mos app op ia e in accoun ing o his
si ua ion. Con i ming Be na d Manin’s hypo hesis ha he deepening o such
a c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion may occu simul aneously wi h a scena io
o consolida ed democ acy and high le els o o mal educa ion, he au ho s
conclude ha his has indeed been he case in Po ugal, namely i one akes
in o accoun he combina ion o low le els o u nou in elec ions and ci izens’
esponses o he pos elec o al su eys.
The second chap e is “Re isi ing he poli icisa ion o he eu. A h ee-
dimensional app oach” by Ma ina Cos a Lobo and Jan Ka emans. This ex
p oposes o inc ease ou unde s anding o he ways in which Eu ope has
eme ged in na ional poli ical deba es (bo h a he media and pa liamen a y
le el), and wi h wha consequences o na ional democ acy, in e ms o
ci izen a i udes and poli ical beha iou . One o he majo consequences o
he inancial c isis has been o b ing he na u e and consequences o Eu opean
in eg a ion o he hea o na ional poli ics. A e we wi nessing a pe iod o
inc easing lack o choice among eu membe -s a es democ acy o , in con as ,
a e we on he pa h o he o ma ion o a Eu opean democ acy and Eu opean
public space? The au ho s’ o e iew o he li e a u e ames he e ms o an
impo an deba e on he s a e o democ acy in Eu ope.
The hi d chap e is by Ped o C. Magalhães and Tiago Ab il, and is en i led
“Fa ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness, and poli ical suppo : esul s
om a su ey expe imen ” I begins wi h he obse a ion ha i is o en he
case ha , in hei ela ionship wi h au ho i ies, people ca e no only abou
ge ing hei p e e ed ou comes bu also abou he way hose ou comes
a e gene a ed, pa icula ly abou he ex en o which decision-making
p ocedu es a e ai . The ex ocuses on he case o poli ical au ho i ies, which
is pa icula ly ele an o he exe cise o ci izens’ igh s in ha d imes. Making
use o a su ey expe imen , he au ho s each h ee di e en conclusions.
Fi s , om a p ocedu al poin o iew, ai ules ha e a signi ican la ge o al
18 ci izenship in c isis
e ec on poli ical suppo o au ho i ies, an e ec ha is la gely media ed by
pe cep ions o ai ness bu can also, in some cases, be a di ec e ec . Second,
hey show ha his inding holds ega dless o he dimension o p ocedu al
ai ness – Voice, Neu ali y/Impa iali y and Accessibili y/T anspa ency. This
sugges s ha , o e all, ai ness ma e s mo e han ou come a ou abili y. Thi d,
hey show ha in high anspa ency e en s/si ua ions, ecei ing a a ou able
ou come is o li le impo ance, bu in low anspa ency e en s/si ua ions,
ecei ing a a ou able ou come o no coun s mo e.
The las chap e in his sec ion is “Economic c isis and poli ical decision:
wo ds and meaning” by Vi gínia Hen iques Calado and Luís Cunha. Thei
a gumen is buil on he assump ion ha he “c isis”, ei he as a phenomenon
o concep , does no exis independen ly o he social agen s’ meaning-
making p ac ices. A c isis is, he e o e, a undamen ally discu si e o ma ion.
Na a i es, as p ac ices o p oduc ion o discou se, a e hus hypo hesised o
ha e a signi ican impac on how c isis, hei o igins and consequences, a e
pe cei ed by he public and managed poli ically. The ex ’s main con ibu ion
is i s o iginal analysis o he speeches by Po uguese p ime minis e s in S a e
o he Na ion deba es o e en yea s (2008-17). I shows how he no ions o
c isis and e o m bu also o adjus men , ideology and eali y we e mobilised
o p oduce decisi e e ec s, and ha he ideological eno o poli ical speeches
inc eases when one is in he opposi ion and diminishes when one is in o ice.
ac o s in c isis
The second sec ion s a s wi h a chap e on “Child en, ci izenship and
c ises: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda” by Ana Nunes de Almeida, Ana
So ia Ribei o and Jussa a Rowland. The ex discusses he ela ion be ween
child en, ci izenship and c ises. D awing upon he indings o wo esea ch
p ojec s, i ad oca es he impo ance o including child en’s pe spec i es
in c isis na a i es ( he igh o be hea d), as well as a pa icipa o y agenda
ecognising child en’s agency and compe encies o be ac i e pa icipan s in
policy p ocesses ha conce n no only hei p esen , bu also hei u u e.
The six h chap e in he olume is “You h and gene a ions in imes o
c isis: Po ugal in he global si ua ion” by Ví o Sé gio Fe ei a. The au ho
posi s ha he lexibili y es ablished in he labou condi ions and i s po en ial
ex ension h oughou he li e cou se ocuses on inequali ies in he discussion
in oduc ion 19
on gene a ions, de aching i om he me e cul u al alues and e hics o li e
di e ences. I is hypo hesised ha “p eca iousness”, al hough expe ienced
in e y dis inc ways due o young people’s unequal social suppo , can be
pa o he co e o a new gene a ional conscience as a s uc u al condi ion
conside ed du ing a li e ime. I can ha e deep and ex ended e ec s going
beyond he sphe e o he wo king li e, ei ying a con ex ha is a ou able o
he on ological insecu i y o he younge ci izens.
Mo ing om a sociological pe spec i e o a poli ical one, he nex wo
chap e s in his sec ion deal wi h social pa ne s and pa ies. The se en h
chap e is “The c isis impac on he poli ical discou se o Po uguese social
pa ne s” by Raquel Rego, Miguel Won, B uno Ma ins, Amália Mendes,
I ia del Río, Pie e Lejeune. Like Calado and Hen iques’ chap e abo e, his
con ibu ion also ocuses on discou se. I o e s an analysis o he e olu ion
o he poli ical discou se by ade unions and employe associa ions be ween
2011 and 2014, he pe iod in which he coun y was unde he inancial
u elage o he T oika. I is hypo hesised ha he social pa ne s would assume
asymme ic posi ions gi en hei opposing ideological pe cep ions ega ding
he neo-libe al policies imposed by he Memo andum o Unde s anding.
Thei indings gi e c edence o his hypo hesis. In ac , his o iginal analysis
o social pa ne s’ discou ses shows ha he bellige en one o he discou se
is no only a ea u e o ade union discou se, bu also o employe discou se.
Bo h o ganisa ions ha e clea enemies, abs ac , and pola ised: he “capi al”
o cg p, and he “s a e” o cip.
The eigh h chap e is “Pa y-ci izen online challenges: Po uguese pa ies’
Facebook usage and audience engagemen ” by So ia Se a-Sil a, Diana Dias
Ca alho and Júlio Fazendei o. I add esses he con empo a y challenges o
ci izenship by looking a he cu en ela ionship be ween pa ies and ci izens
in he digi al con ex , a space whe e poli ical ac ion and ac i e ci izenship
is inc easingly unde aken. Focussing on how poli ical pa ies use ic and
social media, namely Facebook, he au ho s conclude ha since 2010 all majo
poli ical pa ies ha e inc eased hei in es men in Facebook con en . In
ecen yea s, mos pa ies ha e been mo ing owa ds a s a egy o inc easingly
include mo e mul imedia con en so as o diminish hei dependence upon
Facebook. The main inding e e s o pan – Pessoas-Animais-Na u eza
(People-Animals-Na u e). Despi e being a small and ecen pa y, when
aking in o conside a ion he ela i e numbe o “like s”/ iends, i showed
he second highes le el o use engagemen . This esul highligh s how he
20 ci izenship in c isis
use o new echnologies can a ou new pa ies and help hem o e come hei
limi a ions. pan’s success ul Facebook communica ion migh be explained
because i eme ged in a mo e ecen echnological con ex when compa ed
o pa ies, such as he Po uguese Communis Pa y (pcp), he Socialis Pa y
(ps) and he Social Democ a Pa y (psd), which de eloped a a ime when
he p in ed mass media was he dominan communica ion channel be ween
leade s and ci izens.
consequences o he c isis
The inal sec ion, on he “Consequences o he c isis”, begins wi h a socio-
psychological app oach o ci izen a i udes wi h he chap e “Racisms and
no ma i e p essu es: a new ou b eak o biological acism?” by Jo ge Vala and
Cíce o Robe o Pe ei a. The au ho s p esen di e en s ands o esea ch –
bo h old and new – which hey ha e unde aken on acism in con empo a y
Eu opean socie ies, namely on i s impac on social ela ions in di e en
socie ies. The esea ch is amed by he concep o social ep esen a ion
and social no ms and uses he me apho o acism as an “e ol ing i us”
o unde s and he mu a ions o acism in con empo a y socie ies. The
au ho s p opose ha acism has unde gone adap i e ans o ma ions,
making i possible o main ain he undamen al aspec s o adi ional acial
belie s, wi hou jeopa dising democ a ic ins i u ions and a non- acis , non-
p ejudiced sel - ep esen a ion. I is he mu a ion ha acism has unde gone,
he sub le shi om he biological o he cul u al sphe e, which allows i s
o e widesp ead and socially e ec i e pe sis ence. Thei esul s illus a e how
exp essions o acism a y ac oss coun ies depending on he dynamic o
social ela ions aming he mo i a ions unde lying social iden i ies, and he
con en o social ep esen a ions abou human g oups.
The en h chap e is “Why no populism in Po ugal? ” by Filipe Ca ei a
da Sil a and Susana Salgado. This ex o e s a bluep in o a possible answe
o he ques ion why he e is no populism in Po ugal. Populism has been a
common consequence o he economic c isis, bo h in Eu ope and elsewhe e.
Ye despi e he deep economic ecession Po ugal su e ed be ween 2011 and
2013, he ac emains ha he e was no “populis e ol ” in he coun y,
ei he in he o m o a social mo emen like he Indignados mo emen (and
he subsequen Podemos pa y) in neighbou ing Spain, o in he o m o a

in oduc ion 21
changed discou se by an es ablished poli ical o ce. This ex p oposes a
no el esea ch design in o de o answe his ques ion: me hodologically, he
nega i e case p esen ed by Po ugal is o be s udied in con as wi h a posi i e
case, Spain. Theo e ically, populism is unde s ood o unc ion acco ding o
he logic no o enmi y, bu esen men . The logic o esen men includes bo h
socio-poli ical indigna ion, which e e s o democ a ic no ms and has he
po en ial o ein o ce democ acy, and adical en y, which can slide in o acism
and poli ical iolence. The seeming absence o populism in he coun y would
be explained, om his pe spec i e, by he pe o ma i e ailu e o poli ical
agen s in using ei he o hese sub-logics o esen men o p omo e a populis
esponse o he c isis.
The ele en h chap e is “In wel a e we us ? Poli ical us in Po ugal and
Spain, 2008-2014” by Edalina Rod igues Sanches, José San ana Pe ei a and
Isabella Razzuoli. The au ho s seek o iden i y he sou ces o poli ical (dis)
us in wo coun ies ha we e p o oundly a ec ed by he Eu ozone c isis:
Po ugal and Spain. They assess he ela ionship be ween wel a e pe cep ions
and poli ical us in he wo Ibe ian coun ies, hypo hesising di e en
impac s o hose pe cep ions on he wo coun ies acco ding o he iming
o he so e eign deb c isis. Thei indings show ha pe cep ions o wel a e
pe o mance a e a s ong p edic o o poli ical us , and ha i s impac is
s onge on Spain han Po ugal. Howe e , he impac o wel a e pe o mance
pe cep ions was weake in 2012, a he peak o he c isis, han in 2008 o 2014.
Cogni i e mobilisa ion also led o hese pe cep ions ha ing a s onge impac ,
bu only on Spain and in 2014.
The wel h chap e in his sec ion is Robe o Falanga’s “C i ical ends
o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking. Insigh s om Po ugal”. The ex
discusses h ee c i ical ends pinpoin ed by he in e na ional li e a u e
wi h ega ds o he ins i u ional design o pa icipa o y p ocesses, namely
pa icipa o y budge s: he de achmen o local pa icipa o y p ac ices om
global issues; he shi owa ds echnoc a ic app oaches in de imen o
poli ical-o ien ed p ac ices; and he sca ci y o e alua ion in con as o he
mush ooming o pilo s. Findings show ha wi h he i s end, al hough he
implemen a ion o he na ional pa icipa o y budge challenges in e na ional
p e e ence o local scale, he weak ins i u ional a icula ion wi h he massi e
p esence o local p ocesses may impai s a e e o m goals. As o he second
end, models o delibe a ion ocused on he capaci y o he indi iduals
o ne wo k and campaign wi hou ei he in e media ion o inclusion o
22 ci izenship in c isis
o ganised g oups may ha e a ou ed he eme gence o sel -o ganised lobbies.
Rega ding he hi d end, he absence o e alua ion om bo h local and
na ional ins i u ional designs u he limi s his e lec ion, gi en he lack o
da a abou who is ac ually pa icipa ing in hese p ocesses.
We end he olume wi h an in e na ional pe spec i e on he consequences
o he c isis. Gonzalo Delamaza’s “Poli ical consequences o socio- e i o ial
con lic s. Concep ualizing changing pa hs o ci izenship and democ a ic
go e nance in he Andean Region o La in Ame ica” akes his c i ical
e alua ion o he ci il implica ions o he economic c isis beyond Po ugal
and Eu ope o La in Ame ica, expanding he on ie s o wha we mean by
ci izenship and which g oups a e in ol ed. This ex s udies socio- e i o ial
con lic s, i. e. con lic s ha in ol e con en ious ac ions aking place and
ha a e ca ied ou by social agen s om a gi en geog aphical e i o y,
and whose claims in ol e issues ha impinge di ec ly on ha e i o y. I is
u he sugges ed ha his ype o con lic is on he ise in coun ies in he
Andean Region o La in Ame ica, and ha hey ha e gene a ed a di e en
ype o poli ical ou come. This has enabled ci izen g oups o me ly excluded
om poli ical exp ession o become inc easingly isible. The e is e idence, he
au ho concludes, ha he e a e se e al a eas in which he con lic dynamics
open up spaces o new ac o s, new e i o ies and new o ms o social and
poli ical ac ion.
Taken oge he , hese chap e s p o ide a snapsho o he ongoing esea ch
on ci izenship in c isis a he ics-ul in he las decade. We hope ha his
olume will con ibu e o he ad ancemen o scien i ic knowledge on he
con empo a y challenges o ci izenship. I is an issue o g ea public in e es ,
inso a as i deals wi h he open-ended deba e abou he quali y and na u e o
democ acy in he 21s cen u y.
in oduc ion 23
____________________________________
ma ina cos a lobo
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal
[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0002-7329-0972
____________________________________
ilipe ca ei a da sil a
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0003-2459-0802
____________________________________
josé ped o zúque e
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0001-6209-6931
____________________________________
ci e his chap e as:
lobo, M. C., F. C. da Sil a, J. P. Zúque e. 2018. “In oduc ion”. In Changing Socie ies: Legacies and
Challenges. Vol. ii. Ci izenship in C isis, eds. M. C. Lobo, F. C. da Sil a and J. P. Zúque e. Lisbon: Imp ensa
de Ciências Sociais, 13-23.
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047.00
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 31
poli ical sys ems has e ol ed i s om “no ables” o “hommes d’appa eil” and,
mo e ecen ly, om he la e o he “éli es poli ico-média iques” as Manin
calls hem in F ench. Acco ding o him, “plus que la subs i u ion d’un ype
d’éli e à un au e, c’es le main ien, oi e l’acc oissemen de l’éca en e les
gou e nés e l’éli e gou e nan e qui p o oque un sen imen de c ise”; and he
concludes ha : “les é olu ions p ésen es appo en un démen i à la c oyance
que le lien ep ésen a i é ai des iné à a ance oujou s e s plus d’iden i é ou
d’iden i ica ion en e gou e nés e gou e nan s”2 (Manin 1995, 300).
F om a desc ip i e poin o iew, one o he mos comp ehensi e s udies on
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion was published in Spain unde he edi ing o
Po as Nadales (1996), i ually a he same ime as Manin’s essay. His o ically,
he cu en no ion o such a c isis can be ac ually linked o he beginnings
o he con empo a y globalisa ion sp ead om 1971 onwa ds (Cab al 2016,
152 no e 1) and o he ise o he “democ a ic hi d wa e” in he mid-1970s
(Hun ing on 1991), om hen up o he all o he Be lin Wall in 1989 and he
implosion o he So ie empi e in he 1990s, when he c isis sp ead wo ldwide
and deepened in se e al new libe al democ a ic coun ies (Cab al 2004; 2016,
151-162).
The cul u al c i ical u n which occu ed in he a e ma h o he “e en s o
May’ 68” in Pa is seems o ha e p o ided he “ a ionale” o he inc easingly
mili an an i-au ho i a ian mo emen ha ollowed and which ques ioned
he alleged au ho i y o adi ional poli ical pa ies, namely le -wing ones. In
u n, such pa ies wi nessed he g adual blu ing o se e al o hei p e ious
social class and ideological di e ences as hey mo ed om mass-pa ies o
ca ch-all pa ies a he same ime ha hey became inc easingly dependen
on he mass media. The so-called “legi ima ion c isis” a gued hen by Jü gen
Habe mas (1973) as a mani es a ion o demo i a ion owa ds he s anda d
poli ical li e in “la e capi alism”, may ha e been he i s c i ical heo y o wha
we a e now e e ing o as “ he c isis o ep esen a ion”.
C ises o poli ical ep esen a ion a e no some hing en i ely new in
democ a ic sys ems. Indeed, acco ding o se e al au ho s (Manin 1995; Po as
Nadales 1996; Tagga 2004; Mai 2013; jus o p o ide a ew examples),
he gap is pe manen . Such gap unde goes changes in he na u e o i s
mani es a ions and in in ensi y, bu i emains an inhe en pa o he double
na u e o ep esen a i e democ acy, i. e. democ a ic as a as uni e sal ee o e
2 The English ansla ion does no include his exac pa ag aph; so, we used he F ench edi ion (1996).

ci izenship in c isis
32
decides who ules each ime i is called o, and oliga chic in so a as he e is an
unb idgeable social and powe dis ance be ween he elec ed ep esen a i es
and hose hey a e supposed o ep esen (Manin 1995; Ho s ede 1980; o
Po ugal, Cab al 2016).
The e a e also e e ences o simila c ises in he classical heo ies o
democ acy (see o example, Viei a and Runciman 2008; Au élio 2009).
Howe e , ou ocus is on he aming and he ea u es o he c ises o poli ical
ep esen a ion ha eme ged as a esponse o he inc easingly impo an ole
o mass and ca ch-all pa ies, as well as o he wide sp eading expansion o he
“wel a e s a e” and i s g owing economic weigh . Pa y p og ammes became
mo e ague and simila o each o he , which has led o some ideological
and sociological homogenei y and o an inc easing lack o poli ical iden i y.
The loss o cen ali y o mos na ion-s a es in he poli ical decision-making
p ocesses in a g owingly globalised economy is also di ec ly ela ed o his
blu ing o poli ical al e na i es.
Today, due o globalisa ion, global c ises, and he g owing complexi y o
mos issues (e. g. en i onmen al changes, secu i y, e o ism, heal h, popula ion
ageing, e c.), he na ional poli ical eli es also seem o ha e los much o hei
au onomy and a e now accoun able no only o hose who elec ed hem, bu
also o o he poli ical ac o s, such as o eign go e nmen s and in e na ional
ins i u ions (im , w o, eu, ecb, e c.). Many poli ical decisions ha a ec
ci izens di ec ly a e now in he hands o sup ana ional o ganisa ions, and
o en na ional eli es wash hei hands om unpopula policies, explaining
hem as he only possible ou come o in e na ional p essu es, he so-called
“ ina” (The e is no al e na i e). This blu s esponsi eness and con ibu es o
disc edi he ep esen a ional na u e o cu en democ a ic poli ies (Powell
and Whi en 1993; Buhlmann and Fi az 2016).
The ans o ma ions ha occu ed in p o essional s uc u es and he
e osion o he class sys em ( he alleged middle class e ec ) in which pa y
democ acies we e unde pinned a e also ela ed o hese c ises. In u n,
socio-cul u al ans o ma ions, including mass educa ion, he inc easing
amoun o in o ma ion a ailable and he as de elopmen o echnology ha e
led o cul u al shi s such as he alleged shi om “ma e ialism” o “pos -
ma e ialism” s udied by Ingleha (1989). In his con ex , no ions like “cogni i e
mobilisa ion” as a leading ac o o poli ical awa eness and mobilisa ion
ended o o e come he ole o pa ies and o he poli ical class (Dal on 1984).
Those de elopmen s ha e also con ibu ed o wha No is’s names as he ise
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 33
o he “c i ical ci izen” (No is 1999), which impac s on he ci izen’s poli ical
a i udes, and inc eases he ci izens’ eluc ance o accep unc i ically mass
pa ies’ pla o ms and he ca ch-all pa ies’ blu ed ideological p oposals,
o en leading o pa y disa ec ion and elec o al abs en ion.
On he o he hand, he g owing in luence o he media in poli ics (p ocess
o media isa ion and di e en ypes o media e ec s) is equen ly desc ibed
as being esponsible o aming ci izens as spec a o s, a he han as pa
o he democ a ic decision-making p ocess, and o po aying poli ics as a
“spec acle” (see o example Debo d’s La Socie é du spec acle, published in 1967;
and se e al o he s a e his “seminal pamphle ”, as Pos man 1985; and mo e
ecen ly Hedges 2009). These speci ic ea u es o he media logic in poli ics
ha e also been ela ed in ex an li e a u e o low u nou s, poli ical apa hy, and
o e all disin e es in poli ics leading o a “spi al o cynicism” (Ba els 1996;
Cappella and Jamieson 1997).
Agains his backg ound, he ole o he media and he inc easing
dependency o poli ics on he media a e o he ou mos impo ance, as news
media can con ibu e o u he explain he ep esen a i e poli ical p ocesses
o decision making o ci izens, o do exac ly he opposi e, i. e. con ibu e
o u he disengagemen , o example, when jou nalis s epo poli ics
h ough supe icial and biased app oaches. Inc easingly, poli icians ha e
been de eloping poli ical communica ion and media s a egies o ge media
exposu e and o con ol bo h he media agenda-se ing p ocess and he news
aming o issues. In ac , oday any poli ical success is a leas in pa media-
d i en. Mo eo e , his conce n wi h publici y and p opaganda also leads o a
ede ini ion o wha is pe cei ed by he public as a skilled poli ician o a sui ed
public policy, o example.
Blumle and Gu e i ch (1995) name he p oblem as “ he c isis o public
communica ion”. These au ho s a e conce ned wi h he way poli ics is
communica ed o he public, which hey see as inc easingly disa ec ed and
wi h a g owingly con ounded and us a ed abili y o make sense o ci ic
p oblems and poli ical issues. Howe e , in hei iew, nei he poli icians
no jou nalis s a e o blame o his c isis. The c isis is caused by a complex
combina ion o ac o s ha ha e made go e nmen mo e di icul , popula
suppo mo e con ingen , and e ec i e communica ion mo e i al in hese
p ocesses. O e all, ci izens ha e now access o mo e in o ma ion and a e be e
p epa ed o unde s and he poli ical p ocesses han e e , bu a he same ime
– o because o ha – hey also eel mo e disengaged and unde ep esen ed
ci izenship in c isis
34
han e e . O e ime, democ acy seems o ha e b oadened i s ep esen a ion,
bu i has no deepened i , p ecisely as Be na d Manin had pu i se e al
decades ago.
The p ocess o ep esen a ion equi es a link be ween he opinions o
ci izens and he ac ions o hei ep esen a i es. In an ideal ep esen a i e
democ acy, ep esen a i es would be ully esponsi e o he ci izens’ opinions
and p e e ences, which would guide he de ini ion o policy (Powell 2004). I
is o en assumed ha poli ical pa ies should compe e on he basis o dis inc
policy pla o ms, which, in u n, should espond o he socio-economic
in e es s and ideological belie s o hei suppo e s (Dal on 2002). Bu eal-
li e democ acies do no usually mee his ideal and he e a e o en di e ences
be ween he p e e ences o ci izens and he iews and ac ions o poli icians.
This is wha S ephen Whi e ield names a ep esen a ional gap: mo e o
less wide di e ences be ween he iews and ac s o ep esen a i es and he
p e e ences o hose hey claim o ep esen . The ep esen a ional sys em ails
when his gap is oo la ge (Whi e ield 2006, 733).
Ci izens ha e hus g own mo e dis us ul o poli icians and pa ies, and
became mo e scep ical abou allegedly ep esen a i e ins i u ions as well as
abou he o e all unc ioning o he democ a ic p ocess (Dal on 2007; Dal on
and Wa enbe g 2002). In u n, g owing poli ical abs en ion and apa hy do
a ec ep esen a i e democ acies nega i ely, in he sense ha less ci izen
pa icipa ion could lead o a disc edi o he ep esen a i e sys em. In many
si ua ions, poli icians a e being elec ed wi h less and less o es, and become
he e o e less ep esen a i e o a la ge po ion o he popula ion, which can
also lead o he eme gence (o g ow h) o di e en o ms o populism, o e en,
in ex eme ci cums ances, o o e an i-democ a ic poli ical beha iou .
In ac , bo h he concep o poli ical ep esen a ion and some kind o c isis
o ep esen a ion lay a he hea o mos o ms o populism. Simila ly o
Cano an’s (1999) in e p e a ion o populism as a e lec ion o he limi a ions
o ep esen a i e poli ical sys ems, Robe s (2015) sees populism as a esponse
o he disc edi o ep esen a i e ins i u ions, om which a la ge p opo ion o
ci izens eel aliena ed due o socio-economic and/o cul u al alleged exclusion.
The ep esen a i e sys em p esupposes ha poli ical eli es compe e among
each o he o go e n and ep esen he ci izens. Populis s a e o en agains
he ep esen a i e sys em as well as agains he media ing s uc u es o he
ep esen a i e model o democ acy which hey conside no only ine ec i e,
bu also inadequa e o deal wi h he ci izens’ conce ns.
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 35
an empi ical app oach o he c isis o poli ical
ep esen a ion
In addi ion o examining he heo e ical and analy ical deba es ha a e ocused
on he concep o poli ical ep esen a ion and i s c ises, we a e also conce ned
wi h analysing how a lawed poli ical ep esen a ion, o indeed an unde lying
c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion, can be cap u ed by pos elec o al su eys in
Po ugal.
As no ed in he In oduc ion, elec o al u nou in Po ugal has been
dec easing sha ply and consis en ly since he i s elec ions in 1975, a e he
1974 democ a ic e olu ion which s a ed he beginning o he “ hi d wa e
o democ a isa ion” (Hun ing on, 1991). Tu nou a gene al elec ions was
Abs en ion in pa liamen a y
elec ions in Po ugal
(pe cen ages)
yea abs en ion a e
1975 8.34
1976 16.47
1979 17.13
1980 16.06
1983 22.21
1985 25.84
1987 28.43
1991 32.22
1995 33.70
1999 38.91
2002 38.52
2005 35.74
2009 40.32
2011 41.97
2015 44.14
Table 1.1 Table 1.2 Table 1.3
Abs en ion in p esiden ial
elec ions in Po ugal
(pe cen ages)
yea abs en ion a e
1976 24.53
1980 15.61
1986
(1s ) 24.62
1986
(2nd) 22.01
1991 37.84
1996 33.71
2001 50.29
2006 38.47
2011 53.48
2016 51.34
Abs en ion in Eu opean
Pa liamen a y elec ions
(pe cen ages)
yea abs en ion a e
1987 27.58
1989 48.90
1994 64.46
1999 60.07
2004 61.40
2009 63.22
2014 66.16
ci izenship in c isis
36
a ound 90% and 80% in he 1970s, bu in he las elec ions, in 2015, u nou
had declined o 55%; o ha one can add a egula pe cen age o 3% o 5% null
o es. Tu nou ends o be e en lowe in second o de elec ions, especially in
Eu opean elec ions, which always had e y low o ing pa icipa ion like in
many o he membe coun ies o he Eu opean Union.
Despi e o he de e io a ing si ua ion o e ime, he e ha e no been many
comp ehensi e esea ch a emp s o unde s and and explain he p ecise
na u e, he cha ac e is ics, and he causes o his disillusion wi h democ a ic
ep esen a i e poli ics in Po ugal. Is i mainly due o he inabili y o poli ical
leade s o mobilise ci izens? Is i caused by he poo link be ween pa y
p og ammes and he ci izens’ main conce ns? O is i mo e ela ed o he
ine iciency o he ins i u ions o ep esen a i e democ acy (wha hey a e
and how hey wo k)? I could be ela ed o all o hese elemen s. Ou p esen
app oach does no p o ide answe s o all hese ques ions, bu i in ends o d aw
schola ly a en ion o his issue and i is an a emp o examine he speci ic
cha ac e is ics o he Po uguese ci izens’ disillusion wi h ep esen a i e
democ a ic poli ics in Po ugal.
The e a e some s udies ocused speci ically on a i udes owa ds poli ical
pa ies in Po ugal, such as Teixei a and Pe ei a (2011) who in es iga ed he
so-called c isis o pa ies in Po ugal and concluded ha pa ies ha e been
c i icised o wha hey do and suppo ed o wha hey we e supposed o
do; Teixei a, Tsa sanis and Belchio (2016) also ocused on he same issue,
bu we e mainly conce ned wi h unde s anding how he 2011 bailou had
a ec ed he suppo o poli ical pa ies in Po ugal. O he s udies ha e
ied o ela e he s a e o he economy and economic c ises in pa icula ,
o o e all suppo o democ acy (Sousa, Magalhães and Ama al 2014). The
issue o abs en ion has also been a conce n o o he app oaches, such as
Magalhães (2001), and F ei e and Magalhães (2002), who ha e analysed he
ex ension and he easons behind he phenomenon.
Ou p oposed explo a o y app oach examines he gene al eeling o us /
dis us in he ep esen a i e democ a ic model, bu i is no limi ed o his
aspec . I also aims o be e unde s and he ma ch/misma ch be ween supply
and demand in Po uguese poli ics (pa ies, pa y leade s, policy p e e ences
and p io i ies). In a p e ious s udy, Cab al concluded ha , in Po ugal, usually
“ he mo e in ol ed people a e in he poli ical p ocess, he mo e hey eel
ep esen ed by he sys em” (Cab al 2007b, 206), bu i is di icul o asce ain
p ecisely in which way he o de o causali y wo ks.

he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 37
In any case, a Eu opean compa a i e s udy (Cab al 2007a) allowed he
measu emen o he class e ec on poli ical pa icipa ion and he sa is ac ion
wi h he poli ical sys em, concluding ha he highe he esponden s’ posi ion
on he social class ladde , he mo e in ol ed and sa is ied hey we e. Indeed,
in ol emen and assessmen o he ep esen a i e sys em e ec i eness, as
well as he eelings o belonging and o being accu a ely ep esen ed, e e o
di e en aspec s o he ci izens’ social backg ound and o hei ela ion wi h
he democ a ic sys em.
We now p opose o measu e and ca ego ise he ci izens’ iews on whe he
hey eel ha hey a e (o no ) adequa ely ep esen ed by pa ies and o he
ins i u ions o ep esen a i e democ acy, as well as by poli icians in gene al,
hus in es iga ing he di e en dimensions o he ci izens’ a i udes owa ds
ep esen a i e poli ics. These dimensions conce n he di e en aspec s o
he ci izens’ e alua ion o democ a ic poli ics, namely: (1) he “no ma i e”
dimension e e s o he o mal ag eemen o disag eemen o ci izens wi h he
ep esen a i e democ a ic sys em in a b oad sense and wi h i s ins i u ions, in
pa icula poli ical pa ies; (2) he “a ec i e” dimension deno es he deg ee o
suppo and iden i ica ion wi h a gi en poli ical pa y o poli ical leade ; (3)
he “pe o mance” dimension is ela ed o he assessmen ha ci izens make
o hei ac ual poli ical sys em, and in pa icula o he poli ical pa ies’ and
he poli ical leade s’ ac ions and p oposals; (4) and inally he “ ela ional”
dimension, which e e s o he conc e e mu ual connec ions be ween
ep esen a i es and ci izens being ep esen ed, allows o he e alua ion o he
ep esen a i e sys em as i is di ec ly expe ienced by ci izens.
The 2002 pos elec o al su ey was ou s a ing poin as i included
se e al ele an ques ions o in es iga e his opic in i s di e en dimensions.
Fo example, conce ning he “no ma i e dimension”: “A e poli ical pa ies
necessa y in democ acy?”; he “a ec i e dimension”: “Closeness o ci izens o
a poli ical pa y”; he “pe o mance dimension”: “Poli ical pa ies ca e abou
wha ci izens hink?”; and inally he “ ela ional dimension”: “Ha e you been
con ac ed by any poli ical pa y?”.
In o al, he 2002 pos elec o al su ey included ou een ques ions
speci ically ela ed o ep esen a ion by poli ical pa ies and eigh ques ions
ocused on ep esen a ion by he poli ical eli e in gene al. I ully eplica ed
in he ollowing elec ions hese su ey ques ions could ha e been used in a
longi udinal compa a i e app oach; howe e , due o budge es ic ions, he
pos -elec o al su eys ha we e ca ied ou in he elec ions ha ollowed
ci izenship in c isis
38
(2005, 2009, 2011, 2015) changed hei se o que ies and se e al o he 2002
ques ions we e no eplica ed. In any case, he 2002 pos elec o al su ey
unc ioned as ou basis o de elop an analy ical model, which allowed he
u he empi ical de-cons uc ion o se e al di e en dimensions o poli ical
ep esen a ion and some speci ic cha ac e is ics o i s alleged c isis in Po ugal.
model and analysis
The da a ha esul ed om he pos -elec o al su ey was o ganised in o
he ou dimensions men ioned abo e: (1) no ma i e; (2) a ec i e; (3)
pe o mance; (4) ela ional. We ha e a ibu ed equal alue/weigh o each
su ey ques ion ela ed wi h he issue o poli ical ep esen a ion. This means
ha he inal alue migh a y acco ding o he numbe o ques ions ha we e
ac ually conside ed and included in he analysis. In his way, and conside ing
he 2002 pos elec o al su ey, a o al o 1,400 posi i e poin s (14 i ems 100
poin s each) we e conside ed in he case o poli ical pa ies, and a o al o 800
in he case o he ole o poli ical eli es in gene al.
Wi h his qui e s aigh o wa d app oach we no ed ha , in 2002,
poli ical pa ies ecei ed a o al o 523 posi i e poin s ou o 1400, jus o e
37%. Howe e , when we de-cons uc he sco es conside ing he di e en
dimensions, he sco e is e en less a ou able.
Responses ha e been alued as posi i e o nega i e aking in o accoun he
manne in which he su ey ques ions we e posed and acco ding o whe he
hey we e a ou able o un a ou able o poli ical pa ies and o poli icians. We
can he e o e obse e ha he highes posi i e sco es we e ound p ecisely when
he no ma i e dimension (1) was conside ed ( h ee i ems: 204 poin s). In o he
wo ds, i is nei he he poli ical pa ies’ pe o mance no he le el o sympa hy
ha ci izens’ may ha e o poli ical pa ies ha is being assessed. Wha is
ac ually being measu ed in he no ma i e dimension is he esponden s’ o mal
ag eemen wi h he supposed ole o poli ical pa ies in he ep esen a i e
sys em: “The e is no democ acy wi hou pa ies”, “Poli ical pa ies a e essen ial
o ci izen pa icipa ion”, and “Poli ical pa ies a e a equisi e o democ acy”. A
majo i y o 69% o ci izens hus seem o ha e in e nalised he no m acco ding
o which he exis ence and he ole o poli ical pa ies in he ep esen a ional
sys em a e c ucial o he legi ima ion o democ acy.
Toge he , poli ical pa ies only sco ed 319 posi i e poin s (29%) in he
emaining h ee dimensions. Examining he a ec i e dimension (2), which
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 39
e e s o he le el o iden i ica ion wi h he supply side ( he exis ing poli ical
pa ies) and o he eeling o being adequa ely ep esen ed by a gi en poli ical
pa y, he su ey esponden s only a ibu ed 176 posi i e poin s (44%) in a
o al o 400, which is simila o he pe cen age o ci izens who decla ed hei
sympa hy o a gi en poli ical pa y in he ea ly 1990s (Cab al 2000). The
esponden s’ e alua ion o he poli ical pa ies’ pe o mance (3) was much
less a ou able: only 106 posi i e poin s (26.5%) in a o al sco e o 400. And
inally, he ela ional dimension (4) ha e e s o ac ual ela ionships be ween
pa ies and he elec o a e, i. e. beha iou s ha indica e p oac i i y and ac ions
in a ou o a gi en poli ical pa y, o pa y ac ions owa ds he ci izens, he
posi i e sco e was e en lowe : 33 in a maximum o 300 poin s (only 11% o
a ou able esponses).
Wi h his simple measu emen exe cise and assessmen o he a ious ypes
o ela ionships be ween ci izens and poli ical pa ies, i is possible o obse e
ha , al hough esponden s seem o ha e in e nalised he necessi y o ha ing
poli ical pa ies in a ep esen a i e sys em o he unc ioning o democ acy,
Poli ical ep esen a ion and poli ical pa ies (%)
posi i e nega i e nim/n
Poli ical pa ies a e necessa y (1) 67 12 21
Poli ical pa ies a e i al o ci izens’ poli ical pa icipa ion (1) 72 14 14
Wi hou poli ical pa ies, he e canno be a democ acy (1) 69 16 15
Ci izens’ closeness o a poli ical pa y (2) 52 48 —
Iden i ica ion o he pa y o which he ci izen eels closes (2) 47 53 —
Feels close o a pa y o jus sympa hise (2) 27 73 —
Poli ical pa ies ep esen ci izens’ opinions (2) 50 39 11
Poli ical pa ies only se e o di ide he people (3) 7 93 —
Poli ical pa ies ca e abou wha ci izens hink (3) 16 84 —
Poli ical pa ies a e all alike (3) 24 73 3
Did you y o con ince o he s o o e o a gi en pa y? (4) 43 47 10
Ha e you shown suppo o a pa y? (4) 18 56 26
Ha e you been con ac ed by any pa y? (4) 21 71 8
Do you us poli ical pa ies? (4) 10 90 —
Table 1.4
ci izenship in c isis
40
he ac ual link be ween ci izens and poli ical pa ies in Po ugal is ex emely
weak. In o he wo ds, he ci izens’ opinions and pa e ns o beha iou clea ly
show hei de achmen om he exis ing supply o poli ical pa ies. In sum,
esponden s ha e displayed an a e age le el o iden i ica ion wi h he exis ing
poli ical pa ies (44%), bu ha e showed conside able eluc ance in exp essing
hei speci ic pa y p e e ences. In addi ion, esponden s ha e displayed e y
low le els o us in poli ical pa ies and ha e e alua ed hei pe o mance
mos ly in a nega i e way (only 26.5% o a ou able opinions). Finally, he e
a e no many ac i e and ecip ocal ela ionships be ween ci izens and pa ies,
as esponden s only p o ided 11% o posi i e esponses.
Rega ding poli ical eli es, he span o issues deal wi h is smalle (eigh
i ems) and he e a e only wo que ies ela ed wi h he no ma i e dimension
and none measu ing he a ec i e dimension. Al oge he , he ba e y esul ed
in 215 poin s o posi i e e alua ions ou o 800; hus, 457 poin s o nega i e
e alua ions and 128 poin s o no esponses, i. e. a much la ge sha e o no
answe s: a o al o 16% agains 7% conce ning poli ical pa ies, which migh
indica e ha esponden s el a g ea e uneasiness o e alua e leade s han
pa ies.
The no ma i e dimension (1) wi h wo i ems p oduced an a e age o 40%
o posi i e answe s, 41.5% nega i e and 18,5% o no esponses. The emaining
six i ems can be di ided in wo g oups: ou i ems assessing he pa ies’
pe o mance (3) wi h 23% posi i e esponses on a e age, 62.5% nega i e, and
29.5% no answe s; and inally, wo ela ional (4) i ems wi h on a e age 26.5%
posi i e, 62% nega i e, and 16% no answe s. Al oge he and no accoun ing
Poli ical ep esen a ion and he poli ical eli e (%)
posi i e nega i e nim/n
Poli ical leade s ep esen hei iews (1) 52 36 12
Ci izens a e in e es ed in poli icians’ iews (2) 37 33 30
Poli icians’ opinions e lec o e s’ opinions (3) 28 47 25
Poli icians a e no in e es ed in wha common ci izens hink (3) 21 69 10
Poli icians a e only in e es ed in winning o es and elec ions (3) 12 79 9
Co up ion p ac ices a e di used among poli icians (3) 27 56 17
Poli icians know wha common ci izens hink (3) 32 45 23
Con ac s wi h poli icians (4) 6 92 2
Table 1.5
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 47
e e ences
aels , P. V., e al. 2017. “Poli ical communica ion in a high-choice media en i onmen :
a challenge o democ acy?”. Annals o he In e na ional Communica ion Associa ion,
41 (1): 3-27. doi: 10.1080/23808985.2017.1288551.
au élio, D. P., coo d. 2009. Rep esen ação Polí ica. Lisbon: Li os Ho izon e.
ba els, L. M. 1996. “Unin o med o es: in o ma io n e ec s in p esiden ial elec ions”.
Ame ican Jou nal o Poli ical Science, 40 (1): 194-230.
blumle , J., M. Gu e i ch. 1995. The C isis o Public Communica ion. London and New Yo k:
Rou ledge.
buhlmann, M., J. Fi az, eds. 2016. Poli ical Rep esen a ion: Roles, Rep esen a i es and he
Rep esen ed. London and New Yo k: Rou ledge.
cab al, M. V. 2000. “O exe cício da cidadania polí ica em Po ugal”. In T abalho e Cidadania,
o gs. M. V. Cab al, J. Vala and J. F ei e. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais (ics), 123-162.
cab al, M. V. 2004. “Globalização, pode e cidadania”. In Globalização e Sobe ania, coo ds.
C. De ani, J. A. F. Cos a. Cu i iba: Edi o a Ju uá, 61-74.
cab al, M. V. 2007a. “Class e ec s and socie al e ec s: eli e and wo king class a i udes
owa ds poli ical ci izenship om a Eu opean compa a i e pe spec i e”. Po uguese
Jou nal o Social Science, 5 (3): 159-178.
cab al, M. V. 2007b. “T us , mobiliza ion, and poli ical ep esen a ion in Po ugal”. In
Po ugal a he Polls, eds. A. F ei e, M. C. Lobo and P. Magalhães. Plymou h: Lexing on
Books, 201-221.
cab al, M. V. 2016. “Socio-his o ical ounda ions o ci izenship p ac ice: a e social
e olu ion in Po ugal”. Theo y and Socie y, 45 (6): 531-553.
cano an, M.1999. “T us he people! Populism and he wo aces o democ acy”. Poli ical
S udies, 47 (1): 2-16.
cappella, J. N., K. H. Jamieson. 1997. Spi al o Cynicism: he P ess and he Public Good. New
Yo k: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
con ogeo gis, G. 2017. “De la démoc a ie. Ques ions de concep s e de mé hode”. In
Democ acias, special issue o Re is a de Es udos do Século xx, Uni e sidade de Coimb a,
17: 1-23.
dal on, R. J. 1984. “Cogni i e mobiliza ion and pa isan dealignmen in ad anced indus ial
democ acies”. The Jou nal o Poli ics, 46 (1): 264-284.
dal on, R. J. 2002. Ci izen Poli ics. Public Opinion and Poli ical Pa ies in Ad anced Indus ial
Democ acies. Sage and cq P ess.
dal on, R. J. 2007. Democ a ic Challenges, Democ a ic Choices: The E osion o Poli ical
Suppo in Ad anced Indus ial Democ acies. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
dal on, R. J., M. P. Wa enbe g. 2002. (Eds.) Pa ies wi hou Pa isans: Poli ical Change in
Ad anced Indus ial Democ acies. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
debo d, G. 1996 [1967]. La Socié é du spec acle. Pa is: Gallima d.
els e , J. 1986. “The ma ke and he o um: h ee a ie ies o poli ical heo y”. In Founda ions
o Social Choice Theo ies, eds. J. Els e , A. Hylland. Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y
P ess, 103-132.
ei e, A., P. Magalhães. 2002. A Abs enção Elei o al em Po ugal. Lisbon: Ins i u o de
Ciências Sociais da Uni e sidade de Lisboa.

ci izenship in c isis
48
ei e, A., M. C. Lobo, and P. Magalhães, eds. 2007. Po ugal a he Polls. Plymou h: Lexing on
Books.
habe mas, J. 1973. Legi ima ion C isis. Bos on: Beacon P ess.
hedges, C. 2009. Empi e o Illusion: The End o Li e acy and he T iumph o Spec acle. New
Yo k: Na ion Books.
ho s ede, G. 1980. Cul u e’s Consequences: In e na ional Di e ences in Wo k-Rela ed Values.
Cali o nia: Sage.
hun ing on, S. P. 1991. The Thi d Wa e: Democ a iza ion in he La e Twen ie h Cen u y.
No man: Uni e si y o Oklahoma P ess.
ingleha , R. 1989. Cul u al Shi in Ad anced Indus ial Socie y. New Je sey: P ince on
Uni e si y P ess.
magalhães, P. 2001. “Desigualdade, desin e esse e descon iança: a abs enção nas eleições
legisla i as de 1999”. Análise Social, xxx , 1079-1093.
manin, B. 1996 [1995]. P incipes du gou e nemen ep ésen a i . Champs: Flamma ion.
manin, B. 2010 [1995]. The P inciples o Rep esen a i e Go e nmen . Camb idge: Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess.
mai , P. 2013. Ruling he Void: The Hollowing o Wes e n Democ acy. London: Ve so.
mai , P. 2003. “Os pa idos polí icos e a democ acia”. In Análise Social, xxx iii (167): 277-293.
noelle-neumann, E. 1984. The Spi al o Silence: Public Opinion — Ou Social Skin. Chicago:
Uni e si y o Chicago.
no is, P. 1999. C i ical Ci izens: Global Suppo o Democ a ic Go e nmen . Ox o d: Ox o d
Uni e si y P ess.
pi kin, H. F. 1967. The Concep o Rep esen a ion. Be keley: Uni e si y o Cali o nia.
po as nadales, A. 1996. (o g.) El deba e sob e la c isis de la ep esen ación polí ica. Mad id:
Tecnos.
pos man, N. [1985] 2005. Amusing Ou sel es o Dea h. Public Discou se in he Age o Show
Business. New Yo k: Penguin Books.
powell, B. 2004. “The quali y o democ acy: he chain o esponsi eness”. Jou nal o
Democ acy, 15 (4): 91-105.
powell, B., G. D. Whi en. 1993. “A c oss-na ional analysis o economic o ing: aking
accoun o he poli ical con ex ”. Ame ican Jou nal o Poli ical Science, 37 (2): 391-414.
obe s, K. M. 2015. “Populism, poli ical mobiliza ions, and c ises o poli ical ep esen a ion”.
In The P omise and Pe ils o Populism, ed. C. de la To e. ky: Uni e si y P ess o Ken ucky,
140-158.
salgado, S. 2018a. “O ac o media e as es a égias de cons ução de imagem dos candida os
p esidenciais” [“The media ac o and he p esiden ial candida es’ s a egies o image
building”]. In P esiden es e (Semi) P esidencialismo nas Democ acias Con empo âneas,
eds. A. Cos a Pin o and P. C. Rapaz. Lisbon: Imp ensa Ciências Sociais, 279-300.
salgado, S. 2018b. ‘Whe e’s populism? Online media and he di usion o populis discou ses
and s yles in Po ugal’. In Populis Discou ses and Poli ical Communica ion in Sou he n
Eu ope, symposium, Eu opean Poli ical Science, eds. S. Salgado and Y. S a akakis. doi:
10.1057/s41304-017-0137-4.
sousa, L., P. Magalhães, L. Ama al. 2014. “So e eign deb and go e nance ailu es. Po uguese
democ acy and he inancial c isis”. Ame ican Beha io al Scien is , 58 (12): 1517-1541.
agga , P. 2004. “Populism and ep esen a i e poli ics in con empo a y Eu ope”. Jou nal o
Poli ical Ideologies, 9 (3): 269-288.
he c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion in po ugal 49
eixei a, C. P., P. A. Pe ei a. 2011. “Public a i udes owa ds pa ies in Po ugal: a longi udinal
o e iew”. B azilian Poli ical Science Re iew, 5 (1): 125-138.
eixei a, C. P., E. Tsa sanis, and A. Belchio . 2016. “A ‘necessa y e il’ e en du ing ha d imes?
Public suppo o poli ical pa ies in Po ugal be o e and a e he bailou (2008 and
2012)”. Pa y Poli ics, 22 (6): 719-731.
iegas, J. M. L., S. Fa ia. 2007. “Abs en ion in he 2002 elec ions”. In Po ugal a he Polls, eds.
A. F ei e, M. Cos a Lobo and P. Magalhães. Plymou h: Lexing on Books, 143-172.
iei a, M. B., D. Runciman. 2008. Rep esen a ion. Camb idge: Poli y P ess.
whi e ield, S. 2006. “Mind he ep esen a ion gap. Explaining Di e ences in Public Views
o Rep esen a ion in Pos communis Democ acies”. Compa a i e Poli ical S udies, 39 (6):
733-758.
ci e his chap e as:
cab al, M. V., S. Salgado. 2018. “The c isis o poli ical ep esen a ion: he Po uguese case (2002-
-2015)” In Changing Socie ies: Legacies and Challenges. Vol. ii. Ci izenship in C isis, eds. M. C. Lobo,
F. C. da Sil a and J. P. Zúque e. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 27-49.
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047.01
Re isi ing
he poli iciza ion
o he eu.
A h ee-dimensional
app oach
Ma ina Cos a Lobo
Johannes Ka emans
2.
52 ci izenship in c isis
in oduc ion
Fi y yea s a e he signing o he T ea y o Rome, i een yea s a e he
en y in ci cula ion o he Eu o, and a e he ecen Eu ozone c isis –
i has become common wisdom ha “some hing like poli iciza ion” has been
occu ing wi h ega d o he eu (Schmi e 2009). The phenomenon has been
measu ed in i s essence, i s magni ude, in he ac o s d i ing i , and in he
con ex s ha acili a e i s eme gence (Hooghe and Ma ks 2009; de Wilde
2011; de Wilde and Zü n 2012). A he same ime, howe e , he li e a u e is a
om ha ing eached an ag eemen on how and a wha pace poli iciza ion has
occu ed, o on he consequences i may ha e had on ci izens’ o e calculus in
na ional elec ions. Wi h he cu en chap e we aim o s ep in o he deba e on
p ecisely hese wo poin s, wi h a pa icula ocus on he la e .
F om he li e a u e on eu-poli iciza ion, we can iden i y wo impo an
p ocesses h ough which he issue o Eu opean in eg a ion may be changing
he dynamics o na ional poli ics. The i s is ha o he o ma ion o a new
clea age be ween he “winne s” and he “lose s” o he opening-up o na ional
bo de s, which cu s ac oss he adi ional le - igh di ides (Hu e and G ande
2014; K iesi e al. 2012). The second ega ds how he g adual sup ana ional
ans e s o poli ical au ho i y a e likely o be educing he scope o economic
o ing, whe eby ci izens ewa d o punish incumben pa ies on he basis o
hei economic pe o mance (Lobo and Lewis-Beck 2012). Ou a gumen is
ha he ex en o which hese wo p ocesses will u he un old depends on (1)
how he eu is being poli icized and (2) on how ci izens eac o his poli iciza ion.
The aim o his chap e is o p esen a amewo k o c ea ing an Index o
Poli iciza ion o he eu (ipeu) ha can subsequen ly be used o de eloping
a su ey aimed a unde s anding he ways in which he issue o Eu ope is
a ec ing o ing oday. In his way, we y o build a b idge be ween wha is
cu en ly known abou eu-poli iciza ion and i s impac on ci izens’ poli ical
a i udes and o ing beha iou . The li e a u e has so a la gely neglec ed
ci izens’ a i udes. Consequen ly, a numbe o impo an de elopmen s emain
unaccoun ed o , such as how he new con lic s be ween he “winne s” and
“lose s” ansla e in o elec o al beha iou and he eby ap in o he p ocess o
Eu opean in eg a ion. We aim o ill his gap by i s explo ing he ames by
which he eu has been poli icized in di e en coun ies and hen by g asping
how hese di e en ames a e linked o di e en poli ical a i udes and
elec o al beha iou .

e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 53
The chap e is s uc u ed as ollows. We i s ske ch an o e iew o he s a e
o he a o he esea ch on eu-poli iciza ion, highligh ing he unexplo ed
ques ions ha we p opose o in es iga e. Secondly, we illus a e how he ecen
Eu ozone c isis has opened an impo an chap e in he 60-yea long his o y
o Eu opean in eg a ion, he eby a ec ing poli iciza ion as well. Thi dly, we
make he case ha in o de o unde s and how con es a ion o e eu-ma e s
will play ou u he , i is c ucial o unde s and how i a ec s ci izens’ poli ical
a i udes and o ing beha iou . Finally, we will se ou a esea ch agenda
o a mul idimensional s udy ha will signi ican ly ad ance ou knowledge
ega ding how di e en ames o he eu may gene a e di e en ou comes in
e ms o poli ical a i udes and o ing beha iou .
eu poli iciza ion: wha is i , wha do we know,
and wha do we no know abou i ?
Poli iciza ion e e s o a p ocess whe eby a collec i e decision gene a es
dispu es, and whe ein he audiences o hose dispu es g adually expand
(Schmi e 1969). To speak in mo e echnical e ms, poli iciza ion e e s o
“an inc ease in pola iza ion o opinions, in e es s o alues and he ex en o
which hey a e publicly ad anced owa ds he p ocess o policy o mula ion”
(de Wilde, 2011, 559). When s udying he poli iciza ion o he eu, schola s ha e
ocused on how con es a ion o e egional in eg a ion connec s o domes ic
con lic , and on how his con es a ion in luences he speed and di ec ion o
egional in eg a ion (Hooghe and Ma ks 2009). Wi hin he b oade ield o
eu s udies, hus, he analysis o poli iciza ion has always had he pu pose o
unde s and he way i ela es o – and helps o shape – he speed and di ec ion
o Eu opean in eg a ion.
he heo e ical s a ing poin
The mos impo an con ibu ion in his ega d – by Hooghe and Ma ks
(2009) – p oposes a pos - unc ionalis heo y, acco ding o which he inal
ou come o he p ocess o Eu opean in eg a ion will no be de ined solely by
ju isdic ional design (as a gued by neo- unc ionalis heo is s) bu also – and
la gely – by he inc eased con es a ion a he pa y and mass le el. Acco ding o
his iew, since he adop ion o he Maas ich T ea y in 1993 he poli iciza ion
54 ci izenship in c isis
o he eu has no only inc eased, bu has also become ine i able. The g adual
ans e s o au ho i y o he sup ana ional le el inc easingly pushed Eu ope
in o poli ical discussions, making Eu opean issues mo e salien and aising
awa eness amongs ci izens abou he implica ions o decisions aken a he
sup ana ional le el. Consequen ly, Hooghe and Ma ks (2009) a gue ha om
he Maas ich T ea y on ci izens’ ela ionship o Eu ope has inc easingly
shi ed om a “pe missi e consensus o a cons aining dissensus”.
Hooghe and Ma ks (2012) combine hese insigh s wi h hei p e ious
esea ch on pa ies’ posi ions, and ind ha p o- and an i-eu s ances do no
o e lap wi h he adi ional le - igh axis, bu a e a he o hogonal o i , wi h
he G een-Al e na i e-Libe a ian (gal) pa ies on one pole, and T adi ional-
Au ho i y-Na ionalis pa ies ( an) on he opposi e pole (Hooghe, Ma ks and
Wilson 2002, 970). The Eu oscep ic iews, besides being mo e associa ed wi h
he an pole, appea o be s ongly oo ed in an iden i a ian, “p e-ma e ial”
pe spec i e. This leads o ano he impo an p oposi ion, namely ha each
coun y’s na u e o iden i y – and especially “ he mobiliza ion o exclusi e
na ional iden i y among mass publics” (Hooghe and Ma ks 2009, 22) – Is an
impo an de e minan o how poli iciza ion will occu .
As a consequence, conside ing also ha he p ocess o Eu opean in eg a ion
is adi ionally based on ba gaining and comp omises, Hooghe and Ma ks ake
a ela i ely nega i e iew o he consequences o i s poli iciza ion. In coun ies
whe e Eu ope has become poli icized, i is likely ha poli icians’ oom o
manoeu e dec eases, as Eu oscep icism inc eases, and esis ance o u he
ans e s o au ho i y ise among ci izens. In addi ion, as mains eam pa ies
end o suppo Eu opean in eg a ion, he salience o he issue is la gely gi en by
pa ies on he ex emes o he pa y-sys em who – especially on he igh – end
o be s ongly Eu oscep ic and he e o e o ame he eu in a highly nega i e
way.
These a ious p oposi ions cons i u e he basis o an impo an esea ch
agenda on eu-poli iciza ion. The magni ude o poli iciza ion, in ac , has been
he ocus o se e al s udies looking in o whe he poli iciza ion has become
ine i able, whe he Maas ich was a u ning poin , and whe he in eg a ion
is p oceeding a an e e inc easing pace ollowing successi e ans e s o
au ho i y o he eu. These a emp s a measu ing poli iciza ion do no , howe e ,
sha e he same measu es o he phenomenon, which na u ally is p oblema ic
o compa ison pu poses (K iesi e al. 2012; Hu e and G ande 2014; S a ham
and T enz, 2013; de Wilde and Zü n, 2012; G een-Pede sen, 2012). Table 2.1
e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 55
Table 2.1 The e olu ion o he s udy o eu-poli iciza ion – An o e iew
sou ce poli iciza ion eu/na ional
ocus
coun ies
analysed
yea s
co e ed
media sample
da a
pa liamen a y
deba es
Hooghe
and Ma ks
(2009)
The ex en o which
he eu is a con es ed issue
in public deba es
Theo e ical
discussion
S a ham
and T enz
(2013)
Claims-making
and how i inco po a es
iews om o he s,
and non-pa y ac o s
Eu opean
Cons i u ion
F ance,
Ge many,
and uk
2000-
-2005
Two quali y
newspape s one
om le and one
om igh
Keywo d sea ches in la ge
da ase , ac i a, e c. hen
code e e y second a icle.
Analysis o claim-making
Hu e
and G ande
(2014)
Salience,
pola iza ion,
ac o s
Domes ic le el/
/Na ional elec ion
Aus ia,
B i ain, F ance,
Ge many,
and Swi ze land
1970-
-2010
One leading
quali y newspape
in each coun y
Selec ion o all a icles 2
mon hs be o e he na ional
elec ion. Co e sen ence
analysis
Hu e ,
G ande,
and K iesi
(2016)
Salience,
pola iza ion,
ac o s
Domes ic le el Aus ia,
B i ain, F ance,
Ge many,
and
Swi ze land
1970-
-2012
One leading
quali y
newspape
in each coun y
Selec ion o a icles wi h
keywo ds du ing key
pe iods. Analysis h ough
ela ional con en analysis,
co e sen ence analysis.
Hoeglinge
(2016)
Salience,
pola iza ion,
and aming
Domes ic le el uk, Ge many,
F ance, Ne he -
lands, Aus ia,
and Swi ze land
1970s-
-2002 and 2004-
2006 o media
analysis
One leading
newspape
in each coun y
Random sample o ele an
a icles-quali a i e analysis.
Nuclea sen ence coding
Rauh and
De Wilde
(2018)
Salience
o eu
go e nance
in na ional
pa liamen s
Domes ic le el uk,
Ge many,
Ne he lands,
and Spain
1991-
-2015
Au oma ed con en
analysis o o e 2.5
million plena y speeches,
ex -mining and
web-sc aping ools
56 ci izenship in c isis
p o ides an o e iew o di e en a emp s o s udy he poli iciza ion o he
eu, s a ing om Hooghe and Ma ks’ (2009) heo e ical discussion. In he
nex sub-sec ion, in u n, we illus a e in mo e de ail he indings ha ha e
eme ged om he ield.
empi ical assessmen s o eu poli iciza ion
Al hough hey do no ca y ou a longi udinal s udy ha can se iously es
poli iciza ion, S a ham and T enz (2013, 169) conclude ha poli iciza ion
has inc eased g ea ly in ecen imes, as do o he au ho s, and ha i will no
be e e sed (de Wilde and Zü n 2012; Risse 2015). Ye , in wha is pe haps
he mos wide- anging s udy o poli iciza ion, Hu e e al., ind ha he e
is “nei he a uni o m p ocess o poli icisa ion, no is he e a clea end o e
ime” (Hu e , G ande and K iesi 2016, 279), and i is no a “pos -Maas ich
phenomenon” (p. 281). Thus, he au ho s speak o “punc ua ed poli icisa ion”
(p. 280) which a ies o e ime, ac oss con ex s, and coun ies. E en mo e
scep ical conce ning Hooghe and Ma ks’ heo y o pos - unc ional g ow h
in poli iciza ion, G een- Pede sen (2012, 126) shows h ough an analysis o
media and pa y p og ammes ha in Denma k, despi e he exis ence o a
adical igh pa y, Eu opean in eg a ion emains a lowly poli icized issue due
o lack o incen i es o mains eam pa ies. Hu e , G ande and K iesi (2016,
281), in u n, s a e ha hey a e no as scep ical as G een-Pede sen conce ning
he impo ance o poli iciza ion, bu hey concu ha seldom has Eu ope been
impo an a he na ional elec o al le el. Hoeglinge (2016, 146) also p o ides
a sobe ing pic u e o he deg ee o poli iciza ion: “Eu ope is being poli icised
on a egula basis, ye wi hin clea limi s […] he answe o he ongoing deba e
on whe he he sleeping gian has awakened o whe he i is as asleep lies
somewhe e in be ween hose wo s ances”.
Going beyond he magni ude o poli iciza ion, he second mos impo an
p oposi ion is whe he his e ec is d i en by iden i y poli ics, in an o hogonal
way, a he han ollowing he le - igh axis. K iesi (2007) had al eady gone
beyond he “poli ics o opposi ion” heo y espoused in mos li e a u e on
Eu oscep icism o add ano he p oposi ion, namely ha he poli iciza ion
o Eu ope is i sel embedded in a “globaliza ion clea age” opposing winne
and lose s o he g owing in e dependence and openness be ween s a es. He
sugges ed ha ins ead o Eu oscep icism being simply pa and pa cel o he
“poli ics o opposi ion”, i may cons i u e a new clea age, in which “mobiliza ion
e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 63
gian ” hesis and inds ha he eu issue can ha e an impac on domes ic
poli ics when he ex en o pa isan con lic o e Eu opean in eg a ion and i s
salience among o e s a e high.
A second way o in es iga ing he impo ance o Eu ope in domes ic
elec ions is o conside i no as a p ope clea age, bu as an issue, alongside
o he s ha gain salience in di e en con ex s. In his espec i seems clea
ha he epe cussions o eu salience in na ional elec ions ha e been concei ed
in di e en ways. The i s is gi en by he app oach aken by de V ies (2007),
namely by measu ing he impac o he eu issue is-à- is o he s. In ha
espec , se e al a enues can be pu sued, namely o unde s and he ex en o
which a i udes owa d he eu shape he o e o Eu oscep ic pa ies in he
coun ies unde in es iga ion; o wha ex en hey shape he o e o an i-
mains eam pa ies and in a ou o populis pa ies; o unde s and whe he
he eu issue o ing is s onge in con ex s whe e he eu has gained media
and pa liamen a y salience o a g ea e ex en . In sum, o ea he Eu opean
Union as an issue ha has gained salience. The na u e o his issue, as seen
abo e, can be concep ualized di e en ly, wi h di e en ques ions cap u ing
di e en dimensions o he eu. The ins umen s being c ea ed by maple
wi hin he online panel su eys will allow us o include such issues as well as
mo e adi ionally used ac o s o o ing beha iou in o de o analyse hei
ela i e impac in di e en ia ed con ex s.
The hi d way o in es iga ing he impac o he eu in poli ical beha iou
would be o hink o he eu as ha ing an indi ec e ec on he o e h ough
economic o leade ship a iables on he o e and mo e widely on poli ical
a i udes. The e has been impo an esea ch on he way in which globaliza ion
and he decline o he s a e ha e had an impac on economic o ing (Hellwig
and Samuels 2007). Hellwig has examined he ole ha global economic
in e dependence plays in cons aining ci izens’ esponses o domes ic
economic pe o mance, and shown ha he economic o e is mi iga ed when,
ei he objec i ely economic in e dependence is highe , o i is pe cei ed as
being high by elec o s. In elec o s’ minds he p og essi e ans e o au ho i y
o he eu, which has been accele a ing since Maas ich , and gained u he
g ound in he Eu ozone c isis, may be a symbol o he p og essi e decline o
meaning ul choices a he domes ic le el.
Following in ha li e a u e’s pa h, Lobo and Lewis-Beck (2012) used da a
om he 2009 Eu opean Elec ion Su ey o show ha in Sou he n Eu ope
(Spain, I aly, G eece, and Po ugal) he na ional economic o e diminishes

64 ci izenship in c isis
o he ex en he eu is held esponsible o he economy. The mo e he eu
is pe cei ed as domina ing in he go e nmen decision-making, he likelie
i would be ha sho - e m ac o s o o ing beha iou may be mi iga ed.
Jus as inding he eu esponsible o he Eu ozone c isis may dec ease he
economic o e, leade e ec s may also be impai ed du ing a se e e economic
c isis, and namely, when a coun y has endu ed successi e bailou s ha may
lead o pe cep ions ha he pa y leade and he P ime Minis e a e no such
powe ul igu es. Bu also he me e ac ha elec o s in all Eu ozone membe
coun ies ha e become inc easingly awa e ha all mone a y decisions a e
aken in B ussels could be changing he o e calculus a home. In e ms o
he li e a u e on leade e ec s, he e is no esea ch on he impac ha global
economic in e dependence, and pe cep ions o a disloca ion o poli ical powe
o sup ana ional bodies such as he eu, o e en he oika, may ha e on leade
e ec s (Lobo and Cu ice 2014).
So, in classic economic o ing e ms, he eu’s p og essi e impo ance
a he domes ic le el would cons i u e an ins ance o s uc u al “blu ing
o esponsibili y”, which has been demons a ed o dampen he impac o
economic o ing in legisla i e elec ions. Simila ly, i can be linked o ci izens’
dissa is ac ion wi h na ional democ acy, i i is equa ed wi h a decline in he
meaning ulness o elec ions (Ruiz-Ru ino and Alonso 2017; Sanchez-Cuenca
2017).
Finally, he e is also an eme ging li e a u e ha looks s ic ly a he impac
o he Eu ozone c isis on o ing in membe -s a es. Se e al schola s who a e
in es iga ing his opic a e doing so o unde s and whe he he economic o e
changes (conside ing bo h magni ude and cla i y o esponsibili y) unde
economic c isis o no (Lewis-Beck and Lobo 2017), while o he s a e seeking
o unde s and he impo ance ha he c isis had o pa y sys em change
(Vidal 2017). This li e a u e has impo an implica ions o he wide deba e
on he poli iciza ion o Eu ope, as i does o unde s anding how ci izens may
ha e changed hei poli ical beha iou .
Dassonne ille and Lewis-Beck (2014) use agg ega e da a o in es iga e he
ques ion o whe he mac oeconomics in luences o e all elec o al ou comes.
They measu e c isis in wo ways: one is o spli he sample, be o e and a e
2008. The o he is o code any yea in which g ow h is nega i e as a c isis
yea . They use a e y la ge da ase ha includes 31 coun ies in Eu ope since
1950 o whene e he coun y had compe i i e elec ions. The inal o al o
elec ions conside ed is 359. The au ho s ind s ong suppo o he posi i e
e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 65
ela ionship be ween gdp g ow h and incumben suppo . Conce ning he
c isis dummy a iable, i does no each signi icance in any model, which
leads hem o he ollowing conclusion: “while he incumben s o Eu ope may
ha e been punished by he pos -2008 economic c isis, ha punishmen has
been no g ea e han o economic down u ns occu ing in o he pe iods.”
The au ho s also ind ha nega i e g ow h hu s he go e nmen suppo
mo e han posi i e g ow h helps i .
Simila ly, Tal ing (2017), analyses he Eu opean Elec ion S udies (ees) da a
o 12 Wes e n Eu opean coun ies in 1989, 1994, 2004, 2009, and 2014 and
inds ha he e is e y li le ab up change in economic e ec s o e ime. The
s a is ical ela ionship be ween he economy and o ing emained ema kably
cons an and was no subjec o sho - e m luc ua ions in he pe iod analysed.
No did she ind ha he diminished cla i y o esponsibili y may hampe he
economic o e.
This inding is ela i ely di e en om o he s, such as He nandez and
K iesi (2016) who, using pa y elec o al pe o mance da a be o e and a e he
c isis in 30 coun ies de e mined ha p ime minis e s’ pa ies a e ou inely
damaged by he c isis, besides being ha med because hey a e in go e nmen .
Giuliani and Massa i (2017) also use agg ega e da a, namely he elec o al
pe o mances o pa ies compe ing in 89 elec ions held in 28 eu membe -s a es
be ween 2003 and 2015. They ind ha all incumben pa ies su e simila ly
in he e en o an economic c isis, while he pm’s pa y gains compa a i ely
mo e when he e is economic g ow h. They also ind ha Eu oscep icism
has become much mo e impo an . Eu oscep ic pa ies’ success has been
p opo ional o he dep h o he ecession. This la e inding co obo a es he
indings o Lobo and Lewis-Beck (2012).
Mo ing o he indi idual da a le el, Vidal (2017) analyses he change in
o ing beha iou in Spain be o e and a e he Eu ozone c isis. Looking a da a
collec ed in 2015 and 2016 he au ho inds ha he change in o ing beha iou ,
and especially he choice o he new pa ies ha a ise, is a combina ion o
economic o ing and dissa is ac ion wi h he o e all poli ical sys em. Bo h
ac o s in Spain ein o ce he le - igh clea age. Thus, in e ms o economic
o ing he e seems o be disag eemen , wi h in es iga o s using di e en ways
o measu e elec o al ou comes and eaching di e gen conclusions on he
impo ance o he Eu ozone c isis o he economic o e.
One ype o impac h ough he le - igh clea age may occu i he
poli iciza ion o he eu is mainly abou “dis ibu ional” issues. The o he
66 ci izenship in c isis
ype o impac – impac ing on he s eng h o he economic o leade s’ o e
– may happen i he eu is being poli icized mainly as a “ ans e o au ho i y”.
Whe eas Zü n (2016) has ecen ly pu o wa d a amewo k wi hin which
he quali y o poli iciza ion o he eu will depend on he na u e o democ a ic
na ional se ing wi hin which i happens. They en isage posi i e poli iciza ion
only i he Eu opean clea age ein o ces he p e-exis ing na ional ones.
While i is easonable o expec ha hese migh indeed be he wo main
mechanisms h ough which eu-poli iciza ion is changing he o e calculus,
he ex en o which hese a e ac ually occu ing is s ongly dependen on how
ci izens eac o eu- ela ed issues. I is also necessa y o dis inguish be ween
economic c isis e ec s and poli iciza ion o Eu ope e ec s, which a e no
necessa ily he same. The main goal o be es ed emains, howe e , he idea
ha he p og essi e impo ance o Eu ope o decision-making may lead o
changes in he o ing explana o y model.
The in eg a ion o ci izen a i udes alongside he media and pa liamen a y
deba es no only helps o unde s and he dep h o poli iciza ion ha has
occu ed in Eu ope, i also makes i easie o unde s and he con ex wi hin
which hese phenomena can ake place
mo ing o wa d: a mo e encompassing s udy
o eu poli iciza ion
Following he idea ha con es a ion o e eu ma e s plays ou in di e en
dynamics in di e en coun ies, we expec i o ha e di e en se s o
consequences o ci izens’ o e calculus. Ou aim is o make sense o bo h o
hese di e en se s o consequences, as well as o map he di e en modali ies
wi h which he eu has been poli icized in di e en pa s o Eu ope. As a gued
abo e, he link be ween modali ies o poli iciza ion, poli ical a i udes, and
elec o al beha iou cons i u es he mos impo an gap in he li e a u e on
eu-poli iciza ion, as i has so a been only (ma ginally) heo ized and no
been s udied empi ically (wi h a ew a e excep ions, Baglioni and Hu elman
2016). We aim o ill his gap wi h a h ee-dimensional s udy ha i s unco e s
he magni ude and modali ies o eu-poli iciza ion in he a e ma h o he
Eu oc isis a bo h media and pa liamen a y le els, and ha subsequen ly
c ea es a web-panel su ey wi h ques ions abou ci izens’ pe cep ions o how
he eu a ec s hei elec o al choices. The h ee dimensions – media, pa liamen ,
e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 67
and ci izens – will p o ide indica o s o eu poli iciza ion a di e en s ages o
he democ a ic cycle.
The main belie ha guides ou esea ch is ha he Eu oc isis has gi en a
signi ican boos o he saliency and pola iza ion o he eu. In u n, we expec
his inc eased poli iciza ion o a ec how ci izens o e, and mo e speci ically
how a elec ions ci izens ewa d o punish na ional incumben s (Lobo and
Lewis-Beck 2012). The li e a u e al eady sugges s ha he poli iciza ion o he
eu is likely o be impac ing o e s’ p e e ences on edis ibu i e issues as well
as hei pe cep ion o who is in cha ge o he coun y’s policies (Hu e and
K iesi 2016; Ruiz-Ru ino and Alonso 2017). We expec ha he Eu oc isis has
accele a ed his p ocess pa icula ly, as he e en s o he c isis may ha e aised
ci izens’ awa eness o he ex en o which economic policies a e coo dina ed
a he sup ana ional le el.
Conside ing ha he c isis hi some coun ies ha de han o he s, he
con ex o he Eu ozone c isis allows us o map how he poli iciza ion o he
eu’s inc easing in ol emen in na ional economic policy-making may a ec
o ing beha iou . Mo e speci ically, we expec deb o and c edi o coun ies
o e eal di e en dynamics in his ega d. Due o he di e en exposu e o he
eu-p omo ed aus e i y measu es, i is o example expec able ha he ecen
wa e o poli ical con es a ion o e eu ma e s has played ou in di e en ways
in No he n and Sou he n Eu ope.
We also expec he e o be coun y-speci ic ac o s in he ways in which
he eu has been poli icized. Taking hese conside a ions in o accoun , we
ocus ou s udy on wo c edi o coun ies (Belgium and Ge many) and ou
deb o coun ies (I eland, G eece, Spain, and Po ugal). Wi h his ela i ely
he e ogeneous se o cases, we expec o gain insigh s in o how eu con es a ion
gene a es di e en pa e ns o elec o al beha iou a di e en le els o eu
in e en ion in na ional poli ics, as well as in o how he eu is pe cei ed in
coun ies ea u ing di e en eu- ela ed na a i es.
To map he di e en modali ies and magni udes o eu-poli iciza ion, we
analyse bo h p in -media and pa liamen a y deba es. Co e ing he ime
ange be ween he in oduc ion o he Eu o (2002) and oday (2017), we
pu ou ocus on elec ion campaigns by analysing he newspape edi ions o
he 30 days p eceding he na ional elec ions, and he plena y pa liamen a y
sessions o he las 12 mon hs o each legisla u e in he gi en ime ame. The
s udy consis s o quan i a i e echniques o ex analysis as well as o mo e
quali a i ely c a ed in es iga ions o he na a i es su ounding he eu. In
68 ci izenship in c isis
his way we ob ain compa a i e o e iews o he equencies wi h which he
eu has been e e ed o in he media and in he pa liamen , and o he ange o
ac o s in ol ed and he sen imen su ounding men ions o deba es o he eu.
These compa a i e o e iews will he e o e be in o ma i e abou he ex en o
which he poli iciza ion o he eu has played a ole in na ional elec ions be o e
and a e he c isis, as well o he di e en na a i es in deb o and c edi o
coun ies.
Di e en ly om exis ing media-based s udies on salience and pola iza ion
(K iesi e al. 2012), ou measu e o eu-salience will be weigh ed wi hin he
ollowing sec ions: na ional poli ics, economics and in e na ional poli ics,
opinion, i s and las page. A he same ime, we will con ol o he salience
o a ypically highly-con es ed issue, namely educa ion, in o de o check he
ex en o which he eu-salience may in some ins ances g ow beyond a e age
le els. The newspape a icles, mo eo e , will be o ganized acco ding o
sec ion, heme, and a icle ype (e. g. edi o ial, on page a icle, e c.). In his
way we will gain insigh in o whe he he salience o he eu a ies only in
speci ic pa s o he newspape o h oughou he en i e edi ion.
Simila ly, he indi idual in e en ions in he plena y sessions will be
o ganized acco ding o he speake , pa y a ilia ion (including go e nmen
s. opposi ion), legisla i e ins umen , and heme. In his way we will no only
ob ain a ia ions o e ime and ac oss coun ies o eu salience, bu we will
also gain an insigh in o which pa ies d i e mo e o less he poli iciza ion o
he eu. In u n, by con olling o legisla i e ins umen s and hemes, we will
also be able o ob ain insigh s in o how he eu issue aps in o he legisla i e
ac i i ies o pa liamen s, he eby p o iding aluable in o ma ion abou he
modali ies h ough which na ional legisla u es a e losing poli ical au ho i y
o sup ana ional ins i u ions. The combined analysis wi h he media, in u n,
will be in o ma i e abou how and o wha ex en hese losses o au ho i y
cons i u e pa o he elec ion campaign.
By b inging oge he he indings om newspape s and pa liamen a y
deba es we will hus be able o c ea e a unique Index o Poli iciza ion o he
eu (ipeu) on he basis o which i is possible o ace he magni ude, iming,
and causes o poli iciza ion. I is on he basis o his Index ha we will hen be
able o de elop a web-panel su ey ha will enable us o mo e o he nex and
inal s age o ou endea ou , namely analysing he consequences o poli ical
a i udes and o ing beha iou in he a enues ou lined abo e; namely, he eu as
a clea age, as an issue, and as a mode a o o sho - e m economic and leade

e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 69
e ec s. The web-panel, in ac , will be buil upon he insigh s gene a ed by he
ipeu, as i will o mula e ques ions abou how he pa e ns o poli iciza ion
in he di e en coun ies a ec he poli ical a i udes and o ing beha iou
o esponden s. Uunde s anding how Eu ope a ec s he o e calculus will
p o ide c ucial insigh s abou he u u e o democ acy in he eu.
____________________________________
ma ina cos a lobo
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal
[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0002-7329-0972
____________________________________
johannes ka emans
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
johannes.ka[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0002-8770-374x
____________________________________
e e ences
baglioni, S., A. Hu elmann. 2016. “The Eu ozone c isis and ci izen engagemen in eu
a ai s”. Wes Eu opean Poli ics, 39 (1): 104-124.
dassonne ille, R., M. S. Lewis-Beck. 2014. “Mac oeconomics, economic c isis and elec o al
ou comes: a na ional Eu opean pool”. Ac a Poli ica, 49 (4): 372-394.
de ies, C. E. 2007. “Sleeping gian : ac o ai y ale? How Eu opean in eg a ion a ec s
na ional elec ions”. Eu opean Union Poli ics, 8 (3): 363-385.
de wilde, P. 2011. “No poli y o old poli ics? A amewo k o analyzing he poli iciza ion o
Eu opean in eg a ion”. Jou nal o Eu opean In eg a ion, 33 (5): 559-575.
de wilde, P., M. Zü n. 2012. “Can he poli iciza ion o Eu opean in eg a ion be e e sed?”.
jcms: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies, 50 (1): 137-153.
giuliani, M., S. A. Massa i. 2017. “The economic o e a he pa y le el: elec o al beha iou
du ing he g ea ecession”. Pa y Poli ics. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/1354068817728 214.
g amacho, W., I. Llamaza es. 2007. “Eu oscep ics among eu oen husias s: an analysis o
sou he n Eu opean public opinions”. Ac a Poli ica, 42: 211-232.
g een-pede sen, C. 2012. “A gian as asleep? Pa y incen i es and he poli icisa ion o
Eu opean in eg a ion”. Poli ical S udies, 60 (1): 115-130.
hellwig, T., D. Samuels. 2007. “Vo ing in open economies. The elec o al consequences o
globaliza ion”. Compa a i e Poli ical S udies, 40 (3): 283-306. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/001
0414006288974.
he nandez, E., H. K iesi. 2016. “The elec o al consequences o he inancial and economic
c isis in Eu ope”. Eu opean Jou nal o Poli ical Resea ch, 55 (2): 203-224.
70 ci izenship in c isis
hoeglinge , D. 2016. Poli icizing Eu opean In eg a ion: S uggling wi h he Awakening Gian .
Sp inge .
hooghe, L., G. Ma ks and C. J. Wilson. 2002. “Does le / igh s uc u e pa y posi ions on
Eu opean in eg a ion?”. Compa a i e Poli ical S udies, 35 (8): 965-989.
hooghe, L., e al. 2002. “Does le - igh s uc u e pa y posi ions on Eu opean in eg a ion?”.
Compa a i e Poli ical S udies, 35 (8): 965-989.
hooghe, L., G. Ma ks. 2012. “Poli iciza ion”. In Ox o d Handbook on he Eu opean Union,
eds. E. Jones, A. Menon, and S. Wea he ill. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 840-854.
hooghe, L., G. Ma ks. 2009. “A pos unc ionalis heo y o Eu opean in eg a ion: F om pe -
missi e consensus o cons aining dissensus”. B i ish Jou nal o Poli ical Science, 39 (1): 1-23.
hu e , S., E. G ande. 2014. “Poli icizing Eu ope in he na ional elec o al a ena: a compa a i e
analysis o i e wes Eu opean coun ies, 1970-2010”. jcms: Jou nal o Common Ma ke
S udies, 52 (5): 1002-1018.
hu e , S., E. G ande, and H. K iesi, eds. 2016. Poli icising Eu ope. Camb idge: Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess.
hu e , S., E. G ande, and H. K iesi. 2016. Pol icising Eu ope. Camb idge: cup.
k iesi, H. e al. 2013. “Conclusion: an assessmen o he s a e o democ acy gi en he
challenges o globaliza ion and media iza ion”. In Democ acy in he Age o Globaliza ion
and Media iza ion. London: Palg a e Macmillan, 202-215.
k iesi, H. 2007. “The ole o Eu opean in eg a ion in na ional elec ion campaigns”. Eu opean
Union Poli ics, 8 (1): 83-108.
k iesi, H. e al. 2008. Wes Eu opean Poli ics in he Age o Globaliza ion, ol. 6. Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess.
k iesi, H., e al. 2012. Poli ical Con lic in Wes e n Eu ope. Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y
P ess.
la an, B. 2014. “Tes ing imes: he g owing p imacy o esponsibili y in he Eu o a ea”. Wes
Eu opean Poli ics, 37 (2): 270-287.
la an, B., P. Schlosse . 2016. “Public inances in Eu ope: o i ying eu economic go e nance
in he shadow o he c isis”. Jou nal o Eu opean In eg a ion, 38 (3): 237-249.
lewis-beck, M., M. Cos a Lobo. 2017. “Economic o ing in o dina y and ex ao dina y
imes”. In The sage Handbook o Elec o al Beha iou , eds. K. A zheime , J. E ans, and M.
Lewis-Beck. London: Sage.
lobo, M. C. , P. C. Magalhães. 2011. “Room o manoeu e: Eu oscep icism in he Po uguese
pa ies and elec o a e 1976-2005”. Sou h Eu opean Socie y and Poli ics, 16 (1): 81-104.
lobo, M. C., J. Cu ice, J., eds. 2014. Pe sonali y Poli ics?: The Role o Leade E alua ions in
Democ a ic Elec ions. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
lobo, M. C., M. S. Lewis-Beck. 2012. “The in eg a ion hypo hesis: How he Eu opean Union
shapes economic o ing”. Elec o al S udies, 31 (3): 522-528.
mou y, C., A. S and ing. 2017. “ ‘Going beyond he T oika’: powe and discou se in Po uguese
aus e i y poli ics”. Eu opean Jou nal o Poli ical Resea ch, 56 (3), 660-679. h ps://doi.
o g/10.1111/1475-6765.12190
auh, C., P. de Wilde. 2018. “The opposi ion de ici in eu accoun abili y: e idence om o e
20 yea s o plena y deba e in ou membe s a es”. Eu opean Jou nal o Poli ical Resea ch,
57: 194-216.
isse, T. 2015. A Communi y o Eu opeans? T ansna ional Iden i ies and Public Sphe es.
Co nell Uni e si y P ess.
e isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu 71
od ik, D. 2011. The Globaliza ion Pa adox: Democ acy and he Fu u e o he Wo ld Economy.
Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
uiz- u ino, R., S. Alonso. 2017. “Democ acy wi hou choice: ci izens’ pe cep ions o
go e nmen au onomy du ing he Eu ozone c isis”. Eu opean Jou nal o Poli ical Resea ch,
56 (2): 320-345. h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/1475-6765.12187.
sanchez-cuenca, I. 2017. “F om a de ici o democ acy o a echnoc a ic o de : he pos c isis
deba e on Eu ope”. Annual Re iew o Poli ical Science, 20: 351-369.
schmi e , P. C. 1969. “Th ee neo unc ional hypo heses abou in e na ional in eg a ion”.
In e na ional O ganiza ion, 23 (1): 161-166.
schmi e , P. C. 2009. “On he way o a pos - unc ionalis heo y o Eu opean in eg a ion”.
B i ish Jou nal o Poli ical Science, 39 (1): 211-215.
s a ham, P., H.-J. T enz. 2013. The Poli iciza ion o Eu ope: Con es ing he Cons i u ion in he
Mass Media. Vol. 8. Rou ledge.
al ing, L. 2017. “Economic o ing in Eu ope: did he c isis ma e ?”. Compa a i e Eu opean
Poli ics, 1-29. h ps://doi.o g/10.1057/s41295-017-0092-z.
an de eijk, C., M. N. F anklin. 2004. “Po en ial o con es a ion on Eu opean ma e s a
na ional elec ions in Eu ope”. Eu opean In eg a ion and Poli ical Con lic . Camb idge:
Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 32-50. h ps://doi.o g/10.1017/CBO9780511492013.004.
an de eijk, C., M. N. F anklin. 2007. “The sleeping gian : Po en ial o poli ical mobiliza ion
o disa ec ion wi h Eu opean in eg a ion”. Eu opean Elec ions and Domes ic Poli ics. No e
Dame, Ind.: Uni e si y o No e Dame P ess, 189-208.
idal, G. 2017. “Challenging business as usual? The ise o new pa ies in Spain in imes o
c isis”. Wes Eu opean Poli ics: 1-26.
zü n, M. 2016. “Opening up Eu ope: nex s eps in poli icisa ion esea ch”. Wes Eu opean
Poli ics, 39 (1): 164-182. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/01402382.2015.1081513.
ci e his chap e as:
lobo, M., K. Ka emans. 2018. “Re isi ing he poli iciza ion o he eu”. In Changing Socie ies: Legacies
and Challenges. Vol. ii. Ci izenship in C isis, eds. M. C. Lobo, F. C. da Sil a and J. P. Zúque e. Lisbon:
Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 51-71.
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047.02
a ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness and poli ical suppo 79
Figu e 3.3
Figu e 3.4
Figu e 3.5
A e age pe cep ion o oice on a scale o 1 o 10 pe condi ion (one con ol g oup
and six expe imen al g oups)
A e age pe cep ion o neu ali y on a scale o 1 o 10 pe condi ion (one con ol
g oup and six expe imen al g oups)
A e age pe cep ion o anspa ency on a scale o 1 o 10 pe condi ion (one
con ol g oup and six expe imen al g oups)
101
Con ol g oup
Low oice
High oice
Low neu ali y
High neu ali y
Low anspa ency
High anspa ency
4.05
5.60
2.88
3.90
3.23
5.19
2.94
101
Con ol g oup
Low oice
High oice
Low neu ali y
High neu ali y
Low anspa ency
High anspa ency
4.83
5.72
4.34
5.56
3.83
5.74
3.94
101
Con ol g oup
Low oice
High oice
Low neu ali y
High neu ali y
Low anspa ency
High anspa ency
4.82
6.20
3.78
5.84
3.70
6.23
2.92

80 ci izenship in c isis
oice
pe cei ed
ai ness
ou come
a ou abili y
sa is ac ion
wi h mayo
Figu e 3.6
.42***
(.05)
.18***
(.05)
.58***
(.04)
.10
(.06) .14**
(.04)
E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, Voice expe imen . S anda dized
coe icien s.
p < .001), depending on p oximi y o he pa y o he mayo . This sugges s ha
pa isanship ma e ed in people’s esponses, and ha subjec s eso ed o hei
eal expe ience e en when asked abou a hypo he ical poli ical con ex . This
also implies ha es ima es o he e ec s o objec i e and subjec i e ai ness
condi ions on poli ical suppo need o be ob ained while con olling o
pa isanship.
To unde s and hose di ec and indi ec e ec s, we u ned o se e al
s uc u al equa ion models (sem), based on Esaiasson e al.’s (2016) model
o accep ance o policy decisions. The di e en models employed each o he
se e al di e en jus ice condi ions (Voice, Neu ali y, and T anspa ency) and
each o he wo dependen a iables (1) Sa is ac ion wi h mayo ’s o ice and (2)
In en ion o o e. Figu e 3.6 illus a es one o he models es ima ed (Voice).
Se e al ea u es a e e iden om his analysis. Fi s , whe he he decision
is hypo hesized o ake place unde an “objec i e” High o Low Voice
condi ion is some hing ha a ec s poli ical suppo (sa is ac ion wi h he
Mayo ’s o ice), bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly. While he indi ec e ec — as
media ed by he pe cei ed ai ness o decision-making — is g ea e han
he di ec one, he la e is also signi ican . Second, ob aining a a ou able
ou come inc eases sa is ac ion wi h he Mayo ’s o ice, bu , in he Voice
expe imen , only di ec ly so. The e is no e idence in his expe imen ha
ou come a ou abili y shapes pe cep ions o ai ness and, by so doing, a ec s
poli ical suppo . Finally, he o al e ec o Voice is abou wice as la ge as he
e ec o Ou come Fa ou abili y.
a ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness and poli ical suppo 81
Table 3.1 shows he esul s o all s uc u al equa ion models, by a ian
o p ocedu al ai ness and by dependen a iable o poli ical suppo
(sa is ac ion wi h he Mayo ’s o ice o change in in en ion o o e o he
Mayo ’s pa y).1
O e all, we ind ha al hough ou come a ou abili y also a ec s pe cep ions
o ai ness, he o al e ec s o objec i e p ocedu al ai ness a e always g ea e
han he e ec s o ou come a ou abili y, ega dless o he objec i e ai ness
condi ion manipula ed — Voice, Neu ali y, o T anspa ency — and o he
speci ic ou come a iable. On he o he hand, in all analyses, mos o he
e ec exe ed by objec i e condi ions is indi ec , media ed by pe cep ions o
ai ness, al hough in wo condi ions — Voice and T anspa ency — objec i e
ai ness also exe s a di ec e ec on poli ical suppo , ega dless o how we
measu e i .
An addi ional conce n o he pape is ela ed o whe he ou come
a ou abili y’s di ec e ec on poli ical suppo is uncondi ional o , ins ead,
i i dec eases as people pe cei ed he decision-making p ocess o be ai e .
In o he wo ds, we wan o es i he media o “pe cep ion o ai ness” is also
a mode a o o he ela ionship be ween ou comes and suppo . Figu es 3.7
o 3.9 show he esul s o he expe imen s o each dimension o p ocedu al
ai ness looking a sa is ac ion wi h he mayo as he dependen a iable:
In each o he analyses, he sign o he coe icien o he in e ac ion e m
(Pe cei ed ai ness*Ou come a ou abili y) is nega i e, in he expec ed
di ec ion. Howe e , in one o he expe imen s — T anspa ency — he
magni ude o ha in e ac ion e m is mo e han wice as la ge as in he o he
cases, and eaches s a is ical signi icance a con en ional le els. Resul s using
change in he in en ion o o e o he cu en Mayo a e e y simila , whe he
ea ing ha a iable as con inuous o o dinal.
1 Fo he equa ion wi h o e as he dependen a iable (0, less likely; 1, nei he no ; 2, mo e likely o
o e o Mayo ), we also es ima ed a s uc u al equa ion model wi h o dinal p obi . Resul s a e e y
simila .
82 ci izenship in c isis
S uc u al equa ion models (s anda dized coe icien s)
poli ical suppo d :
sa is ac ion wi h mayo
poli ical suppo d :
change in o e in en ion
pa ame e s Voice
ea men Neu ali y
ea men T anspa ency
ea men Voice
ea men Neu ali y
ea men T anspa ency
ea men
Objec i e ai ness —> Fai ness pe cep ion .42*** .48*** .61*** .42*** .47*** .61***
Ou come a ou abili y —> Fai ness pe cep ion .10 .14* .19*** .10 .14* .06
Con ols (no shown): Sex, Age, Educa ion, Class, Closeness
o Mayo ’s Pa y
Fai ness pe cep ion —> Poli ical suppo .58*** .67*** .61*** .40*** .40*** .41***
Objec i e ai ness —> Poli ical suppo .18*** .05 .11* .13* .03 .14*
Ou come a ou abili y —> Poli ical suppo .14** .10* .09 .17** .08 .06
Con ols (no shown): Sex, Age, Educa ion, Class, Closeness
o Mayo ’s Pa y
Indi ec e ec s
Objec i e ai ness .25*** .32*** .37*** .24*** .27*** .37***
Ou come a ou abili y .06 .09* .12*** .06 .08* .11***
To al e ec s
Objec i e ai ness .42*** .37*** .48*** .44*** .31*** .57***
Ou come a ou abili y .20*** .19** .20*** .31*** .20* .21*
CD .32 .33 .43 .32 .32 .44
N 248 252 247 248 249 247
*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001.
Table 3.1
a ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness and poli ical suppo 83
oice
neu ali y
anspa ency
pe cei ed
ai ness
pe cei ed
ai ness
pe cei ed
ai ness
ou come
a ou abili y
ou come
a ou abili y
ou come
a ou abili y
sa is ac ion
wi h mayo
sa is ac ion
wi h mayo
sa is ac ion
wi h mayo
Figu e 3.7
.42***
(.05)
.48***
(.05)
.61***
(.04)
.17***
(.05)
.05
(.05)
.11*
(.05)
.61***
(.04)
.67***
(.05)
.69***
(.06)
.10
(.06)
.14***
(.05)
.19***
(.05)
-.08
(.12)
-.02
(.11)
-.22
(.11)
.20*
(.10)
.12*
(.10)
.23**
(.09)
E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, Voice expe imen . Fai ness-ou come
in e ac ion.
Figu e 3.8 E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, Neu ali y expe imen . Fai ness-
ou come in e ac ion.
Figu e 3.9 E ec s on sa is ac ion wi h Mayo ’s o ice, T anspa ency expe imen . Fai ness-
ou come in e ac ion.
84 ci izenship in c isis
conclusion
This esea ch no e epo s he esul s o a su ey expe imen h ough which
we examined se e al phenomena; i s , he ex en o which indi iduals
espond o p ocedu al ai ness and ou come a ou abili y when e alua ing
poli ical au ho i ies esponsible o policy decisions. We ind ha p ocedu ally
ai ules ha e a signi ican ly g ea e o al e ec on poli ical suppo o
au ho i ies, an e ec ha is la gely media ed by pe cep ions o ai ness bu
can also be, in some cases, a di ec e ec . Second, we examine whe he his
a ies signi ican ly when examining h ee di e en dimensions o p ocedu al
ai ness: Voice, Neu ali y/Impa iali y, and Accessibili y/T anspa ency. In
gene al, we ind ha he p e ious inding holds ega dless o he dimension
we ocus on. Thus, o e all, ai ness ma e s mo e han ou come a ou abili y
(when bo h ou comes a e posi i e ou comes o socie y, bu one is mo e
a ou able han he o he o each indi idual pe son). Mo eo e , wha is mos
impo an o a pe son is no he ai ness e en /si ua ion i sel , bu mos ly he
pe cep ion ha each indi idual pe son has abou i (especially wi h Neu ali y,
bu also de ec able wi h T anspa ency and Voice).
Finally, we es whe he he e ec s o ou come a ou abili y on suppo a e
mode a ed by p ocedu al ai ness. Ou indings do no yield such esul s in all
expe imen al condi ions (al hough we see he same di ec ion, no signi ican
alues we e ob ained). Only when T anspa ency is manipula ed do we ind
pe cei ed p ocedu al ai ness o signi ican ly mode a e he di ec e ec o
ou come a ou abili y. These esul s sugges ha in high anspa ency e en s/
si ua ions, ecei ing a a ou able ou come is o li le impo ance, bu in low
anspa ency e en s/si ua ions, whe he o no ecei ing a a ou able ou come
coun s mo e. The o e all esul s also highligh he impo ance o cla i ying
which dimensions o p ocedu al ai ness a e used in a gi en s udy, because
e en wi h simila e ec s hey beha e in di e en ways, wi h e ec s ha may
be di e en in some con ex s.
acknowledgemen s
This a icle is a esul o he p ojec “Vo ing ules and elec o al biases”, gene ously unded by
c (p dc/i c-cpo/4925/2014).

a ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness and poli ical suppo 85
____________________________________
ped o c. magalhães
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal
ped o[email p o ec ed]a.p
o cid.o g/0000-0001-8934-4552
____________________________________
iago ab il
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
iago[email p o ec ed]
____________________________________
e e ences
be hlehem, J., S. Bi ignandi. 2012. Handbook o Web Su eys. Wiley Handbooks in Su ey
Me hodology. New Je sey: John Wiley & Sons.
bøggild, T. 2016. “How poli icians’ eelec ion e o s can educe public us , elec o al
suppo , and policy app o al”. Poli ical Psychology, 37 (6): 901-919.
b ockne , J., B. M. Wiesen eld. 1996. “An in eg a i e amewo k o explaining eac ions o
decisions: in e ac i e e ec s o ou comes and p ocedu es”. Psychological Bulle in, 120 (2):
189.
esaiasson, P., e al. 2016. “Reconside ing he ole o p ocedu es o decision accep ance”.
B i ish Jou nal o Poli ical Science, 1-24. doi: 10.1017/S0007123416000508
gangl, A. 2003. “P ocedu al jus ice heo y and e alua ions o he lawmaking p ocess”.
Poli ical Beha io , 25 (2): 119-149.
g immelikhuijsen, S. G., A. J. Meije . 2014. “The e ec s o anspa ency on he pe cei ed
us wo hiness o a go e nmen o ganiza ion: e idence om an online expe imen ”.
Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion Theo y and Resea ch, 24 (1): 137-157.
kumlin, S. 2004. The Pe sonal and he Poli ical: How Pe sonal Wel a e S a e Expe iences A ec
Poli ical T us and Ideology. New Yo k, ny: Palg a e Macmillan us.
magalhães, P. C. 2016. “Economic e alua ions, p ocedu al ai ness, and sa is ac ion wi h
democ acy”. Poli ical Resea ch Qua e ly, 69 (3): 522-534.
magalhães, P. C. 2017. “Economic ou comes, quali y o go e nance, and sa is ac ion wi h
democ acy”. In My h and Reali y o he Legi imacy C isis: Explaining T ends and C oss-
Na ional Di e ences in Es ablished Democ acies, eds. C. an Ham, e al. Ox o d: Ox o d
Uni e si y P ess.
mansb idge, J. J. 1990. Beyond Sel -In e es . Chicago: Uni e si y o Chicago P ess.
migacz, S. J., S. Zou, and J. F. Pe ick. 2017. “The ‘ e minal’ e ec s o se ice ailu e on ai lines:
examining se ice eco e y wi h jus ice heo y”. Jou nal o T a el Resea ch, 1-16. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1177/0047287516684979.
odell, B. J., A. J. Colqui , and M. D. Bae . 2016. “Is adhe ing o jus ice ules enough? The
ole o cha isma ic quali ies in pe cep ions o supe iso s’ o e all ai ness”. O ganiza ional
Beha io and Human Decision P ocesses, 140: 14-28.
86 ci izenship in c isis
osenbaum, D. P., e al. 2017. “The police-communi y in e ac ion su ey: measu ing police
pe o mance in new ways”. Policing: An In e na ional Jou nal o Police S a egies &
Managemen , 40 (1): 112-127.
an c aen, M., W. G. Skogan. 2016. “Achie ing ai ness in policing: he link be ween in e nal
and ex e nal p ocedu al jus ice”. Police Qua e ly, 20 (1): 3-23.
an dijke, M., P. Ve boon. 2010. “T us in au ho i ies as a bounda y condi ion o p ocedu al
jus ice e ec s on ax compliance”. Jou nal o Economic Psychology, 31 (1): 80-91.
wilking, J. R., G. Zhang. 2017. “Who ca es abou p ocedu al ai ness? An expe imen al
app oach o suppo o illage elec ions”. Jou nal o Chinese Poli ical Science, 22 (2): 1-22.
ci e his chap e as:
magalhães, P. C., T. Ab il. 2018. “Fa ou able ou comes, p ocedu al ai ness, and poli ical suppo :
esul s om a su ey expe imen ”. In Changing Socie ies: Legacies and Challenges. Vol. ii. Ci izenship
in C isis, eds. M. C. Lobo, F. C. da Sil a and J. P. Zúque e. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 73-86.
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047.03
Economic c isis
and poli ical
decision:
wo ds and meaning
Vi gínia Hen iques Calado
Luís Cunha
4.
88 ci izenship in c isis
in oduc ion
The ela ionship be ween c isis and ci izenship is complex and ambiguous.
Objec i ely, a c isis, as deep as he one we expe ienced ecen ly almos
ine i ably implies a comp ession o ci izenship igh s, e en o hose ha we
conside ed unassailable. This is done by educing some o he ins i u ional
esponses usually p o ided by he S a e, he eby agg a a ing unemploymen
and insol ency. I is ue ha he idea o ci izenship was summoned om
posi ions o powe , namely wi h he call o collec i e commi men in
o e coming he c isis. Howe e , i was a mobiliza ion equi emen ha canno
be dissocia ed om he a ibu ion o esponsibili ies, which a e also collec i e,
as was he gene ic and abusi e claim ha people had li ed abo e possibili ies.
Awa e o he mul iplici y o app oaches o he ela ionship be ween c isis
and ci izenship, le us elucida e he pu pose o his ex : i is no an analysis
o how speci ic g oups o ci izens ha e o ganized o p o ide answe s o he
c isis. Wha we a e looking o is an iden i ica ion o pa icula mechanisms
– exp essed in he cons uc ion o na a i es and in he language used –
h ough which a con incing wo ld iew is c ea ed and he esponses o he
c isis a e sough o in luence he exe cise o ci izenship. I a c isis con ex
can be seen as leading o speci ic o ms o exe cising ci izenship, i should
also be emphasized ha discou ses and na a i es abou i con ibu e o he
de ini ion o speci ic o ms o ci izen o ganiza ion. I is he e o e impo an
ha we de o e pa icula a en ion o hem. The expe ience o he c isis
c ea es a ou able condi ions o he a i ma ion o models o decons uc ion
and deciphe ing ha may be ele an o a mo e enligh ened and commi ed
ci izenship. In some ways, i is in he deba e be ween a hegemonic na a i e,
which denies he ideological dimension on which i is based, and he e o o
unco e he mechanisms o i s cons uc ion, ha ou con ibu ion is si ua ed.
om c isis o c ises: segmen a ion and dissimula ion
This chap e is de ini ely no a p oposal o unde s and he c isis om he
Poli ical economy poin o iew, no can we place his inpu in he sphe e o
Poli ical philosophy o make i i in o he old o enewed deba es o Economic
sociology o Economic an h opology, e en hough i s au ho s a e ained
an h opologis s. The di icul y in accu a ely placing ou sel es a ises no only
economic c isis and poli ical decision 95
i e u able. I he high echnici y o Poli ical Economy is a ield o expe s only,
he possibili y o applying a - eaching measu es o he economy belongs o
he S a e and o hose who ule i . Two o de s o meaning a e hus a icula ed,
in o which we will look. On he one hand, one de i ing om he compe ence
ecognized in he economics expe s; on he o he hand, ano he one ha
is based on he way in which poli ical discou se leans upon and ein o ces
ideologies (Mannheim 1960) ha a e widesp ead in social space.
old ables and new ales:
pe sis ence and enewal o na a i es
In a wo k whose g ea es aim was dissemina ion, Vi o Ben o summons mo als
o help explain economics:
Economics, as a s udy o eali y o , mo e accu a ely, o human beha iou ela ed o
economic ac i i y, is a posi i e science and, as such, a science (p ac ically) independen o
mo al conside a ions. Bu economy, as a human ac i i y, always wo ks in mo al con ex s.
(Ben o 2011, 10)
The dis inc ion poin ed ou by Vi o Ben o is almos educed o i ele ance
i we belie e ha all human ac i i y is economic, ha is, i we educe socie y o
he ma ke . The ambi ion o be a posi i e science and he ine i abili y o being
a social science could lead Poli ical Economy o an unmanageable ield, which,
as we know, does no happen. On he con a y, economis s mo e on clea ly
de ined, moni o ed, a ionalized, and p edic able g ounds. How do you ge his
e ec ? I is o en done by placing mo ali y a he se ice o economics, ha is,
by making i he basis o posi i e science, by es ablishing a connec ion be ween
human na u e and economic beha iou . Fables and me apho s ha e se ed his
pu pose, so i is wo hwhile conside ing he e, e en b ie ly, some hing ha can
be seen as belonging o he ma ix na a i es o Poli ical Economics.
In 1714 Be na d de Mande ille published The Fable o he Bees, o : P i a e
Vices, Public Bene i s ha would become amous in he co e a gumen s
de eloped by Poli ical Economics. Abou hal a cen u y la e , Adam Smi h
published his mos amous wo k, An Inqui y in o he Na u e and Causes o
he Weal h o Na ions (1776), which is an exp essi e example o accoun o
na u al economic beha iou :

96 ci izenship in c isis
I is no om he bene olence o he bu che , he b ewe , o he bake ha we expec ou
dinne , bu om hei ega d o hei own in e es . We add ess ou sel es, no o hei
humani y bu o hei sel -lo e, and ne e alk o hem o ou own necessi ies bu o hei
ad an ages. (Smi h 1776, 95)
These wo na a i es con e ge in he idea ha i is p i a e in e es ha
leads o he p ope ope a ion o bo h socie y and economy, bu in no case he
dispensabili y o e hics and mo ali y is a i med. Mande ille is suspicious o
i ue, seeing behind i sel ishness – o ins ance, when ca ying ou cha i able
ac s, one inds pe sonal sa is ac ion in hem (B i o 2014). In his case, he
deba e ocuses no on he g ounds o mo ali y bu on denouncing hypoc isy,
which he does wi h a sha p cynicism. As o Adam Smi h, i would be
ex emely educ i e o see him as a de ende o he subo dina ion o mo ali y
and e hics o s ic economic a ionali y. No only o his Theo y o Mo al
Sen imen s (1759), bu o he ac ha his wo k could and should be seen as
an a emp o build a social and mo al science, a beyond he amewo k o
nine een h-cen u y poli ical economy (Swedbe g 1994, 44).8 Con a y o his
pe spec i e, he cou se aken by Poli ical Economics mean dis ancing i sel
om he unce ain y o a mo al social science, a ou ing he de elopmen o a
model ha should be capable o eplacing unce ain y. Wha we a e in e es ed
in discussing a his poin is no he ele ance o hese au ho s o economic
heo y, bu a he pe cei ing he genesis o he na a i e ha ounded and
s ill suppo s economic libe alism. Basic p inciples, such as a ional choice,
pee compe i ion, mobilizing ambi ion, me i oc acy, o e en ee en e p ise, a e
ound in Mande ille and Adam Smi h, bu hey also ha e o he links o he
wo ld o hough and science, such as Cha les Da win and he idea o na u al
selec ion, o he p imi i e accumula ion o capi al beha iou illus a ed by
Robinson C usoe in he well-known no el by Daniel De oe, jus o men ion
wo amous and di e en e e ences.
Pe haps i is mo e app op ia e o hink o na a i e h eads ha in e wine
and unlace hemsel es, ge ing los only o be edisco e ed la e on, in some
cases obeying o ema kable p ocesses o esigni ica ion. Fo ins ance, be ween
he mobilizing ambi ion o he ounde s and he g eed ha hei hei s place on
he unc ioning o Wall S ee , he hea o he Sys em (Va ou akis 2015, 35),
8 “The explana ion o human na u e, he e o e, which akes sel -lo e om e e y eeling and a ec ion
(…) comes, in my opinion, om a con used and alse in e p e a ion o he empa hy sys em” (Smi h
1759, 554).
economic c isis and poli ical decision 97
goes a s ep oo a . On he o he hand, he na a i e oday hegemonic
has al eady had a subo dina e exp ession. I will su ice o conside he
consolida ion o a coun e -na a i e ollowing he G ea Dep ession o he la e
1920s. The Keynesian model, by ocusing he ini ia i e on he S a e, making
i an ac i e egula o o economic p ac ices, p oposes ano he line o hough ,
ano he na a i e, which became p e alen in he ollowing decades, losing i s
momen um only in he 1970s.
The e u n o a homo economicus, which is a ma ix in many aspec s,
has been app oached in se e al ways and by di e en au ho s, wi h dis inc
highligh s gi en o his eco e y. The wi hd awal om he ixed exchange
sys em de ined in B e on Woods; he huge inc ease in he p ice o oil imposed
by he p oducing coun ies; he g owing inancial di icul ies in he usa
ollowing he con lic s in Ko ea and Vie nam; he ascen o powe in he usa
and uk o wo s ong and mobilizing libe als, Ronald Reagan and Ma ga e
Tha che ; he g owing demog aphic imbalances endange ing he unding o
he wel a e s a e; he ob iously g owing weakness o planned economies in
eas e n Eu ope: hese a e jus a ew ac o s we could e e o he e. I is di icul
o de e mine whe he hese and o he his o ical momen s a e igge ed by
c ises o whe he hey a e c ises gene a o s hemsel es. One o he aces o
his di icul y a ises om he mo e o less spon aneous associa ion o he
c isis wi h a si ua ion o abno mali y o excep ionali y, ins ead o conside ing
i as an in insic pa o he economic cycle, hus eplacing dys unc ion by
sys ema ici y. On he o he hand, i is impossible o equalize all c ises, inso a
as some de e mine eal u ning poin s. Unde s anding he dep h o a c isis
in ol es conside ing he densi y o he na a i es ha explain i and unde pin
he he apy ha applies o i . I is in his sense ha he analysis o poli ical
discou se gains impo ance as we shall la e see and jus i y. Be o e we ge
he e, howe e , i is impo an o e u n o he issue o na a i e cons uc ion
in o de o be e unde s and i s solidi y and i s weaknesses.
om wo ds o meaning: old and new ways o saying
Pu ing aside he ambi ion o call on he cu en s and au ho s who o e he
yea s ha e been doing he his o y o Poli ical Economy, we aim o a gue
ha Poli ical Economy has been s uc u ed a ound a basic na a i e, which,
al hough unde going adjus men s and e o mula ions, main ains an iden i y
98 ci izenship in c isis
and a p ojec ha s ems om i s umbilical ela ionship wi h he capi alis
mode o p oduc ion. We sough o show how he ounding nucleus o he
main na a i e was cons i u ed and which we e i s cons i u i e elemen s
– discou se on human na u e based on indi idualism and belie in a i uous
balance based on he idea o compe i i e ma ke – a wide ange na a i e
ha ne e b oke up wi h i s ounding nucleus, ha ing, none heless, su e ed
successi e eadjus men s. To look a his na a i e in ime implies conside ing
he long and complex p ocess ha has b ough us o he p esen and which
also con on s us wi h he easons o he success o he Theo y o Ra ional
Ac ion as an explana o y discou se o economic hings and, mo e b oadly,
o human ac ion.9 In o de o unde s and his success, i is impo an o
highligh he connec ion o h ee e ec s: he idea o igou and scien i ici y
c ea ed; he es ic ion o access o hei ield o knowledge by hose who a e
no acc edi ed; he abili y o become indispensable o poli ical powe .
The i s o hese e ec s ecei ed a con ibu ion om he supposed
p edic i e capaci y o economic science, assuming a eliabili y ha can
only be based on he knowledge o human na u e, as i is e ealed in he
ounda ional na a i e o which we ha e jus alluded. The educ ion o human
a ionali y o he homo economicus, a cha ac e ma ked by compe i i eness,
by he maximiza ion o p o i and, ul ima ely, by sel ishness, opics seen
as in igo a ing o economic ac i i y, allows us o look a economics as
a se o mechanical o ces ending owa d balance. Disco e ing his
mechanics would only be a ques ion o inding he echnical ins umen s
ha a e capable o esponding o he ambi ion o o ecas and an icipa e
he na u al de elopmen o economics. Ma hema ics hen eme ged as a
basis o he c ea ion o hese ins umen s, p o iding echnical suppo ,
h ough inc easingly complex models, o mac oeconomic o ecas s.
The second aspec a ises, a leas in pa , om his ma hema izing. The
g owing echnicali y, a he same ime as i equi es pee ecogni ion,
p ohibi s he ield o non-specialis s, making Poli ical Economy a
unique case in he uni e se o social sciences (Swedbe g 2006, 77). We
ind he e, in some way, a success ul alliance be ween Poli ical Economy
and S a is ics, bo h compe ing o he mos pe ec go e nmen in he
9 This ex ension is implici in he well-known o mula ha Lionel Robbins p oposed in 1932:
“Economics is he science which s udies human beha io as a ela ionship be ween ends and sca ce
means which ha e al e na i e uses” (Ben o 2011, 25).
economic c isis and poli ical decision 99
wo ld.10 The las aspec is p ecisely his one, he s ong o e lap be ween
poli ical powe and he ision o economic hings p oposed by Poli ical
Economy. Looking a con empo anei y, we also see a somehow unexpec ed
e ec o his s ong a icula ion: he P ince’s Counsello , a s a us ha has, in
ac , long been in he hands o economis s, h ea ens o ake he place o he
P ince himsel . The di o ce be ween powe and poli ics e en ually ansla ed
in o “s a ism wi hou a S a e” (Bo doni and Bauman 2016, 24), which is
la gely a consequence o he p ocess igge ed by he p ojec ion o Poli ical
Economy as he main explana o y (and p ospec i e) science o social ac i i y.
The ma ke egula ed by he pu sui o sel -in e es gi es way o a o acious
machine, which, in he name o e ec i eness, equi es he S a e o abdica e he
possibili y o egula ion, bo h in he inancial sec o and in ela ion o social
p o ec ion mechanisms; whe he hey a e di ec , such as he Basic Social
Income, o indi ec , such as p o ec ionism a ising om labou legisla ion.
These h ee condi ions o success a e no enough by hemsel es. They
imply he exis ence o an eno mous pe o ma i i y o economic heo y, which,
a he same ime ha i shapes he p ac ices, also gua an ees ha he na a i e
adjus s o he his o ical ci cums ances ha de e mine he ans o ma ion o
he economy. In ac , he pe sis ence o a capi alis model o p oduc ion does no
p e en he signi ican changes ha ha e been unde way since he eigh een h
cen u y and ha can be measu ed o aced back in a ious le els. Thomas
Pike y (2014), o ins ance, shows us he ans o ma ion o he dis ibu ion o
na ional capi al, especially in F ance and England, poin ing o he eplacemen
o ag icul u al income by ha gene a ed by u ban p ope ies, as well as he
ab up educ ion o income om o eign capi al ha ollowed decoloniza ion.
O he au ho s eco d and highligh di e en indica o s o his his o ical
ans o ma ion in he way capi alis economy wo ks. Today we li e in he e a o
in o ma ional capi alism (Cas ells 2013, 10), we an icipa e, o wish, a cogni i e
capi alism (Ab eu 2017, 229), we wi ness he accele a ed p ocess o unding
he economy (Teles 2017, 63) and also he econ igu a ion o he in e na ional
di ision o labou as a esul o he deepening o globaliza ion (San os 2011).
The adjus men be ween economic heo y (expe compe ence) and economic
na a i e (dissemina ed and consumed in he social space) implies language
10 Conside ing he his o y o s a is ics, we see how i became essen ial o he legi imiza ion o
poli ical ac ion: “s a is ics p esen ed i sel as an essen ial ins umen o a ionalizing he conduc ion o
human a ai s” (Des osiè es 2000, 122).
100 ci izenship in c isis
e ec s, including seman ic ans o ma ions, a phenomenon ha has become
isible in he las decades. Wi hou he ambi ion o a sys ema ic app oach,
we will conside some examples ha we ind ele an o wha we ha e called
abo e newspeak.11
As backg ound we can ha e a mu a ion o meaning ha ends o ans o m
in o egula and cons an wha was conside ed singula and ci cums an ial.
We alked abou he c isis poin ing o he segmen a ion o i s con en s and,
consequen ly, o he di icul y in dis inguishing be ween c isis and non-c isis.
Le us no e now ha , aken in his sense, he c isis is insepa able om he
idea o e o m. In his case, oo, i e ol ed om a s ic sense, ha o e o m
as a de achable e en , ma ked by an imp o emen o enewal in o an open
and easonably imp ecise meaning, wi h some e o ms appea ing no as
imp o emen s bu objec i ely as se backs.12 As wi h he idea o c isis, he
idea o e o m no longe co esponds o an excep ional momen , so ha i
seems a pe manen in e en ion, which egula es he adjus men o social
li e and economic p ac ice o mac oeconomic heo iza ion. Seen in his ligh ,
he e o mis p oposals e e o he idea o me anoia, ei he in he (almos )
eligious sense o con e sion o in he sense o a e o m o he psyche, a change
ha begins by being men al and hen becomes managemen o ac ion. We also
ha e o conside he idea o adjus men , one o he pi o al concep s o his
newspeak lea n om economics. S ipped om he idea o adjus men and
concilia ion be ween pa ies, he wo d acqui es in i s new use by economics a
somewha euphemis ic sense, since i i s deep ans o ma ions in he seman ic
memo y o concilia o y adjus men .
Emphasizing, once again, ha ou in en ion is mo e o illus a e han o
sys ema ize, we summon he p ocesses o ans e ing specialized language,
bo n among schola s and academics, o he public space, and i s ans o ma ion
in o e e yday language. So e eign deb , swaps, bu also de i a i es ma ke ,
among o he s, ha e become exp essions o common usage, wi h mo e o less
accu acy in hei use. The cen ali y assumed by Managemen explains ano he
ype o con amina ion and, in his case, also o ocabula y subs i u ion,
11 Inspi a ion o his comes om O well, bu can also e e o o he sou ces, o example he new
hi le ian language (Faye 1973, 34), o any o he a emp o mobilize language in sea ch o a de e mined
poli ical e ec , ha o o ali a ianism.
12 We do no use he no ions o ad ancemen and eg ession as an exp ession o any his o ical
de e minism. We only emphasize ha i we conside social space as a place o dispu e we mus see he
cu en e o mism as a ma ke o he e e sal o social achie emen s ( o example, in labou igh s).

economic c isis and poli ical decision 101
wo ds such as ceo, coaching, benchma king, ou sou cing, and s akeholde s
a e examples o ha kind o ocabula y.13 These inno a ions, alued in he
name o mode ni y o he need o espond o he demands o globaliza ion,
a e concomi an wi h a se o de e mining ans o ma ions, a he le el o
bo h p ac ices and ep esen a ions. An example ha accoun s o he e ec
o disguise is he ans o ma ion o he wo ke in o a collabo a o , o pu i in
ano he way, he abili y o hide wha one does no wan o show, main aining
a minimum le el o accep abili y.14 This e ec is achie ed hanks o he
conjunc ion, ope a ed by language, o a supposed equaliza ion o he subjec s
(we a e all collabo a o s) and an upda e o concep s, seen as necessa y o
he mode niza ion o he coun y and he economy. In his way, he e ec i e
de alua ion o he labou ac o becomes a po en ial aluing esul ing om
labou lexibili y; he loss o he gua an ees con ained in collec i e labou
ag eemen s is dis o ed in he name o he i ues o compe i ion and pe sonal
commi men ; he inequali ies inhe en o he sys em a e econ igu ed as he
esul o bo h he wo ke s’ capaci y o wo k and di e en ia ed e o .
We can see he ounda ional na a i e o Poli ical Economy and na a i es
de i ed om i h ough he concep s wi h which hey ope a e, wi h he wo ds
hey use, and wi h he ecogni ion hey imply, as poin s o encoun e and
concilia ion be ween a dominan and enden iously hegemonic heo y and
he “economic p ac ices and o dina y o ms o calcula ion”.15 The di e gence
be ween hese wo ope a ional le els is sol ed, p ecisely, by language, which
allows us o hink economic science and he ca ego ies wi h which i ope a es
as ahis o ical (Bou dieu 2000). T ansposed in o he a ena o public deba e,
econ igu ed wo ds help o make sense o he social p ocesses in which agen s
a e in ol ed. This is also done by sugges ing a simpli ica ion o economic
language, which c ea es he illusion ha i is accessible o anyone, and a
he same ime eso ing o a complexi ica ion ha p ohibi s access o non-
specialis s. These wo e ec s, which a e con adic o y only in appea ance,
13 On he impo ance o “managemen p o essionals” in he ans o ma ions since he 1970s, see
Ca doso (2013, 52).
14 Faye (1973, 174), discusses he idea o accep abili y in ela ion o hose om which one canno
hide wha one in ends o hide. Bou dieu (1982, 75) discusses he social condi ions o accep abili y in
he le el o language.
15 We use he e he i le chosen by Flo ence Webe (2002) o an a icle ha deals wi h he eal way
he economy wo ks, which in many aspec s s ands ou om he “u ili a ian heo y”. In his ea ly wo ks,
Bou dieu (2000) no es and highligh s hese disc epancies.
102 ci izenship in c isis
should be seen as complemen a y: i he i s e ec gi es ise o he idea o a
uni ied ield o all, which equalizes all playe s wi hin he ma ke , assuming
ha hey a e equally equipped o he compe i ion gene a ed he e, he second
e ec is ac i a ed whene e one goes o he le el o explana ion and de ini ion
o economic policies, gua an eeing a con ol o he p ocesses – also he e
disguising he pe o ma i i y o he decisions (de egula ion o labou , loss
o s a e powe , e c.) unde he co e o newspeak, as o mula ed by heo y.16
Poli ical discou se is undoub edly a pa o his complex mechanism ha
gene a es meaning, and we will add ess i o conclude his pape .
he poli ical discou se: me apho s and e lec ions
The deba es on he S a e o he Na ion happen in he middle o he calenda
yea (July), p eceding he aca ion pe iod and consequen slowing down o
poli ical ac i i y. They cons i u e an oppo uni y o e ospec i e, which
he Go e nmen uses o jus i y i s ac ion and p esen new measu es, and
which he Opposi ion uses o c ea e poli ical di icul ies o he Go e nmen ,
denouncing ailu es o sho comings. The e a e a lo o games, s aging, and
dissimula ion, highligh ing he posi i e o nega i e colou s o poli ical ac s and
s a is ical indica o s, highligh ing o de aluing ex e nal ac o s, e c. Al hough
i is an impo an momen om he poin o iew o poli ical con on a ion,
we op ed, on his occasion, o s ick o he P ime Minis e ’s speech. This is
a deba able op ion, bu wi h i we sough o highligh he poli ical ac as a
combina ion be ween discou se and powe o apply measu es.17 Conside ed
in a ela i ely long ime, we can see hese discou ses as an illus a ion o
he possibili y o a di e en ia ed eading o he c isis, bu abo e all o he
s a egies o he o ical cons uc ion o a gumen s ha jus i y eal poli ical
ac ions, including manipula i e s a egies, which bo h announce measu es
o up u e as con inuous and, in opposi ion, claim o be di e en , changing
no hing conce ning he pas ou comes o con es a ion. Taking in o accoun he
16 The a ailabili y in he cu en banking ma ke o complex inancial p oduc s, and hei acquisi ion
wi hou adequa e knowledge o hei cha ac e is ics, gene a ed inancial losses o many housands o
Po uguese ci izens, who a gued wi h hei banking ins i u ions, in a ou o hei pa as sa e s and
no in es o s.
17 Fo an analysis ha also d aws on P ime Minis e s’ speeches and in e iews wi h membe s o he
Go e nmen s in o ice du ing he T oika pe iod, see Mou y and S and ing (2017).
economic c isis and poli ical decision 103
objec i es o his wo k, we conside he pe iod in which he c isis is s a ed, he
pe iod ma ked by ex e nal in e en ion and he cu en pe iod. A en yea span
(2008-2017) is hus de ined, which includes h ee legisla u es and h ee p ime
minis e s – h ee speeches by José Sóc a es (2008/2009/2010), ou by Passos
Coelho (2012/2013/2014/2015), and wo by An ónio Cos a (2016/2017).
Co esponding o expec a ions, he c isis is clea ly p esen in he nine
discou ses we analysed.18 I begins by being conside ed in a limi ed and es ic ed
way by Sóc a es who, in 2008, summons i o explain Po ugal’s di icul ies in he
o eign ma ke ( he inc ease in he p ice o oil and ise o alue o he eu o), and
hen becomes cen al in his las speech as p ime minis e , and in all he speeches
o Passos Coelho, and ela i ely sub le in discou ses by An ónio Cos a. Lea ing
aside he explana ion o he c isis o now, all discou ses con e ge in o he idea
ha “ he wo s is now o e ”, ha is, hey all announce u ning poin s as a esul
o he policies hey a e using. Somehow we can see he e a cen al aspec o he
na a i e s a egy o discou ses: he sys ema ic ecu ence o a se o simple
bina y opposi ions, in his case be ween c isis and o e coming, bu which has
o he exp essions – go e nmen /opposi ion; ac i e/passi e; change/pe manence,
i esponsible in es men /budge discipline, e c. These opposi ions a e s uc u al
in he sense ha hey de ine signi ica ions in an exp essi e way, signalling wha
mus be done in opposi ion o wha o he s wan : doing di e en ly o p e en ing
wha is necessa y. In some cases, he he o ic used seems o depend less on
ideological ac o s han on he ac o being in go e nmen o in opposi ion.
This is wha happens wi h he accusa ion o being oo passi e in he ace o he
c isis o o a ou ing he pe manence a he expense o he necessa y change.
E en ideologically ac u ing hemes, such as public in es men , admi some
ambigui y, depending on he li ed momen . Thus, a he beginning o he
c isis, in 2008, José Sóc a es poin ed ou o he opposi ion, s a ing: “We ha e
all el , in p ac ice, he deeply nega i e e ec s o he heo y ha he coun y
would no supposedly ha e money o any hing and would ha e o gi e up any
in es men in i s u u e”. This “ heo y”, which he la e s a es as “ne a ious”, is
no p ope ly con i med by Passos Coelho, who chooses o associa e he isks
inhe en in he iscal consolida ion plan wi h a s a e-held es ain ole: “ he
expenses o he public adminis a ion sec o and o s a e’s business sec o , a e
being educed a a conside able pace”. In he speech o 2016, An ónio Cos a
p oposes o “ u n he page o aus e i y”, eassigning impo ance o public
18 In 2011 he e was no such deba e due o he dissolu ion o Pa liamen .
104 ci izenship in c isis
in es men , h ough he announcemen o new P og ammes – Na ional Fund
o U ban Rehabili a ion and Blue Fund, dedica ed o he economy o he sea
– and p omising o aise limi a ions o municipal in es men .
Beyond c isis, he e is ano he impo an ea u e uni ying speeches, he idea
o e o m. We ha e seen how his wo d has become cen al o he economis s’
ocabula y, and we ind he e an e iden app oxima ion be ween hese wo
uni e ses. I is, howe e , a he o ical cen ali y, since i is oo imp ecise and ague
wha he p oclaimed e o mism e e s o. In Sóc a es, e o m is insepa able om
mode niza ion and i epo s, especially in 2008, o echnological de elopmen
– enewable ene gies o he Technological Plan o Educa ion. In he ollowing
yea s, he ga e in wi h he accen ua ion o he c isis, speaking o a “ e o mis
agenda” applied o Social Secu i y (2009), wi hou e e ailing o say ha he
ad oca es a “ alue-o ien ed e o m” (2010). Passos Coelho gi es ano he
meaning o e o m: his pu pose is o “build a new economy: mo e compe i i e,
mo e open, mo e democ a ic” (2013). We a e, in his case, close o wha
can be called he libe al agenda, wi h e o mism eme ging as an ins umen
o s uc u al ans o ma ion o he economy. I Sóc a es placed he S a e a
he cen e o he e o mis ac ion, Coelho sees e o m in he e ea o he
s a e. As o Cos a, he p oposes (2016) a Na ional Re o m P og amme wi h six
undamen al pilla s, highligh ing educa ion, inno a ion, and mode niza ion o
he S a e. We can see he eco e y o quali ica ion and echnology ha Sóc a es
insis ed upon, bu i seems mo e i al o us he eplacemen o a mac oeconomic
e o mism by a mo e nuanced and con e gen solu ion ha bea s he idea o
“ u ning he page o aus e i y” (2016).
The ideas o mode niza ion and p og ess a e also ecu en , hus sugges ing
a s uc u al unc ion, exac ly ha o poin ing ou , once again, he coun e poin
be ween wha exis s, and is seen as an unwan ed inhe i ance o hose who ha e
abandoned powe , and wha hey p omise o achie e, in he condi ion ha i is
always o a ain consensus, o a leas a esponsible opposi ion, which does no
ollow a “bo om-up cul u e” – a e m used by Sóc a es in 2008. Mode niza ion
is always seen as indispensable o good go e nance, signalling a necessa y
pa h o he desi ed app oach o some o ou Eu opean pa ne s. He e, oo,
con e gence is somewha misleading, since a leas wo di e en di ec ions
a e de ined a ound he same wo d. On he one hand, mode niza ion h ough
quali ica ion, which implies be ing on educa ion and on he main enance
o a s ong Social S a e; on he o he hand, mode niza ion as a design o he
economy, which e e s o he demand o g ea e libe aliza ion and educ ion
pa ii
Ac o s
in c isis

Child en,
ci izenship
and c isis: owa ds
a pa icipa o y
agenda
Ana Nunes de Almeida
Ana So ia Ribei o
Jussa a Rowland
5.
114 ci izenship in c isis
in oduc ion
Child en’s ci izenship has become a majo heme in con empo a y social
policy and science deba es, and child en’s igh s ha e g adually eme ged as
benchma ks o many na ional, egional o local policy na a i es, consis en
wi h he un Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child (un 1989). Indeed, he
unc c concep o ci izenship encompasses, o he i s ime, pa icipa ion,
p o ision bu also pa icipa ion igh s. The a en ion has ocused no only
on child en’s “supe io in e es ” bu also on hei agency capaci ies and hei
pa icipa o y igh s, conside ing hem ac i e and compe en ac o s in social
ela ionships, who ha e a oice, i espec i e o hose o adul s. C ises, caused
by disas e s, economic and social ad e si ies a e momen s o dis up ion
whe e he p e-exis ing unequal social ies be ween indi iduals o g oups in
socie y become mo e isible, e idencing di e en access o ci izenship s a us.
Child en ha e e y o en been po ayed as passi e and helpless ic ims o
as ulne able ecipien s o aid in c isis si ua ions, wi h li le a en ion gi en
o hei abili y o pe cei e and in e p e hese phenomena, o wha hey can
con ibu e o public policies ha add ess hese issues.
The chap e discusses he ela ion be ween child en, ci izenship and c isis,
based on wo esea ch p ojec s ocussing on he pe spec i es and oles o child en
in c ises, ei he o an economic na u e (“Po uguese Child en and he C isis”)
o clima e change ela ed disas e s (“cuida : Cul u es o Disas e Resilience
among Child en and Young People”). I add esses he impo ance o including
child en’s pe spec i es in c isis na a i es ( he igh o be hea d) and ad oca es a
pa icipa o y agenda ecognising child en’s agency and compe ence o be ac i e
pa icipan s in policy p ocesses ha conce n no only hei p esen , bu also
hei u u e ( he igh o pa icipa e). I ul ima ely suppo s he impo ance o
engaging child en om an ea ly age in ci izenship p ac ices ha bene i socie y
as a whole no only in he p esen , bu also in he u u e.
child en and ci izenship
In con empo a y Wes e n socie ies, “child en ha e an unse led ela ionship
wi h he s a us o ci izenship” (La kins 2014, 7). Al hough hey a e gi en
p o ision, p o ec ion and some pa icipa ion igh s (unc c 1989), hei ull
legal o poli ical ci izenship is no ecognised. Child en (as once women o
child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 115
blacks) do no accede o some exclusi e adul p i ileges o obliga ions in he
public sphe e: hey a e denied he igh o o e o o be elec ed; hey canno
make con ac s; hey do no ha e inancial o economic esponsibili ies. The
wo d “mino ”, designa ing indi iduals unde 18 yea s old, illus a es hei
“lowe ”, “in e io ” posi ion in his domain. In he a e ma h o Wo ld Wa ii,
T. Ma shall (1950) p oposed ci izenship as a complex mul idimensional
concep , in ol ing h ee dimensions depic ing his o ical s ages, bu na u ally
designed o adul s: ci ic, poli ical and social igh s. I child en, as indi iduals,
a e implici ly emb aced by ci ic and social o ms o ci izenship, hey a e
ce ainly excluded om i s poli ical dimensions. This is no an acciden al o
na u al e ic ion, ins ead i is based on cul u al concep ions.
Libe al and o mal pe spec i es on ci izenship, on he one hand, and
adi ional ep esen a ions o childhood, on he o he , unde lie his ci izenship
di ide be ween gene a ions.
Fi s , ci izenship concei ed as an abs ac , legal o social s a us con eyed
by na ion-s a es o a ional au onomous indi iduals excludes child en on
he basis o hei ulne abili y and dependence: hei “un eadiness”, as
Cockbu n (2012, 3) ema ks. In con as o adul s, child en would no ha e
“come o age” o lack “ he compe ences associa ed wi h ci izenship, such as
a ionali y and independence” (La kins 2014, 8). They a e “in need” o being
p epa ed and ained as u u e ci izens.
One migh ask, howe e , i his is a clea -cu dis inc ion. In “ isk socie ies”
(Beck 1992) o in “liquid mode ni y” scena ios (Bauman 2000), adul hood
has become a ne e -ending, unp edic able changing p ocess o sea ching o
ul ilmen in ela ional se ings. Adul s, like child en, e y o en seem “in he
making”, un eady, unp epa ed o ulne able o ace a ied social injunc ions.
This can be acknowledged o indi iduals acing he impac o an economic
c isis, whe e e idence o ulne able and dependen adul g oups in need o
p o ec ion (no o men ion he p o ision o basic ma e ial goods and se ices)
is s ong. Adul hood is e y o en an open, incomple e and un inished
expe ience o ela ional o ins i u ional dependences. In addi ion, he abs ac
no ion o “ci izen” hides he ac ha adul s (jus like child en), depending on
hei social posi ion and powe , ha e unequal compe ences o use igh s and
ace du ies. E en in his adi ional amewo k, some g oups o child en a e
no mo e ulne able han some g oups o adul s.
Second, he associa ion o libe al ci izenship wi h he public sphe e
ein o ced child en exclusion, as home was he igh place o hem o be.
116 ci izenship in c isis
Howe e , when child labou became a majo issue in indus ial Eu ope, and
schooling appea ed la e as he p edominan o m o socialisa ion, he indoo -
ou doo bo de became mo e unclea . Adul s wo k in he labou ma ke , bu
don’ child en wo k a schools as well? (Q o up 2001). Also, eminis s b ough
ci izenship issues in o he p i a e ealm, ehabili a ing he home as a place o
p oduc ion and gende domina ion; and claimed body, sexual, ep oduc i e
igh s as c ucial dimensions o ci izenship. Mo e ecen ly, mino i y sexual
g oups coming ou om a long s anding social qua an ine, claiming hei
igh o isibili y, ha e ein o ced he ex ension o ci izenship igh s om he
public o he p i a e sphe e. Bo de s be ween adul s and child en ha e hus
been blu ed in some imes and spaces, and hyb id gene a ional ca ego ies
e eal he limi a ions o a adi ional concep o libe al ci izenship con eyed,
in abs ac , o (all) adul s and denied o (all) child en.
Fu he mo e, hegemonic social ep esen a ions o child en and childhood,
e y o en suppo ed on scien i ic o philosophical lines o hough , ha e
con ibu ed o ein o ce adul -cen ic iews on ci izenship. As ega ds social
sciences, du ing he 1980s a new pa adigm eme ged ad oca ing childhood as
a social cons uc ion and a con ingen p oduc o ime and space, con as ing
wi h biological o psychological iews conside ing i a uni e sal o abs ac
condi ion (Almeida 2009; P ou 2005; Jenks 1992). Consequen ly, childhood
is a he e ogeneous condi ion, whe e gende , social class, e hnici y and age
g oups in oduce di e ence and di e si y. Fu he mo e, concep ual au onomy
o child en in esea ch (and socie y) is de ended, and so child en’s ela ionships
a e wo hy o s udy on hei own, i espec i e o adul s’ pe spec i es.
Impo an ly, child en a e conside ed as “beings in he p esen ” and no jus
“adul s in he making” (Ha den e al. 2000) o “human becomings” (Soa es
1998). In he same ein, Si o a (1998) e used o educe childhood o a
“ o e unne momen ” o a ansi ional s age o adul hood, in a con inuum
om an unachie ed, imma u e o uncomple ed being o an immu able and
comple ed adul . Also, child en agency is pu o wa d: ins ead o abula asa
o passi e ecipien s o social no ms and p ac ices, hey a e compe en and
ac i e in he cons uc ion o hei li es, he li es o hose a ound hem and he
socie ies in which hey li e.
Hence, gi ing oice o child en in science has become a majo challenge
o esea che s, ul ima ely con ibu ing o me hodological inno a ions in
he ield. Pa icipa o y me hodologies enhancing child agency in all esea ch
s ages has gained inc eased impo ance. This u n canno be dissocia ed om

child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 117
con empo a y poli ical and child en/adul igh s mo emen s demanding
mo e inclusi e and pa icipa o y o ms o “ac i e ci izenship” (T e isan
2014).
A majo miles one was he Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Righ s o
he Child (unc c) (un 1989), whe e child ci izenship was, o he i s ime,
concei ed as no jus a ma e o holding indi idual igh s o p o ec ion,
p o ision, bu also o pa icipa ion (Beazley e al. 2009). unc c announces
he “supe io in e es o he child” as he p ima y conside a ion in making
decisions ha may a ec hem. I men ions ha child en’s opinions should
be aken in o conside a ion in decisions aken on hei behal . I assigns he
child he “ eedom o seek, ecei e and impa in o ma ion and ideas o all
kind” and he eedom o hough , conscience and eligion. In e na ional
binding ci izenship s anda ds a e now es ablished conce ning child en’s
s a us and pa icipa ion in con empo a y socie ies. No su p isingly,
commen a o s highligh he gap be ween “ he he o ic and ideals o he
unc c and he eali y on he g ound” (Cockbu n 2012, 169). This is
pa icula ly e iden du ing his o ical imes o c isis, whe e ex eme e en s
o si ua ions dis up he daily o de . The opic is discussed in he ollowing
sec ion.
ci izenship a s ake in imes o c isis
La ge scale and ecen poli ical, economic and en i onmen al global
u bulence has made li ing h ough c i ical e en s mo e equen ly
expe ienced o pe cei ed, bo h a he local and global le els, in “de eloped”
coun ies. They a e less and less seen as unusual, isola ed o unique
si ua ions ypical o dis an socie ies, bu ha e all uelled a g owing sense
o ulne abili y and insecu i y among ci izens who end o ep esen he
wo ld as an inc easingly ulne able and no - aken- o -g an ed place (Fu edi
2007). Mo eo e , p eda o y media co e age (Kleis and Jansen 2016; Lewis
2010) ampli ies hei impo ance, omnip esence and amilia i y. In his
espec , child en a e ypical ins umen s o announce and epo social o
na u al c ises wi h de as a ing impac ; in con as o no mal pe iods whe e
hei isibili y is a he hidden o disc e e, child en (o ce ain g oups o
child en) acqui e an unp eceden ed p ominence in images o ic imised o
a - isk popula ion in c i ical scena ios.
118 ci izenship in c isis
Seen as up u es in he social ab ic o e e yday li e (Nolas 2015), c ises
appea as e ela o y momen s (Solway 1994). Be o e-a e up u es can e eal,
on a b u al scale, he p e-exis ing unequal social ies be ween indi iduals and
g oups (Vaughn 2012). Di ides be ween p i ileged s. dep i ed, dominan s.
domina ed, p o ec ed s. ulne able g oups eme ge in hei ull s eng h. An
illus a ion o hese clea ages lies in he gene a ional o de ha is o en pulled
inside ou h ough he lens o a c isis. Indeed, s a is ical da a unco e s he ac
ha child en – compa ed o adul s - a e e y o en he mos ulne able pa
o a popula ion a ec ed by a na u al o social c isis, and i s impac can lead
o d ama ic iola ions o undamen al p o ec ion and p o ision igh s (Peek
2008; Mo ow 2009).
So c ises a e associa ed ei he wi h occasional o b eakdown e en s o
hey can eme ge h oughou his o ical leng hy p ocesses emb acing ime,
hei impac a ec ing he p esen , bu also he u u e (Baez Ullbe g 2017; Hay
1996). In e es ingly, he ela ion o a coming ime is he key ac o ounding
child en’s p esence in escue o eme gency public policies: hey a e en isaged
as “ u u e ci izens”, equi ing p o ec ion he e and now, so ha la e adul hoods
a e no comp omised. They a e pe cei ed as he “inhe i o s”, in he long e m,
o he majo p oblems c ea ed by adul s oday (Mo ow 2009). Along op-
down hie a chical p og ammes and ini ia i es designed by adul s, child en
ei he appea as he objec o measu es aken o mi iga e he nega i e impac
o a c isis; o “ hey a e a ge ed as an audience o educa ion” (Johnson e al.
2014), o be ained in o de o lea n basic p e en ion and eme gency ules.
On he o he hand, child en can also be used as essels o accede adul s and
encou age beha iou al change (Schmid e Gue a 2013). They a e anyway
excluded om decision-making p ocesses whe e s a egies a e discussed and
planned. Ra he han pa ne s in c ime, child en a e sys ema ically depic ed
as ecipien s o aid, helpless ic ims o ex e nal ad e se condi ions, which
hey would passi ely go h ough unde he guidance o adul s (Gibbs e al.
2013).
When i comes o child en’s ci izenship, c ises open windows e ealing he
ac ha hey a e in he on line ega ding ha m and nega i e impac , which
can se e ely comp omise p o ision and p o ec ion igh s. Second, hey e y
clea ly un eil he p e alence o “child en a isk” and “un eadiness” pa adigms,
which igno e o beli le hei agency, compe ences and pa icipa o y igh s.
child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 119
owa ds child en’s ci izenship:
gi ing a oice, in ol ing hem in decision-making
We p esen and discuss in his chap e esul s o wo esea ch p ojec s ecen ly
ca ied ou a he ics, ega ding wo ypes o c i ical dis up ion: a social,
economic c isis (Po ugal, 2008-2012); and clima e change ela ed disas e s.
We b ing bo h oge he in o discussion as examples o dis inc me hodological
expe iences dealing wi h child en’s ci izenship. The i s illus a es he
impo ance o gi ing child en a oice, cap u ing hei na a i es abou
conc e e daily expe iences and in oducing hei pe spec i es (i espec i e o
hose o adul s) on social discou ses. “Bu oice is no enough” (Lundy 2007).
Depa ing om a pa icipa o y amewo k, he second was exp essly designed
o wo k in he ield wi h child en, in ol ing hem as pa ne s in collec i e
discussions and ac ions, in o de o p oduce ecommenda ions o decision-
make s on disas e isk educ ion policies.
Commissioned by unice Po ugal, “The Impac o he C isis on Po uguese
Child en” in ended o lis en o child en1 and epo p ac ices and pe cep ions
abou how hei e e yday li e expe iences had been a ec ed by he d op o
amily income and ising le els o unemploymen . Face o ace in e iews
we e ca ied ou a home wi h 77 child en, 39 boys/38 gi ls o wo age g oups
(8-12 and 14-17 yea s old) du ing Ma ch-May 2013 (Wall e al. 2015). The
quali a i e sample ensu ed di e si y o childhood condi ions: i in ol ed boys
and gi ls, li ing in u ban, subu ban and u al a eas o No h/Cen e/Sou h,
li ing in di e en amily o ms (bipa en al, econs i u ed and monopa en al
amilies) o highe , middle and wo king classes.
The la e , “cuida – Cul u es o Disas e Resilience among Child en
and Young People” (2015-2018) is a Eu opean p ojec aiming o enhance
he esilience o child en in u ban communi ies o disas e s, and o enable
disas e esponden s o mee hei needs mo e e ec i ely (Delicado e al.
2017). Albu ei a and Lou es we e he wo ci ies in ol ed in he consul a ion
p ocess. In each loca ion, we wo ked wi h wo di e en age g oups: 4 h g ade s
and 9 h g ade s. In Albu ei a, a Y4 class o 24 child en aged be ween 9 and 12
yea s old pa icipa ed in he wo kshops. I was gende balanced (13 gi ls,11
boys), and e y di e se: 16 pupils we e Po uguese, while he emaining had
o he na ionali ies (Uk aine, Molda ia, India and Equa o ). The olun ee
1 Following he c c, a child is he e conside ed an indi idual unde he age o 18.
120 ci izenship in c isis
g oup o 9 h g ade s was composed o 10 14 yea old s uden s (8 gi ls, 2 boys),
om qui e a homogenous backg ound. In Lou es, we wo ked wi h a 4 h g ade
class o 26 child en (11 gi ls and 15 boys), wi h mos child en coming om a
low o middle socioeconomic backg ound. The 9 h g ade g oup was composed
o 3 boys and 8 gi ls aged be ween 14 and 15 yea s old. Fi e had a o eign
backg ound - ei he amily o igin o expe ience o li ing ab oad (Sou h A ica,
Luxembu g, Cape Ve de, B azil and Bulga ia).
he igh o be hea d
“The Impac o he C isis on Po uguese Child en: oices o child en, public
policy and social indica o s”, ca ied ou a he ics in 2013, aimed o p o ide
a ho ough and upda ed pic u e o childhood in Po ugal in imes o c isis
(Wall e al. 2015).2 Two ypes o analysis we e unde aken. Based on a ailable
s a is ics and s udies, he e olu ion o ma e ial condi ions o child en and hei
amilies in Po uguese socie y was depic ed based on key indica o s o e he
ime pe iod 2005-2012. Public policies impac ing on hei li es and launched
o ace he economic c isis and aus e i y measu es we e also con empla ed.
Complemen a y o his ex ensi e app oach, a quali a i e one was de eloped,
in o de o cap u e he expe iences and he pe cep ions o dina y child en had
wi h he c isis, gi ing hem a oice. The aim was o unde s and – om hei
own pe spec i e – wha he c isis mean o hem and how i had a ec ed hei
e e yday li es.
Indica o s and s udies sha ed e idence: Po uguese child en had been
d ama ically a ec ed by he c isis. Po e y and inequali ies we e on he ise all
o e Eu ope (Ca i as Eu ope 2015), bu hei in ensi y and de as a ing e ec s
we e pa icula ly se ious in Sou he n coun ies like Po ugal. In households
su e ing om se e e ma e ial dep i a ion and po e y, unemploymen ,
unde employmen , unp eceden ed cu s in sala ies and in social bene i s, and
ax inc eases, child en we e disp opo iona ely a ec ed, jeopa dising o e en
comp omising hei undamen al p o ision and p o ec ion igh s (Sa men o
e al. 2014).
In 2013, 439 000 child en in Po ugal we e a isk o po e y a e social
ans e ences, and since 2008 hey we e he age g oup mos a ec ed by po e y
isk a e social ans e ences (22.4%) and by ma e ial dep i a ion (24.4%),
2 We would like o hank all ou P ojec colleagues o hei con ibu ion o ou wo k.
child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 127
eco e y measu es. The 4 h g ade class in Lou es was mo e homogenous and
wi h he eache s’ help c ea ed a ideo and a lye abou lood p e en ion using
child iendly language. The 9 h g ade youngs e s we e mo e au onomous in
choosing hei own messages. I one g oup chose also o ocus on dd measu es
and p oposed he c ea ion o ci il p o ec ion you h clubs; in ano he case, he
youngs e s wen a u he in hei app op ia ion o he opic, ela ing i o he
bad quali y o hei own school in as uc u e, which was no well equipped o
ace hea y ain o ha sh wea he condi ions.
The capaci a ion phase was ollowed by a dialogical one, wi h he c ea ion
o “mu ual lea ning e en s”. Simila o he “s uc u ed dialogues” amewo k
p omo ed by he Eu opean Union4, hese e en s consis ed o a pee lea ning
exchange whe e se e al s akeholde s o a gi en communi y (e. g. local mayo s
and council membe s, educa ion and ci il p o ec ion o ice s, school heads,
eache s and pa en s) me child en ha pa icipa ed in he wo kshops. The la e
p esen ed hei ideas and p oposals, go eedback, asked ques ions and deba ed
ecommenda ions o he easibili y o some p oposals. These e en s a e used
o os e child en’s nego ia ion and exp ession compe ences, and also equi e
s akeholde sensi isa ion o hea ing young people, h ough mu ual ques ioning
and exposu e o di e en iewpoin s and expec a ions. I some s akeholde s
we e used o in e ac wi h child en, o he s had o make an e o o emb ace
di e en communica ion codes. While mu ual lea ning e en s ul ima ely aimed
o ind solu ions, and b ing change o communi ies, i was no possible o all
p oposals o be ealised, due o limi a ions in esou ces and di e gen poli ical
p io i ies. As in many o he pa icipa o y p ocesses, change is inc emen al and
equi es mo e ime o be e ec i ely implemen ed. Ne e heless, in bo h mu ual
lea ning e en s, child en’s ideas we e g ee ed wi h en husiasm, and he ci il
p o ec ion clubs’ p oposal was welcomed. Elsewhe e, he 4 h g ade lye was
adop ed by all he schools o he municipali y. Rega ding he eques ed school
in as uc u e enewal, al hough hose in powe ecognised his need, hey also
highligh ed he dependence on na ional public unds.
The engagemen p ocess culmina ed wi h a na ional dissemina ion e en
whe e, once again, young people had he oppo uni y o in e ac wi h in i ed
s akeholde s, h ough ound ables on h ee opics: pa icipa o y isk educa ion;
child en and you h as ac i e pa icipan s in disas e isk managemen in he
communi ies; child en and you h as ac i e pa icipan s in school sa e y. The
4 Fo u he in o ma ion: h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/you h/policy/implemen a ion/dialogue_en.

128 ci izenship in c isis
g oups deba ed ba ie s and p o ec i e ac o s in all 3 a eas, and sugges ed
solu ions. Lack o ime was iden i ied by all g oups as a majo ac o impeding
no only he pa icipa ion o young people in he olun ee dd ac i i ies in
hei communi y, bu also he implemen a ion o mo e pa icipa o y pedagogies
in isk educa ion. In ac , he o e whelming school schedules poin ed ou by
youngs e s once again e lec ed he need o ame and su eille child en, ha
a e hen dep i ed o he au onomy o eely de e mine how o use hei own
ime. On he o he hand, he need o g ea e in o ma ion abou dd achie ed
h ough con ac wi h o he s wi h expe ience on he subjec was also sugges ed,
wi h he youngs e s ecognising ha he p ojec p o ided hem wi h a c i ical
knowledge on he opic ha hey would no o he wise gain.
Hence, his engagemen p ocess aised awa eness in child en and young
people on he opic o disas e s, wi h concep ual maps showing an inc ease o
ocabula y and wi h child en hemsel es ecognising ha “We lea ned ha
loods a en’ un” (Ped o, 4 h g ade) o ha “I lea ned ha we shouldn’ hink
abou na u al disas e s only when hey occu ” (Vanda, 9 h g ade).
Howe e , he main goal o his p ocess was no educa ional bu pa icipa o y,
ha is, o c ea e an oppo uni y o he pa icipa ion o child en in a ma e
ha conce ned hei p esen and u u e, and om which hey end o be
excluded: clima e change ela ed disas e s, an issue ha se s i sel up as a ma e
o in e gene a ional jus ice5. By hinking and deba ing he eali y hey li ed
in, and by concei ing ac ions o p oposals ha imp o e bo h hei wellbeing
o ha o hei communi ies, hey ha e in e nalised a ci ic conscience and
ga he ed skills ha will allow hem o mo i a e hei pee s o pa icipa e in
simila p ojec s, hus becoming empowe ed agen s o hei communi ies. In
ac , along wi h he sha ing o hei ideas wi h o he s, child en s essed he
impo ance o g oup wo k as an oppo uni y o ge ela ional skills:
In he beginning, I only wan ed o skip classes, and disas e s was a bo ing Geog aphy opic
o me, bu hen I go in e es ed because I el like I was helping people. (Ma ia, 9 h g ade)
I el ha he wo kshops we e e y good no only because we could exp ess ou opinions
bu also because hey augh us how o ela e o each o he . (Magda, 9 h g ade)
5 See o ins ance he child en o Ped ógão G ande aiming o sue 47 Eu opean S a es: h ps://w
ww. hegua dian.com/wo ld/2017/sep/25/po uguese-child en-c owd und-eu opean-clima e-change-
case-sue-47-coun ies.
child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 129
This con i ms ha besides being hea d, e ec i e pa icipa ion also equi es
co-p oduc ion o knowledge, sha ed decision making and idea exchange (Day
e al. 2015; Lundy 2007). I is hen in hei in e ac ion wi h hei pee s ha
child en a e exposed o o he poin s o iew and expe iences, hus gaining he
c i ical hinking skills and commi men alues necessa y o make in o med
collec i e decisions and pe o m meaning ul ci izenship ac s.
I is wo h ecalling he e ha he chie a gumen o no allowing child en
o pa icipa e in o mal poli ical p ocesses and ull ci izenship is hei lack
o compe ence. In an in e es ing discussion on “ he heal h o a democ acy”
(Wagne e al. 2012), he lowe ing o he o ing age and he p os and cons o
youngs e s’ elec o al pa icipa ion, poli ical science has challenged he aken
o g an ed assump ions on hei “un eadiness”. Resea ch has b ough ele an
clues o he deba e on whe he o no young people (a 16 o 17 yea s old)
ha e he ma u i y, he in e es o he knowledge o o e, and i he quali y o
hei choices is simila o olde i s ime o e s. Now, he e is li le empi ical
e idence ha hey a e less able o less mo i a ed o pa icipa e in elec ions;
hei u n ou is e en highe han he olde ones’ (18-25 y). This is pe haps
because hey o e in a mo e shel e ed en i onmen – s ill li ing a home and
a ending school (Zeglo i s 2013, 253). Mo eo e , hei iews a e based on
“ easoned a gumen s” (Wagne e al. 2012, 373). A e all, an ea lie expe ience
lea es “a oo p in on one’s o ing biog aphy” (Zeglo i s 2013, 252), which can
encou age u u e poli ical p o-ac i i y.
Fo i s pa , cuida demons a ed ha al hough child en equi ed
assis ance in de eloping hei ideas, hey a e ully capable o e lec ing upon
hei expe iences, coope a ing in sol ing p oblems and p oposing solu ions
ha can be adop ed and deba ed by hose in powe . On he o he hand,
while i p o ided an oppo uni y o hese child en o ehea se hei u he
pa icipa ion, i s de elopmen aced se e al challenges, namely he esis ance
o some adul s in ega ding hese opics as no being jus a child en’s a ai , o
he amoun o ime and willingness hese engagemen p ocesses equi e in
o de o be e ec i e and engaging o child en. The e is some eluc ance om
bo h sides ha can be o e come wi h mo e dialogical momen s. Rega ding
he cuida na ional e en , one youngs e s a ed: “Du ing he mee ing, I
became awa e ha he e a e adul s who s ill ca e abou wha eenage s say.”
S akeholde s hemsel es ecognised ha he cuida ’s wo k made hem ealise
“ he u gency o ensu ing he empowe men o child en and young people in
in o ma ion and awa eness- aising p og ammes”. Thus, mo e wo k needs
130 ci izenship in c isis
o be done in sensi ising bo h s akeholde s and child en o hei igh s and
du ies, and o he ac i e ole hey can play in hese p ocesses, in o de o os e
hei g owing inclusion in policy p ocesses adjus ed o hei needs in Po ugal.
discussion and closu e
To challenge dominan concep ions o ci izenship, b inging child en in o he
discussion e eals i s educ i e scope in con empo a y socie ies. Pe ained o
an indi idual s a us held by adul s in he public sphe e, i keeps child en a a
dis ance. Howe e , om his o mal pe spec i e, gene a ional clea ages do no
lead o sha p dicho omies: in isk o e lexi e socie ies, adul s seem o sha e
a ibu es o “un eadiness”, “imma u i y” and “ ulne abili y” wi h child en.
Bo h a e simul aneously “beings in he p esen ” and ci izens “in he making”,
and his double ime a ilia ion uns h oughou hei li e cou se. Now, i is
consensually accep ed ha bo h a e due p o ision and p o ec ion igh s. Bu
he same canno be said abou pa icipa o y igh s: despi e he manda o y
unc c o simila in e na ional di ec i es, child en a e s ill e y a ely engaged
in decision making p ocesses, e en o domains ha pa icula ly a ec hem.
On he o he hand, c ises a e e ela o y momen s. Unde hei a ages,
socie ies can be exhibi ed on hei e e se side, namely as ega ds social
inequali ies o ulne able ies. The example o child en – po ayed as innocen
o helpless ic ims in media “ agedy” co e ages, objec i ely he mo e a ec ed
by he ha m and nega i e impac o c i ical e en s o p ocesses – is ele an .
The p edominance o a child en a isk discou se in c i ical scena ios igno es
o was es hei agency and compe ence o wo k oge he wi h adul s in
p epa ing, esponding and eco e ing om hei nega i e impac .
Fi s , c ises e y o en wo sen hei li ing condi ions ( o a longe o
sho e pe iod o ime) and comp omise hei p o ec ion and p o ision igh s.
The esea ch p ojec on he Po uguese economic c isis unco e ed ala ming
indica o s conce ning po e y and dep i a ion a es and he ways eal
anonymous child en pe cei ed i . The wo d “c isis” had a meaning o hem
and hey we e able o apply i o eal si ua ions o hei daily li es ( amily budge ,
ood, clo hing o schooling). F om hei pe spec i e, child en’s igh s we e a
beyond he access o ma e ial goods o social se ices: hey e y i mly ex ended
hem o a ela ional well-being (in he amily) and o hei u u e expec a ions
(in educa ion, o example). In e es ingly, he c isis was no an explici heme
child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 131
o con e sa ion wi h hei signi ican adul s, ei he pa en s o eache s.
Dispe sed in o ma ion was caugh in o mally he e and he e, h ough media
co e age, social ne wo ks o lis ening o adul con e sa ions. The igh
o ecei e and impa in o ma ion (a 13, unc c), pa allel o he igh o
eedom o exp ession, was no gua an eed, lea ing child en on hei own in a
no man’s land whe e insecu i y o ea s canno be exp essed o so ened.
On he o he hand, he cuida p ojec illus a ed me hodological
app oaches o pu pa icipa o y expe iences wi h child en in o p ac ice. Based
on hei daily expe iences and om an in e ac ion wi h local s akeholde s,
child en we e able o en isage an ac i e ole in hei communi ies in
disas e isk managemen . Also, hey we e able o s ep up o a mac o le el
and ackle global clima e change issues. cuida d ew a en ion o he o en
igno ed en i onmen al dimension o ci izenship. The igh o li e sa ely in,
and p ese e, he blue plane (ou common home) implies he knowledge o
h ea s a ec ing i , a consciousness o human p eda o y beha iou and i s
consequences, and in o ma ion on good p ac ices o p o ec i . This was also
an inno a i e con ibu ion om cuida .
As men ioned abo e, o be hea d, as in he i s p ojec , is no enough:
ci izenship is ul ima ely buil upon child en’s engagemen in daily decision
making p ocesses, pa icipa o y ac s o eal expe iences. Based on pe cei ed
c i ical scena ios on clima e change ela ed disas e s, cuida in ol ed child en
in ga he ing in o ma ion, enabling hem o iden i y and choose p io i y opics
o be collec i ely deal wi h. I also engaged hem in knowledge co-p oduc ion
and dissemina ion among pee s and adul s, encou aging hem o ad oca e
ecommenda ions o policymake s in ace o ace wo kshops. In con as o
consul a i e p ocesses, whe e adul s ob ain in o ma ion om child en and use
i o p o ec hem du ing c i ical e en s, in op-down ini ia i es ein o cing
ep esen a ions o child en as passi e aid ecipien s and hei domina ed
posi ion in he gene a ional o de , he e child en we e ecognised as ac i e
ci izens capable o being in ol ed in he de elopmen o policies o sel -
ad ocacy p e en ion, p epa edness and esponse p ojec s.
In con as o o mal lea ning- eaching hie a chical p ocedu es p e alen
in Po uguese schools, hese hands on child-cen ed ac i i ies (using isual
me hodologies), inspi ed by a pa icipa o y agenda, we e no only easible
bu also success ul and e y posi i ely e alua ed by pa icipan child en. They
gi e powe ul a gumen s o hose who claim child en should be conside ed
ci izens in hei own igh , which ob iously implies a ca e ul conside a ion
132 ci izenship in c isis
o hei in e nal di e si y, hei eal inse ion in pa icula social con ex s o
in e ac ional se ings.
In o he espec s, a pa icipa o y agenda o child en o e s an oppo uni y
o seize and enhance hei p o ision and p o ec ion igh s. To cap u e
child en’s oices on hese opics, i espec i e o adul ones, while c ea ing
he p ope se ings o hem o be hea d, can highligh dimensions o clues
ha a e signi ican ( om child en’s pe spec i e) and pe mi he choice o an
unde s andable and appealing language o enuncia e hem.
In e es ingly, opening up he pa icipa o y issue, ia child en’s exclusion
om a ull ci izen s a us, is also a way o denounce qui e simila si ua ions
conce ning adul s. I can legi ima ely be claimed ha exp essi e social
inges o adul s (pa icula ly he economically dep i ed and hose wi h li le
educa ion) a e no hea d o included in decision making p ocesses a ec ing
hem. Bu on a la ge scale, con empo a y ep esen a i e democ acies ha e
been challenged by ci izens’ social mo emen s conce ned abou he dis ance
be ween he people’s oices, hei exp ession o in luence and he elec ed
poli ical ule s.
____________________________________
ana nunes de almeida
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal
ana.n[email p o ec ed]a.p
o cid.o g/0000-0003-3174-3870
____________________________________
ana so ia ibei o
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0001-6648-611x
____________________________________
jussa a owland
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
jussa[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0003-2639-3714
____________________________________

child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a pa icipa o y agenda 133
e e ences
almeida, A. N. 2009. Pa a Uma Sociologia da In ância. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais.
baez ullbe g, S. 2017. “La con ibución de la an opología al es udio de c isis y desas es
en Amé ica La ina”. Ibe oame icana – No dic Jou nal o La in Ame ican and Ca ibbean
S udies, 46 (1): 1-5.
bauman, Z. 2000. Liquid Mode ni y. Camb idge: Poli y P ess.
beazley, H., e al. 2009. “The igh o be p ope ly esea ched: esea ch wi h child en in a
messy, eal wo ld”. Child en’s Geog aphies, 7 (4): 365-378.
beck, U. 1992. Risk Socie y: Towa ds a New Mode ni y. London: Sage.
ca i as eu ope. 2015. Po e y Inequali ies on he Rise. I eland: Ca i as Eu ope.
cockbu n, T. 2012. Re hinking Child en’s Ci izenship: Theo y, Righ s and In e dependence.
Basings oke: Palg a e.
cpcj. 2014. Rela ó io Anual de A aliação da A i idade das cpcj. Lisbon: Comissão Nacional
de P o eção das C ianças e Jo ens em Risco.
day, L., e al. 2015. E alua ion o Legisla ion, Policy and P ac ice on Child Pa icipa ion in he
Eu opean Union (eu). Luxembou g: Publica ions O ice o he Eu opean Union.
delicado, A., e al. 2017. “Child en in disas e isk educ ion in Po ugal: policies, educa ion,
and (non) pa icipa ion”. In e na ional Jou nal o Disas e Risk Science, 8 (3): 246-257.
u edi, F. 2007. “The changing meaning o disas e ”. A ea, 39 (4): 482-489.
gibbs, L., e al. 2013. “Resea ch wi h, by, o and abou child en: lessons om disas e
con ex s”. Global S udies o Childhood, 3 (2): 129-141.
ha den, J., e al. 2000. “Can’ alk, won’ walk? Me hodological issues in esea ching child en”.
Sociological Resea ch online, 5 (2): 1-12.
hay, C. 1996. “Na a ing c isis: he discu si e cons uc ion o he ‘win e o discon en ’ ”.
Sociology, 30 (2): 253-277.
jenks, Ch. 1992. “In oduc ion: cons i u ing he child”. In Sociology o Childhood: Essen ial
Readings, o g. C. Jenks. London: G egg Re i als, 9-27.
johnson, V. A., e al. 2014. “E alua ions o disas e educa ion p og ams o child en: a
me hodological e iew”. In e na ional Jou nal o Disas e Risk Reduc ion, 9: 107-123.
kleis , N., S. Jansen. 2016. “In oduc ion: hope o e ime—c isis, immobili y and u u e-
making”. His o y and An h opology, 27 (4): 373-392.
la kins, C. 2014. “Enac ing child en’s ci izenship: de eloping unde s andings o how
child en enac hemsel es as ci izens h ough ac ions and Ac s o ci izenship”. Childhood,
21 (1): 7-21.
lewis, J. 2010. C isis in he Global Mediasphe e: Desi e, Displeasu e and Cul u al T ans o ma ion.
Basings oke: Palg a e.
lundy, L. 2007. “ ‘Voice’ is no enough: concep ualising A icle 12 o he Uni ed Na ions
Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child”. B i ish Educa ional Resea ch Jou nal, 33 (6): 927-
-942.
ma shall, T. H. 1950. Ci izenship and Social Class and O he Essays. New Yo k: Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess.
mo ow, V. 2009. “The global inancial c isis and child en’s happiness: a ime o e-
isioning?”. Childhood, 16 (3): 293-298.
nolas, S. M. 2015. “Child en’s pa icipa ion, childhood publics and social change:
a e iew”. Child en and Socie y, 29 (2): 157-167.
134 ci izenship in c isis
peek, L. 2008. “Child en and disas e s: unde s anding ulne abili y, de eloping capaci ies,
and p omo ing esilience-an in oduc ion”. Child en You h and En i onmen s, 18 (1): 1-29.
p ou , A. 2005. The Fu u e o Childhood. London/ny: Rou ledge/Falme .
q o up, J. 2001. “School wo k, paid wo k and he changing obliga ions o childhood”.
In Hidden Hands. In e na ional Pe spec i es on Child en Wo k and Labou , o gs. P. Mizen
e al. London: Rou ledge, 91-107.
ashid, M., K. R. Ronan, and B. Towe s. 2016. “Child en as change agen s in educing isks
o disas e s.” In Educa ion in Times o En i onmen al C ises: Teaching Child en o be Agen s
o Change, ed. K. Winog ad. New Yo k: Rou ledge, 233-247.
sa men o, M. J., e al. 2014. “The economic c isis in Po ugal and child en’s igh s o non-
disc imina ion”. Teache Educa ion, 22 (1): 38-55.
schmid , L., J. Gue a. 2013. “Do ambien e ao desen ol imen o sus en á el: con ex os e
p o agonis as da educação ambien al em Po ugal”. Re is a Lusó ona de Educação, 25:
193-211.
si o a, R. 1998. “L’ eme gence d’une sociologie de l’en ance: e olu ion de l’obje , e olu ion du
ega d”. Éduca ion e Socié és, 2: 9-33.
soa es, N. 1998. Ou as In âncias. Scien i ic and Pedagogical Ap i ude Examina ion. B aga:
iec.
solway, J. S. 1994. “D ough as a e ela o y c isis: an explo a ion o shi ing en i lemen s and
hie a chies in he Kalaha i, Bo swana”. De elopmen and Change, 25 (3): 471-495.
anne , T. 2010. “Shi ing he na a i e: child-led esponses o clima e change and disas e s
in El Sal ado and he Philippines”. Child en & Socie y, 24 (4): 339-351.
e isan, G. 2014. Somos as Pessoas que Temos de Escolhe , Não São as Ou as Pessoas
que Escolhem Po Nós. In In ância e Cená ios de Pa icipação Pública: Uma Análise
Sociológica dos Modos de Codecisão das C ianças na Escola e na Cidade. PhD hesis. B aga:
Uni e sidade do Minho.
un (Uni ed Na ions). 1989. un Con en ion on he Righ s o he Child. A ailable a : h p://www.
ohch .o g/Documen s/P o essionalIn e es /c c.pd . Accessed 2 Feb. 2018.
unisd (Uni ed Na ions In e na ional S a egy o Disas e Reduc ion). 2015. Sendai
amewo k o disas e isk educ ion 2015–2030. A ailable a : h p://www.unisd .o g/
iles/43291_sendai amewo k o d en.pd . Accessed 9 No . 2017.
aughn, S. E. 2012. “Recons uc ing he ci izen: disas e , ci izenship, and expe ise in acial
Guyana”. C i ique o An h opology, 32 (4): 359-387.
wagne , M., D. Johann, and S. K i zinge . 2012. “Vo ing a 16: u nou and he quali y o o e
choice”. Elec o al S udies, 31: 372-383.
wall, K., e al. 2015. Impac os da C ise nas C ianças Po uguesas: Indicado es, Polí icas,
Rep esen ações. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais.
zeglo i s, E. 2013. “Vo ing a 16? You h su age is up o deba e”. Eu opean View, 12: 249-
-254.
ci e his chap e as:
almeida, A. N. de, A. S. Ribei o, and J. Rowland. 2018. “Child en, ci izenship and c isis: owa ds a
pa icipa o y agenda”. In Changing Socie ies: Legacies and Challenges. Vol. ii. Ci izenship in C isis, eds. M.
C. Lobo, F. C. da Sil a and J. P. Zúque e. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 113-134.
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047.05
You h
and gene a ions
in imes o c isis:
Po ugal in he
global si ua ion
Vi o Sé gio Fe ei a
6.
136 ci izenship in c isis
in oduc ion
The discou se on gene a ions is, p esen ly, p oli ic and widesp ead in he
public and poli ical sphe es. The e is a sequence o le e s o iden i y age
coho s bo n in dis inc decades (gene a ion “x”, “y” o “z”), as well as mul iple
ca ego ies o desc ibe oday’s young people as a gene a ion dis inc om he
p e ious ones. The label Millennials – a ch onological quali ica ion ini ia ed by
Howe and S auss (2000) o name he young people bo n a e 1980 – became
he mos popula gene a ional ca ego y in he media, unde lining supposed
speci ici ies o he age coho s ha li e he ansi ion o adul hood in he u n
o he millennium o la e .
Beyond he Millennials label, o he gene a ional ca ego ies we e la e used
o dis inguish he cu en young people, mainly based on hei p ac ices
and expe iences in he sphe es o wo k, mobili y, and digi al li e: “ge ação
mileu is a” (F ei e 2006; Gen ile 2014),1 “p eca ious gene a ion” (Bessan ,
Fa hing and Wa s 2017), o “los gene a ion” (Allen and Ainley 2010;
P i cha d and Whi ing 2014); “global gene a ion” (Edmunds and Tu ne
2005; Beck and Beck-Ge nsheim 2009), “Eu ope gene a ion” (Lopes 2014)
o “E asmus gene a ion” (Wilson 2011; Ie aci ano 2014); “digi al gene a ion”
(Feixa 2014; Pon e 2011), “ne gene a ion” o “digi al na i es” (Tapsco 1998;
Ha gi ai 2010; Jones and Shao 2011). Among many o he s, hese a e some
o he labels ecu en ly assigned o con empo a y you h in he sense o
emphasizing di e ences, con lic s, o lows be ween hei ways o li e and
hei pa en s’ and g andpa en s’ – who also ecei ed hei own gene a ional
epi he s: “baby boome gene a ion” (Robe s 2012) o “G ea Wa gene a ion”
(Pais 1998a).
The p oli e a ion o gene a ional ca ego ies has no been ollowed, howe e ,
by empi ical esea ch wide enough and wi h a deep analy ical engagemen in
he social sciences scope. The claims conce ning he exis ence o gene a ions
and gene a ional changes a e su ounded by oo much specula ion, a e
oo simplis ic, and ha e a uni e salis ic exagge a ion, some imes e en
con adic ion. These gene aliza ions a e usually based on ma ke s udies
p omo ed by la ge companies guided owa d ma ke ing and o business
1 The e e ence o his designa ion is he imagined a e age wage o he con empo a y you h. In
Po ugal, i has acqui ed equi alen discu si e o mula ions ha , howe e , disclose he p esump ion o
lowe wages in ela ion o o he Eu opean coun ies, a ound 500-600 eu os.
you h and gene a ions in imes o c isis 143
o he s) han he olde wo ke s, bu wi h much mo e un a ou able emune a ion,
con ac ual o ms, and social p o ec ion. In a socie y whe e e ili y has
dec eased, and he a e age li e span has inc eased, he gene a ional inequali ies
become e iden in e ms o he dis ibu ion o inc easingly sca ce public
esou ces, conside ing ha “ he new [gene a ions] will see he olde gene a ions
o ake possession o he ealized p oduc i i y gains, being inc easingly ha de
o jus i y e hically he ans e ences be ween hem” (Mendes 2005, 250).
In his con ex , I claim he possibili y o he cu en gene a ionalis discou ses
being analysed o be a symp om o a gene a ional change unde way and, o his
ex en , a es ige o a gene a ion as social eali y in cons uc ion. And i is no
only o ewa ning i , bu also con ibu ing o i s social and symbolic p oduc ion.
In ac , as Robe s claims (2012, 479), he condi ions ha made possible he
ep oduc ion o he expe iences and he s anda ds o li ing o he baby boome
gene a ion ha e disappea ed, o e elling he likely eme gence, al hough s ill
unde ined, o wha will o m a new gene a ion among young people bo n a e
he 1980s, who know and li e in a wo ld ha is dis inc om he one o he
pas and p ojec ed o he u u e. I is a hypo hesis wi h a global na u e o be
seen and ollowed in a con ex ualized and in e sec ed way, conside ing he
a ie y (in space) and a iabili y (in ime) o na ional public policies, as well
as a iables o schooling, class and amily social capi al and social backg ound,
gende , e hnic- acial and ci izenship s a u e, among o he a iables.
c isis as gene a ional ma ke
As some academic s udies al eady show, in se e al coun ies6 he gene a ion
bo n a e 1980 aces lowe wage s anda ds when compa ed o he p eceding
gene a ions, and wi h p eca ious labou condi ions ha go beyond he momen
o en ance in he labou ma ke , inc easingly ma king he ac i e li e cou se
o his gene a ion. In Po ugal, hese condi ions we e pa icula ly in ensi ied
when, in he a e ma h o he subp ime c isis in 2008, announced wo ldwide,
Po ugal asked o an in e na ional bailou in 2011 o ace i s public deb and, as a
consequence, a se o poli ical aus e i y measu es we e imposed by he so-called
6 See Bessan , Fa hing and Wa s (2017) o he cases o he usa, England, Aus alia, F ance, and
Spain. See Cô é (2014) o he Canadian case, and o he examples. Fo he case o Po ugal, see Fe ei a
e al. (2017), Bago d’U a and Fe nandes (2017).

144 ci izenship in c isis
T oika, o med by h ee in e na ional ins i u ions: he Eu opean Commission,
he Eu opean Cen al Bank, and he In e na ional Mone a y Fund.
The pe iod be ween 2011 and 2015 o ms an his o ical backd op ha had
speci ic e ec s on he li e o Po uguese young people (and hose less young,
as well). E en hough ecen ly he e a e signs o economic imp o emen in
Po ugal, he sys emic econ igu a ions added by he aus e i y measu es we e
so in ense and deep ha hei e ec s can ha dly be ci cumsc ibed o he pe iod
when hey happened, and we e la e e e ed in sho o middle e m. They
we e, indeed, e ec s ha ended up going well beyond he economic sphe e,
opening he possibili y o ha ing es ablished o a long- e m “a social egimen
o p eca ious exis ence”, wi h “deep and ha dly e e sible consequences, a leas
in middle e m, in he economy, in he labo wo ld, bu also in he social and
class s uc u es” (Ca mo and Ba a a 2017, 322-323). This social egimen, in
he long e m, can be ansla ed in a di e si y o p eca ious ways o li e among
young people ha a y depending on he condi ions o social inequali y ha
a e inhe en o he plu ali y o you h condi ions.
Conside ing he changes p oduced in he social and economic s uc u e
o he Po uguese socie y (and o he socie ies o sou he n Eu ope, like
G eece, Spain, I aly, and Mal a), I lea e open he hypo hesis ha he aus e i y
measu es implemen ed du ing his pe iod wo k as a gene a ional ma ke :
no in he sense o o ming an e en accoun able o ab up up u es, bu o
es ablishing a u ning poin ma ked by he in ensi ica ion and accele a ion
o economic and social p ocesses ha we e al eady happening and ha a e
gene a o o a con ex s uc u ally di e en ia ed om he pas . Tha is, e ec s
ha do no co espond o his o ical discon inui ies di ec ly induced by he
economic ecession, bu ha esul om ends ha we e al eady signaling
and o ecas ing he ail y o he hope o he Ap il Gene a ion – he gene a ion
ha , in Po ugal, co esponds o a pale and la e e lex o he aspi a ions o he
baby boom gene a ion in Eu ope7 – in consolida ing a s ong Social S a e, wi h
social jus ice and economic g ow h.
7 As Bauman p oposes (2007), he bo de s ha sepa a e he gene a ions a e ambiguous and inde ini e
depending on hei localiza ion in ime and space ( e i o ial, social, and cul u al). In his sense, in
Po ugal, we did no ha e a baby boom gene a ion p ope ly as i is desc ibed in he li e a u e, much less
in he his o ical ime when i eme ged in he Anglo-Saxon con ex . Po ugal li ed unde a dic a o ship
du ing Wo ld Wa ii and li ed like his o ano he 30 yea s he ea e . I also deal , du ing his ime,
wi h i s own wa s, in he sense o ying o keep he occupied e i o ies in A ica. They we e di icul
condi ions ha a e no consis en wi h he ideals o p ospe i y and well-being o he Anglo-Saxon baby
boome gene a ion.
you h and gene a ions in imes o c isis 145
In ac , he se o condi ions inaugu a ed on Ap il 25, 1974 – he day ha
symbolically ma ks he all o he dic a o ship in Po ugal and he es ablishmen
o a democ a ic sys em – encou aged he belie in he possibili ies o ac ual
secu i y, peace, and upwa d social mobili y among hose who, since an
ea ly age, we e b ough up in his se ing. The ins alla ion o he democ a ic
sys em in he 1970s and he end o he wa o he de ence o he occupied
e i o ies in A ica by he Po uguese, was ollowed h oughou he 1980s
by he s abiliza ion o a model o cons i u ional S a e and wel a e S a e, a
union o economic g ow h and p og essi e ou sou cing o he economy, he
adhesion o Po ugal o he Eu opean Economic Communi y (in 1986), he
expansion and democ a iza ion o he social media, he subs an ial inc ease
o he schooling a es, especially in highe educa ion, and he dec ease o he
unemploymen a es (Figuei edo, Lo ga da Sil a and Fe ei a 1999).
A eeling o hope in he u u e was nu u ed among young people socialized
unde his se o s uc u al condi ions, hose who shaped he Ap il Gene a ion,
bo n in he 1960s and 1970s. I was no , howe e , a su icien ly solid and du able
amewo k o gua an ee he con inui y o his eeling o hope o he coming
age coho s. F om he 1990s, he le els o (you h) unemploymen climbed
again (Fe ei a 2006), becoming a phenomenon ha Na ália Al es came o
iden i y as “uncon ollable, massi e and selec i e. Uncon ollable, because i
did no s op inc easing in he las he 20 yea s, excep o he second hal o
he 1980s. Massi e because i eached a high numbe o employees. Selec i e
because i is no uni o mly dis ibu ed h ough all he ca ego ies o wo ke s,
a ec ing mainly he mo e ulne able social g oups (you h, women and, in
some coun ies, emig an s) o speci ic sec o s o ac i i y” (Al es 1993, 651).
As explana o y ac o s o he di icul ies added o young people in hei
ansi ion o he labou ma ke in he 1990s, he e al eady we e “ he educ ion
o he olume o employmen , pa icula ly in sec o s o ac i i ies adi ionally
esponsi e o he young labo o ce, and he p eca iousness o he wage
ela ion” (Al es 1998, 110).
When con as ing some common indica o s in he Na ional You h Su eys
conduc ed in 1997 and 1987, i is obse ed ha young people in he 1990s
exp essed highe aspi a ions ela ed o he academic quali ica ions hey
wan ed o achie e, when con as ed o he you h in he 1980s (Pais 1998b, 189).
The e o e, he expansion o he school aspi a ions among young people and
hei in es men in he p olonga ion o hei school ajec o ies was s ill el ,
belie ing in he alue o he diploma as an an ido e agains he di icul ies o
146 ci izenship in c isis
labou ma ke inse ion and in i s i uous powe o joining he ype and he
le el o ins uc ion, he p o ession, he emune a ion, and he social s a us
(Al es 1998, 89). On he o he hand, in he 1990s young people we e al eady
disclosing a g ea e conscience o he di icul ies o he labou ma ke and he
h ea s o unemploymen .
Socialized in condi ions shaped by he expansion o educa ion since he
manda o y schooling un il highe educa ion, many mo e young people han
in he pas had possibili ies o nu u ing h oughou hei school yea s high
aspi a ions and expec a ions conce ning he alue o employabili y o he
diplomas hey we e ea ning – ha is, he alue assigned o diplomas in he
access o a wo k posi ion equi alen o he quali ica ions ce i ied by i , he
s eadies o ms o employmen and, ul ima ely, e en in he access o wo k
posi ion ou cou .
Bu he ema kable schooling p og ession o Po uguese young people in
hose yea s, and he esul ing expansion o he aspi a ions and expec a ions
among hem o a be e quali y o li e in he u u e, in e ms o labou
s abili y and secu i y, was being ollowed by added di icul ies in inding jobs,
namely in posi ions co esponding o he quali ica ion ob ained in e ms o
emune a ion, s a us, and social p o ec ion (Figuei edo, Lo ga da Sil a and
Fe ei a 1999; Fe ei a 2006). In he ace o his si ua ion José Machado Pais had
al eady posed he ollowing ques ion a he end o he 1990s: “is he educa ion
sys em ins illing among young people excessi e, o a leas disp opo ional,
expec a ions ela ed o he p osaic eali y o he labo wo ld? And when hese
expec a ions a e be ayed in young people wi h s ong expec a ions o social
mobili y, won’ i be c ea ed condi ions o he eme gence, in he u u e, o
speci ic o ms o social disenchan men ?” (Pais 1998b, 190).
Abou 20 yea s la e he hypo hesis pu o wa d by José Machado Pais was
con i med. The social eac ions igge ed by he aus e i y measu es imposed
by he T oika in 2011 – e iden in social mo emen s ha , o ganized in a
global, hizoma ic, and i ual way, acqui ed exp ession in Po ugal du ing
he yea s o he c isis (Pais 2014), as he Mo imen o 12 de ma ço [12 o Ma ch
Mo emen ],8 he P ecá ios In lexí eis [In lexible P eca ious], he Indignados
[Appaled], o o he equi alen s9 – handle his eeling o disenchan men
8 Resul ing om he o ganiza ion o he demons a ion ha happened on his da e in 2011.
9 These mo emen s, among o he s, indica e new ways o looking a and making poli ics among he
you h o ou days, as exp essions o esis ance o he new s uc u al condi ions ha hey expe ience,
you h and gene a ions in imes o c isis 147
and social dissa is ac ion. Al hough gene alized, i is a eeling sha ed, o a
g ea ex en , by young people and adul s aised in a ho izon o expec a ions
ma ked by he g ow h o he Social S a e and by he belie in he alue o
employabili y o he school diplomas, bu ha is con on ed wi h a pic u e
o di icul ies added in he access o he labou ma ke and ha , no being
o ally new, has in ensi ied g ea ly h oughou he deep economic c isis in
Eu ope a e 2008.
The highe educa ion diploma no longe gua an ees access o and p og ession
in a ce ain ca ee , no e en a job co esponding o he quali ica ion achie ed
(Ca doso e al., 2014). A disenchan ed eali y o which, in u n, young people
and hei amilies a e inc easingly mo e awa e, as is shown in he ch onicle by
And eia Fonseca, a young holde o a Mas e s in Psychology, published in he
Público newspape in June 2015:10
I’m pa o a cu ious gene a ion. A 25 yea s o age, I g ew up wi h he nonsense ha a
deg ee was a gua an ee o success. Bu his gene a ion was decei ed. The sheepskin is no a
gua an ee o any hing. A he mos , i is a long- e m in es men ha , pe haps, one day will
gene a e p o i . Deluded, his gene a ion wen o he uni e si y a 18 wi h all hei luggage,
in a he oic sea ch o a p omising u u e. Bu , in my case and in so many o he s (I da e o
say housands o people), i back i ed.
The cou se was inished wi h e o , in es men (a e e y le el) and an a e age o 18 alo es
– wi h he igh o ea s o p ide in he p esen a ion o he mas e ’s hesis. And a e he
happiness peak, he eali y came… Back home, wi h he same luggage, loaded wi h he oic
d eams when one le , bu ha came back wi h ea , doub s and an icipa ed di icul ies.
The luggage was igh ! Days passed by, c s we e p in ed, deli e ed and, wi h much
ce ain y, igno ed a a e iginous speed. “Change he c ”, “hide you mas e ’s”, “you ha e
o accep ha his is di icul and will ha e o accep any hing”, said he wise oices a ound
me, and ha a each wo d “bu n ” my d eams, ans o ming hem in o me e ashes.
(…)
as well as ying o con igu e al e na i es o he social sys em ha is d awn (Ca en, Ghoshal, and
Ribas 2011; Williamson 2014; Milkman 2017). They a e highligh ed, o e all, o being mo emen s o
collec i e ac ion o he global scale, o med in globalized condi ions o connec ion, p o ided ei he by
he in eg a ion o new echnologies o in o ma ion and communica ion in daily li e, o by he ela i e
widening o he oppo uni ies o geog aphic in e na ional mobili y.
10 And eia Fonseca, “Sou des a ge ação que nem se pe mi e sonha ” [I am om his gene a ion
ha doesn’ e en allow i sel o d eam], C ónica P3, Público, June 12, 2015. See h p://p3.publico.p /
ac ualidade/sociedade/17113/sou-des a-ge acao-que-nem-se-pe mi e-sonha .
148 ci izenship in c isis
All his enzy, ha is my li e o an unemployed g adua e, ends a he dinne able. Tha
momen when I si , I see he ai o a igue in my pa en s’ aces ( ha ai o hose who
need o coun cen s o su i e) and I eel ha I s ill depend on hem o ea a me e loa
o b ead.
And in he un olding o his “simple” hough , I eel ha I do no e en da e o hink abou
ha ing my own house, my own ca (o ano he ehicle wi h wheels) o buying my own
ood. And i is his gene a ion, ha now is also nicknamed “young adul s”, ha one day
will be he co e o ou ac i e popula ion. A gene a ion ha does no allow i sel o d eam,
because d eams cos a lo … They cos he p ice o he disillusionmen , ou s and o hose
who lo e us. And since he “d eam commands he li e”, I do no e en da e o say ha I li e:
I su i e, o he cos o my pa en s’ sac i ices, hose ha some ime ago c ied ou o p ide
when I acqui ed he damn sheepskin!
These a e s ong wo ds om somebody who, jus like o he young people
in Po ugal, as in o he coun ies o sou he n Eu ope, li es in a se ing whe e
he condi ions ha would a ou he op imis ic sea ch o o mal educa ion
and he i ine a ies ha his o e s saw hemsel es qui e agile. The educ ion
o he olume o employmen and he consequen comp ession o he labou
ma ke esul ed in e y high indices o unemploymen , pa icula ly you h
unemploymen , namely in segmen s un il hen less exposed o hese condi ions
he e, like he young g adua es (Ca doso e al. 2014). The a e o you h
unemploymen eached peaks ne e seen in he pas (a ound 40% in 2013).
The mos s uc u al unemploymen con igu a ions we e also in ensi ied, in
he o m o long- e m unemploymen , s ongly accen ua ing he p obabili y
o ansi o y o ms o unemploymen as a empo a y si ua ion o become, wi h
ime, ci cula ing o ms o unemploymen as in e mi en condi ion, wi h he
isk o p eca iousness becoming oo ed in hei cou se and o s uc u e hei
ways o li e due o he egula i y and empo ali y ha i acqui es when adul s
(Fe ei a e al. 2017).
And i should be no ed ha he o icial unemploymen numbe s exclude
se e al o hese young people who would p e e o be wo king, bu a e coun ed
as non-ac i e popula ion, shel e ed in an educa ional sys em h ough which
hey hang on as s uden s, o unde he s igma ic condi ion o “unoccupied”
young people – mo e known as nee (no in educa ion, employmen , o
aining), a designa ion ha o a g ea ex en , eupda es he adi ional image
o you h as “alle gic” o wo k (Rowland e al. 2014; Fe ei a, Pappámikail and
Viei a 2017).

you h and gene a ions in imes o c isis 149
On he o he hand, he o ms o unde employmen also inc eased, p esen in
he esu gence o a ypical o ms o employmen , o gig economies, and o in o mal
economies (Fe ei a e al. 2017). A ce ain ins abili y has always been pa o he
you h p ocesses o ansi ion o adul hood. The no ion o “expe ience” i sel ,
namely o p o essional expe ience, is always pa o he you h ansi ions o he
labou ma ke . The beginning o he ac i e li e always ended o be ma ked by
sho bonds, high u no e o occupa ions, wi h p o essional iden i ies s ill li le
de ined and consolida ed. Howe e , in ce ain s uc u al condi ions like hose
ha ha e ecen ly cha ac e ized he economy, he en e p ises a angemen , and
he legal amewo k o labou ela ions in he Po uguese socie y (oecd 2017),
he inc easing isk is ha mo e uns able, empo a y, and lexible o ms o you h
ansi ion a e ex ended along he li e cou se and become a social condi ion in
he adul li e. In o he wo ds, ha si ua ions o in e mi en wo k, oscilla ing
be ween si ua ions o legal o in o mal independen wo k, in e nships,
schola ships, accumula ion o pa ial and oppo unis ic jobs, and he whole
ple ho a o o ms o employmen once called “a ypical” a e ins i u ionalized as
ypical, shaping labou ajec o ies and li e cou ses wi h e y di use possibili ies
o p ojec ing a u u e beyond he cons ain and andomness o he p esen .
And his is well beyond li e’s p o essional dimension.
p eca iousness as co e o gene a ional conscience
The si ua ion o ex eme labou p eca iousness can be he s uc u ing co e o a
gene a ional conscience (Mannheim 1990; Feixa and Lecca di 2010), a e lexi e
ocus a ound which he uni o subjec i e expe iences among young people
bo n a e he 1980s is se , as well as he ecogni ion o i s pa icula i y when
compa ed wi h p e ious gene a ions; a conscience ha , addi ionally, inds
condi ions o be ex ended. In a con ex o sys emic c isis ha includes many
coun ies o he wo ld, wi h qui e di e en in ensi ies and con igu a ions,
he expe iences and meanings o young people conce ning p eca iousness,
adi ionally oo ed and unde s ood in a na ional o de , ind condi ions
o be as and e icien ly sha ed on a ansna ional scale, po en ializing he
c ea ion o a global gene a ional conscience (Beck and Beck-Ge nsheim 2009;
Edmunds and Tu ne 2005).
In Po ugal he in e gene a ional ecogni ion ega ding he cu en
you h unemploymen as a s uc u al p oblem is ema kable. Tha is, you h
150 ci izenship in c isis
unemploymen is unde s ood as a consequence o he ecen comp ession o
labou ma ke , in con as o he social pe cep ions and mo al judgemen s
adi ionally sha ed conce ning you h unemploymen . F om he poin o iew
o common sense, he si ua ion o you h unemploymen was adi ionally
pe cei ed as a esul o he olun a y e usal o young people o wo k, ensuing
in mo alizing judgemen based on a wo k e hics as a du y. Mo e ecen ly, he
mo al judgmen ends o be di ec ed o he school and he oca ional aining
sys em: based on a pu ely ins umen al iew o knowledge, i is a gued ha
he ins i u ional sys ems o knowledge ansmission, supposedly, do no
p omo e, be o e and a e hei ac ion, he a icula ion be ween compe ences,
quali ica ions, and places in he labou ma ke (Al es 2007; Ca doso e al.
2014). Consequen ly, you h unemploymen esul s om hese ins i u ions no
gua an eeing he supposed “you h employabili y” – hei capaci y o becoming
“employable” – p e ending ha young people would no be p epa ed o he
wo k places supposedly a ailable.
Howe e , a om common sense a gumen s ha easoned o “alle gy o
wo k” on he pa o he you h, o a om he heses cons uc ed a ound
he allacy o he “employabili y” and he supposed lack o p epa a ion by he
school, he e is a wide in e gene a ional consensus in he Po uguese socie y
ega ding he pe cep ion o you h unemploymen as ha ing a s uc u al na u e,
caused o e all by he educ ion o he olume o jobs and he consequen
comp ession o he wo k ma ke . In a su ey om 2015 (Fe ei a e al. 2017)
mo e han 60% o he Po uguese people ecognized ha he causes o he
you h unemploymen a e linked o he ac o ha ing “inc easingly ewe jobs
o hose who a e en e ing in he labo ma ke ”, e lec ing he ch onic lack
o capaci y o he Po uguese p oduc i e sys em o gene a e su icien wo k
posi ions, widely expanded du ing he economic and mone a y c isis.
To a g ea ex en , he s uc u al subsis ence o his ea u e in he Po uguese
socie y happens because he egula ion made by he S a e has kep i s ole as
coach, keeping i s adi ional ecommenda ions in e ms o you h employmen
public policies: (a) on he one hand, policies o employmen ac i a ion,
unde pinned in sho - e m measu es based on epheme al o ms o aining,
in e nships, o inse ion con ac s, o gua an ee he “employabili y” o he
young – a wa chwo d unde s ood as he capaci y o he wo ke in adap ing o
he demands o he wo k wo ld; (b) on he o he hand, policies o p omo ion
o sel -employmen and c ea ion o en e p ises, known unde he name o
“en ep eneu ship p omo ion policies”, unde - inanced and wi h a esidual
you h and gene a ions in imes o c isis 151
adhesion among he unemployed young popula ion, wi h li le capaci y o
i s la e sus ainabili y. The igu e o he “young en ep eneu ” and he image
o he “employabili y”, nu u ed on a la ge scale by he mos ecen public
policies o ackle he you h unemploymen , a e ypical igu es o he economic
neolibe alism, ha places on he indi idual he bu den o he esponsibili y
(and he culpabili y) o he condi ion o unemploymen and o his exi om
his condi ion, dis ega ding he s uc u al ac o s ha a e he basis o he
addi ion o young people in his si ua ion.
Finally, he mos ecen policies ha e been in he di ec ion o he
libe aliza ion o he labou ma ke (labou lexibiliza ion, p o essional
mobili y, collabo a ion in p ojec s, e c.), which ha e no had he suppo o
any “in isible hand” in he Po uguese economy in he sense o ende ing
he expec ed ou comes (inc easing employmen ), esul ing in mobili y “ om
p eca iousness o p eca iousness” (Ma os 2014), passing h ough pe iods
o inc easingly longe unemploymen . In ac , o hose young people who
ha e been employed, he aus e i y policies es ablished by he T oika we e
ollowed by equi emen s in he sense o ola iliza ion o s eady employmen ,
consolida ion o a mo e lexible, con ingen , p eca ious, and indi idualized
labou ela ion, wage educ ion in compa ison wi h p e ious gene a ions in
equi alen posi ions and occupa ions, esul ing in he ques ioning o many
public social p o ec ion gua an ees.
In his con ex , in which he p eca iousness o labou ela ions is ins alled
wi h in ensi y and h oughou he li e cou se, he Po uguese young people
sha e wi h o he s om sou he n Eu ope a pa adoxical social condi ion: he e
has ne e exis ed in Po ugal such a condi ion o quali ied you h, while,
simul aneously being so us a ed in he aspi a ions and labou expec a ions
socially nou ished by he school and he amily, as well as unde such a g ea
di icul y o ansi ion o he labou ma ke , in ajec o ies inc easingly mo e
discon inuous and in which he laby in h ends o almos always lead o he
same goal: p eca iousness. I is a gene a ion in “dys hy hmia be ween he
idealized and he accomplished”, “when he imagined u u es a e denied by
he eali y” (Pais 2012, 267). A eali y o labou di icul ies ha a e p opaga ed
o se e al dimensions and phases o li e, su passing he labou dimension and
esul ing in wide p oblems o social inclusion.
152 ci izenship in c isis
om labou p eca iousness o on ological insecu i y
The e ec o he aus e i y measu es ha e in ense and lace a ing e ec s a
beyond he economic sphe e, as he condi ions o you h p eca iousness a e
no el only in hei ansi ion o he labou ma ke , bu each a much wide
dimension in he ansi ions o adul hood, a ec ing o he dimensions o you hs’
li es in e ms o social (un)p o ec ion and (in)dependence and, ul ima ely,
o on ological (in)secu i y. The on ological secu i y, acco ding o Giddens
(1995, 75-82), e e s o a eeling o con inui y in he pe sonal iden i y o he
subjec , o s abili y and o de in he e en s and expe iences passed h ough,
and o s eadiness o he social and ma e ial en i onmen s in ol ing he /him.
The p eca iousness el in you h ansi ions o labou ends o be a consis en
h ea o his sense o exis en ial and pe sonal secu i y, con amina ing and
na owing u u e ho izons.
The e a e se e al ecen s udies ha ha e poin ed ou he ema kable
impac s o he di icul ies el in e ms o labou inse ion in he managemen
o he daily li e o young people, as well as in he delinea ion and ealiza ion o
u u e p ojec s ha go a beyond he p o essional li e, bu ha depend on his
o a g ea ex en . I am e e ing o ansi ion ma ke s o adul hood ha c oss
o he sphe es o you hs’ li es, like lea ing pa en s’ home and li e au onomy,
conjugali y, and pa en hood (Pais 2012; Al es e al. 2011).
In ac , he decision-making o oday’s young adul s in ela ion o p ojec s
like lea ing pa en s’ home, buying a house, o o ming a amily is much mo e
di icul and isky. No by chance, hese a e p ojec s ha a e pos poned and
whose accomplishmen will happen acco ding o he ex en o he ma e ial
condi ions o each you h segmen , always wi h he spec e o being e e sed
a any ime. This is also a ma k o he cu en gene a ion, an indica o o i s
exis en ial p eca iousness: he e e sibili y o which he social s a u es ha hey
ake o e in li e a e subjec ed. They lea e hei pa en s’ home unning he isk
o coming back, ela ionships a e ied, and conjugali y is expe ienced; hey
a e no s uden s anymo e, being awa e o he need o go back o school la e ;
hey a e wo ke s and in he ollowing day hey a e unemployed; in e nships,
aining and simila e en s accumula e in a li e cou se inc easingly mo e
laby in hine, wi hou guiding landma ks.
On he o he hand, acing he “lack o u u e” o hei li e, he you h
condi ion o his gene a ion ends up being mo e “p esen is ” han young
people o p e ious gene a ions. Tha is, hey end up app ecia ing much mo e
why no populism in po ugal? 255
he on ic, and he eby isks eplica ing in new e ms he p oblems i sough o
supe sede in he i s place.
Gi en he di icul ies aced by mainly on ic o logic-o ien ed app oaches,
se e al au ho s ha e ied o ead a middle g ound and in eg a e bo h
dimensions in hei wo k (A di i 2007). In pa icula , i has led he so-called
“new populis s udies” o shi he ocus “ om he social con en o populism
and he ends owa d which i is di ec ed o he means by which i is done”
(Jansen 2011, 82); o s udy why economic c ises need o be “pe o med” by
social agen s as o become e ec i e causes o populis poli ics (Mo i 2016);
o examine how he con en s o populism seem o be o ganized by “discu si e
ames” (Aslanidis 2015), and o analyse how populis claims-making by
Ame ican P esiden ial candida es be ween 1952 and 1996 ollows ce ain
sc ip s and in ol e speci ic he o ical opes (Bonikowski and Gid on 2016).
This chap e joins his collec i e e o by de eloping a new unde s anding o
wha populism is and how i should be s udied. Populism is he e unde s ood
as nei he a hing, no as pu ely discu si e logic. D awing upon p agma ic
sociology, democ a ic heo y, and he analysis o poli ical discou se, we a gue
ha wha makes one a populis is he p agma ic a icula ion o ce ain con en s
(ideas, hings) wi hin he logic o esen men . This means ha esen men is
he e unde s ood no as an on ic ca ego y (Shils 1956; Ba bale 1992; Mudde
2004, 547; Mülle 2016, 88) – a eeling, a ec , o emo ion – bu as he logic
acco ding o which ha pa icula sen imen is socially and poli ically
o ganized (Deme zis 2006; U e 2014; Engels 2015).
Why esen men ? Fi s , because populism is os ensibly abou he con lic
opposing he many o he ew, he ha e-no s o he ha es, he people o he
eli e, he ou -g oups o he in-g oup. I is no abou one people agains ano he
people; ins ead, i is abou one pa o he people agains ano he pa o he
same people. Second, he logic o esen men seems o be pa icula ly adequa e
o cap u e his phenomenon because ei he mobilizing eelings o igh eous
indigna ion o down igh en y, esen men supposes a ela ion o iden i ica ion
be ween he wo pa ies, which does no exis in he case o he alien O he o
he Schmi ian logic o enmi y. I his is ob iously ue in he case o indigna ion
(I ha e a mo ally inged disapp o al o he ac ha you ha e enjoyed some
undese ed good o une), i is also he case, A is o le says, in he case o en y,
which comple ely lacks he quasi-mo al dimension o indigna ion: “en y is
a ce ain dis ess caused by he ac ha some o he people like onesel seem
o ha e done well wi h espec o he a o emen ioned goods. The subjec

256 ci izenship in c isis
en ies hese o he s no because he wan s he goods in ques ion o himsel ,
bu because hey ha e hem” (A is o le 174-5, ci ed in Geuss 2016, 176).
A is o le is clea in s essing ha we en y only hose we pe cei e o be “like”
us. In o he wo ds, en y makes sense only among equal compe i o s in he
same game. One can ha e almos anyone, bu one en ies only hose who a e
su icien ly like us o be some kind o i als o compe i o s. We ha e enemies,
bu a compe i o is no pe se ou enemy (Geuss 2016, 176). This is why, o
Schmi and Laclau, he logic o populism is no enmi y, bu esen men .
P e ious s udies ha e ela ed a poli ics o esen men wi h social class and
o he di isions wi hin a coun y (C ame 2016), wi h bo h symbolic and
explici iolence (Engels 2015), and he cons uc ion o iden i y, na ionalism,
and speci ic o ms o sub-s a e na ionalism and o igh -wing populism
(Mann and Fen on 2017). Bu so a esen men has no been deemed an
inhe en cha ac e is ic o populism in i s di e en mani es a ions, as we a e
now p oposing.
Conside o ins ance he example o us P esiden Donald J. T ump’s “wall
wi h Mexico” a cen al elemen o his campaign in 2016 and an endu ing elemen
o his poli ical he o ic. T ump’s wall wi h Mexico can be designa ed as a populis
symbol as opposed o, say, a na ionalis symbol. The eason why he wall wi h
Mexico came o ep esen T ump’s populism is because i was abou jobs: he
jobs he “many” in Ame ica we e losing because o he decision by Ame ica’s
“ ew” o open ac o ies in Mexico and elsewhe e, as well as abou he jobs
Mexican emig an s we e aking away om he Ame ican “many”. Hence T ump’s
p essu e on he ceos o companies such as Fo d o b ing jobs back om Mexico.
I was no amed in na ionalis e ms, as one people agains ano he people. In
con as , he wall sepa a ing Is ael om he Wes Bank is amed in such e ms:
his wall has been he o ically jus i ied, legi imized, and cul u ally cons ued by
he Is aeli igh as a o m o p o ec ion o Jewish people om he a acks o he
Pales inian people. This shows ha compe ing agen s can cons ue he exac
same objec in mu ually con adic o y ways o di e en pu poses. Fo Obama,
ha ing he wall associa ed wi h na ionalism would ha e been poli ically oxic:
hence he Obama adminis a ion’s a emp o keep i s unding and cons uc ion
unde aken i no in sec ecy, as o a ac as li le media a en ion as possible.
T ump spec acula ly e e sed his. He picked he exac same in as uc u e and
cons uc ed i as a symbol o his poli ics. T ump’s poli ics, inso a as i uses ha
objec in o de o mobilize he esen men o one pa o he Ame ican people
agains ano he pa , cons ues i as a populis symbol.
why no populism in po ugal? 257
Ou second me hodological aim is o sugges how o s udy he ways in
which his logic has been employed by poli ical agen s, wi h a ying deg ees
o success, o pi one pa o he people agains ano he pa in he name o “ he
people” o c i icize (o legi imize), p oposing as example he poli ics o wel a e
e enchmen in Po ugal be ween 2011 and 2015. Wel a e e enchmen , which
has uelled he “dualiza ion” o Eu opean socie ies be ween labou ma ke
inside s and ou side s, is pa icula ly ele an o his pu pose. We he e o e
ques ion why i is ha wel a e e enchmen ailed o p o ide a e ile g ound
o populis poli ics in Po ugal bu no in neighbou ing Spain? We add ess
his ques ion by analysing ou cen al policies o wel a e e enchmen :
(i) heal h ca e; (ii) e i emen pensions; (iii) unemploymen bene i ; and (i )
public se an s’ sala y cu s.
Me hodologically, ou app oach adop s he ex eme case me hod o case
selec ion because o i s ex eme alue on he dependen (Y) a iable o in e es :
populism. An ex eme alue is unde s ood he e as an obse a ion ha lies a
away om he mean o a gi en dis ibu ion; ha is o say, i is unusual. Fo
case s udy analysis, i is p ecisely he a eness o he alue ha makes a case
aluable, no i s posi i e o nega i e alue (Emigh 1997; Mahoney and Goe z
2004). This does no pose p oblems o sample bias because i e e s back o a
la ge sample o cases lying in he backg ound o he analysis. The aim is o
maximize a iance on he dimension o in e es , no o minimize i . The case
o Po ugal be ween 2011 and 2015 looks unusual in ha i does no seem o
i he in e na ional pa e n o ise in populis poli ics since he 1990s, and
mo e p ominen ly in he a e ma h o he inancial c isis o 2008, when he
condi ions we e me o he eme gence o populism. Po ugal is a “nega i e
case” because i seems con a y o his gene al pa e n. Hence he esea ch
ques ion: why has populism been unsuccess ul in Po ugal?
Following wha has been said abo e, populism is he e unde s ood o e e
o he p agma ic a icula ion o he logic o esen men by poli ical and social
agen s o ma e ial/symbolic gain. By p agma ic a icula ion we e e o he
poli ical pe o ma i i y o ce ain agen s h ough, and by e e ence o, bo h
linguis ic claims and ma e ial hings. Logics o ganize con en s o di e en
so s, including a ional claims o anspa ency and in elligibili y, as well as
emo ions. We belie e his o be he case o he logic o esen men . The logic
o esen men o ganizes he speci ic se o emo ions unde he umb ella o
esen men , which includes en y and indigna ion. To claim ha one logic
pe ains exclusi ely o one pa icula phenomenon would be o engage in a
258 ci izenship in c isis
opological exe cise o li le in e es . Logics ope a e o exis a a di e en le el
han phenomena: i is pe ec ly possible, hen, ha he same logic anima es
di e en phenomena, and ha any one phenomenon may be anima ed by
mo e han one logic. I is be e o hink o he ela ionship be ween esen men
and populism as one o elec i e a ini y. We hus do no claim ha populis s
a e he only ones mobilizing esen men . Wha we do claim is ha wi hou
esen men , he e would be no populism. Tha is, he e is an elec i e a ini y
be ween populism and he logic o esen men , al hough he la e can anima e
a ple ho a o social si ua ions and phenomena (e. g. a si ua ion in which one
indi idual en ies ano he ’s objec o pe sonal accomplishmen ), i anima es
populis poli ics when i acqui es he speci ic con igu a ion o pi ing one pa
o he people agains ano he pa o he people, in he name o “ he people”.
On ic con en s ma e , bu need o be unde s ood in hei ela ionship wi h
he ways in which hey a e mobilized (no pe se, as he na u alis pe spec i e
wan s i , no a bi a ily, as he pos -s uc u alis pe spec i e wan s i ). Populis
poli ics, as poli ics in gene al is no an endless language game; i in ol es he
ma e ial wo ld ha we inhabi as much as ou sel es as agen s.
As do S anye , Salgado, and S ömbäck (2017), we acknowledge ha non-
populis poli ical ac o s can also engage in populis he o ic and populis
s a egies o achie e hei goals. Populism is hus no a ai o populis ac o s
only. In he case o he a gumen and app oach he e de eloped, hese ac o s
p ima ily include poli ical pa ies engaged in policy discussion, bu also o he
ins i u ional agen s ha pe o med ele an oles in he poli ics o wel a e
e enchmen in Po ugal in he pe iod unde examina ion: he Cons i u ional
Cou and ade unions a e wo cases in poin . The ques ion o accoun ing o
he “nega i e case” o populism in Po ugal is a ma e o a “ ailed pe o mance”
(Aus in 1962; Alexande 1987). Gi en ha a pe o ma i e may o may no
wo k, ha i may o may no succeed in ealizing i s s a ed in en ion, i s
app op ia e e alua i e s anda d is no u h and accu acy, bu “ elici ous”
and “un elici ous.” Ou p oposal in ol es he in es iga ion o he (in) elici y’s
condi ions o populism in Po ugal be ween 2011 and 2015, which include
no only he speech ac ’s in e ac ional con ex (Go man 1956), bu also he
poli ical cul u e ou o which pa icula signs a e d awn by poli ical agen s,
populism included (Wo sley 1969).
This me hodological s a egy d aws upon c i ical discou se analysis and
poli ical discou se analysis (see o example Fai clough and Fai clough 2012)
and complemen s hese wi h an o iginal emphasis on he logic o esen men .
why no populism in po ugal? 259
I ad oca es he s udy o poli ical speeches om pa y leade s and pa liamen a y
deba es in Po ugal and Spain as sou ces o powe imbalances, po en ial
con lic s o in e es , and di e ences in alues by poli ical opponen s in wha
is a democ a ic con ex o disag eemen ma ked by a endency owa d he
mains eaming o a populism mode o ep esen a ion and a icula ion. I elies
on he no ion o language pe o ma i i y o u he explo e he meaning o
ela ional s uc u es and he cons uc ion o discu si e meaning wi hin such
poli ical speeches and deba es. Documen a y e idence could po en ially include:
(i) a ep esen a i e sample o speeches and deba es om he a ious poli ical
pa ies and social mo emen s, looking speci ically on whe he , when, and how
he a icula ion o he logic o esen men wo ks, and he deg ee o which i
shapes he agen s’ poli ical a gumen s and p oposals in o populis na a i es
and populis app oaches o democ a ic poli ics; (ii) he Cons i u ional Cou ’s
ulings; and (iii) he news co e age in he leading Po uguese daily p ess o he
mos impo an poli ical ac o s and deba es on hese issues.
Analysing in o ma ion om hese di e en ypes o sou ces allows aking
in o accoun bo h media ed and unmedia ed dimensions o poli ical discou se.
We include he analysis o how mains eam news media co e hese issues
and he poli ical ac o s in ol ed in hese deba es, which e e s o he media ed
dimension. We also conside unmedia ed poli ical discou se by poli ical pa ies,
social mo emen s, and he Cons i u ional Cou ’s s a emen s and documen s.
Bo h dimensions a e c ucial in ou analysis o populism, as poli ical ac o s need
he media (bo h mains eam and social media) o con ey hei messages o
he wide popula ion, while populis s a egies o en en ail di ec , unmedia ed
communica ion, and links wi h he people. Ou app oach also in ol es, a
a la e s age, he compa ison be ween media ed and unmedia ed con en o
analyse he mains eam media condi ions and check o any po en ial impac
o jou nalis s o he medium i sel on poli ical discou ses.
discussion
Ou discussion and esea ch ques ion suppose he ailu e o populism
(populis he o ic and populis s a egies) in Po ugal. This is, o cou se, a
claim a he han a sel -e iden ac . The pe o ma i e ailu e o populism
in Po ugal in his pe iod de i es om he obse a ion ha , whils i pa ly
shaped he poli ical deba e ega ding wel a e e enchmen ( he T oika was
260 ci izenship in c isis
o en amed wi hin he “us” s. “ hem” a gumen and in oked as he isible
ace o he o ces o economic globaliza ion and capi alis accumula ion
and i s measu es p esen ed as an undese ed puni i e measu e o e he
ha d-wo king Po uguese people), populism seemingly paid less elec o al
di idends in Po ugal han in o he compa able coun ies. Whe eas in Spain
he Podemos pa y nea ly ipled i s sha e o he na ional o e be ween mid-
2014 and la e 2015, no o men ion he elec o al ic o ies o he Sy iza in
G eece in Sep embe 2015, B exi in he uk in June 2016, and T ump in he
Uni ed S a es in No embe 2016, in Po ugal he sha e o o es o he poli ical
pa ies one would expec o be mo e associa ed wi h a populis ype o poli ical
discou se, including hose using a gumen s ha a e simila o Podemos’
kind o populism, ose only mode a ely be ween he gene al elec ions o
2011 and o 2015, and he o e all appeal o he Po uguese populis a igh
con inues o be ma ginal (Na ional Renewal Pa y-pn ). No wi hs anding he
eco d-high le els o unemploymen and deep popula discon en wi h he
T oika-imposed aus e i y measu es, he Communis o e emained i ually
unchanged – om 441,000 in 2011 o 445,000 in 2015 – and o e all le -wing
p o es pa ies secu ed only 12 mo e sea s in Pa liamen . Signi ican ly, he
incumben cen e- igh coali ion emained he poli ical o ce wi h he mos
o es. In addi ion, he popula demons a ions agains he T oika, which in
Spain we e a he o igin o a populis poli ical pa y (Podemos), in Po ugal
did no p oduce a simila esul . In ac , he a emp s o c ea e a new poli ical
pa y om hese social mo emen s we e unsuccess ul in Po ugal and e en
he newly c ea ed pd (Democ a ic Republican Pa y) by An ónio Ma inho e
Pin o was, in he 2015 na ional elec ion, e y a behind (1.14%) he success
o i s leade ’s elec ion in he Eu opean Pa liamen a y Elec ion, when Ma inho
e Pin o an as an mp (The Ea h Pa y Mo emen ) candida e (7.14%) ( o
a mo e de ailed discussion abou populis poli ical ac o s in Po ugal, see
Salgado and Zúque e 2017).
As a “nega i e case”, Po ugal can se e as a compa a i e case enabling
u he explana ions abou wha populism is and wha i is no , he eby helping
o iden i y i s concep ual bounda ies. I can also enable esea che s o ex end
o modi y he o iginal concep in he u u e, possibly adding o i s explana o y
powe , which would ha e a conside able impac on he unde s anding no
only o populis phenomena, bu also o con empo a y democ a ic poli ics.
The “nega i e case” o Po ugal can also lend an ex a deg ee o alidi y o he
s udy by demons a ing ou willingness o conside al e na i es and ha we

why no populism in po ugal? 261
ha e indeed sea ched o o he possible explana ions (Miles and Hube man
1994).
In addi ion, we selec ed he case o Po ugal acco ding o he Possibili y
P inciple, which ad ises esea che s o selec only nega i e cases in which he
ou come o in e es is possible. As Mahoney and Goe z poin ou (2004, 656),
Seymou Ma in Lipse ’s amous que y – Why no Socialism in he Uni ed S a es?
– made sense because social democ acy was possible du ing ea lie pe iods o
us his o y. Likewise, he ise o populism in Po ugal in he a e ma h o he
2008 inancial c isis was eminen ly possible, and indeed was seen as ine i able
in ce ain poli ical ci cles. Ye i did no occu .
In wha ollows we o e a p elimina y (and a guably specula i e) explana ion
o why populism has ailed o ake hold in Po ugal while i lou ished in
neighbou ing Spain du ing he inancial and economic c isis o 2011-2015
ha a ec ed bo h Ibe ian coun ies. We do his by e e ence o ou issues:
heal h ca e; e i emen pensions; unemploymen bene i ; and public se an s’
sala y cu s. Ra he han p esen ing he indings o pas esea ch, wha we o e
he e is he opposi e: how would u u e esea ch on populis poli ics look i i
we e o ollow he model p oposed he e.
heal h ca e
B ie ly, he issue a s ake he e can be desc ibed as ollows. In ea ly 2014
he Po uguese poli ical pa ies’ public discou se ocussed on he opic o
heal h ca e e o m. The opic o discussion was he Po uguese ci il se an s’
heal h ca e insu ance scheme, adse (o iginally, “Assis ência na Doença aos
Se ido es Ci is do Es ado”, nowadays “Di eção-Ge al de P o eção Social
aos T abalhado es em Funções Públicas”). A s ake was he inc ease o he
bene icia ies’ con ibu ions om 1.5% o 3.5% in o de o make he sys em
inancially sus ainable and o ally sel -suppo ing. The con ending pa ies
we e, on he one hand, he T oika and he go e nmen , and, on he o he hand,
he le -wing opposi ion pa ies and cg p-in, a ade union con ede a ion
adi ionally associa ed wi h he Communis Pa y. A wo king hypo hesis
could be ha i was he o me , no he la e , o eso o a esen ul logic in ha
i s essed he un ai ness o ea men be ween he scheme’s bene icia ies (ci il
se an s) and axpaye s, hus pi ing one pa o he people agains ano he pa
in he name o “ he people”. This pa icula deba e could be analysed wi hin
he b oade discussion o he uni e sali y o he Na ional Heal h Ca e sys em,
262 ci izenship in c isis
and he uni e salis cha ac e o he legal consciousness o he Po uguese
in his espec . I p o en, his hypo hesis would help us demons a e ha ,
con a on ic app oaches, populism is no an exclusi e ea u e o p e-de ined
“populis ” leade s, mo emen s, o pa ies; in ac , mains eam poli ical pa ies
and o icial au ho i ies oo (including in e na ional o ganiza ions) can in
p inciple engage in populis s a egies.
Mo e gene ally, a line o empi ical enqui y o his so poin s o he possibili y
o explo ing he complex ela ionship be ween populism and echnoc acy. I
is commonly hough ha populism eeds on a esen men o loss o con ol
o e one’s des iny, and he co esponding desi e o asse domes ic democ a ic
so e eign y; ha i ep esen s a eac ion o he echnoc a ic logics o
democ a ic poli ics, especially when conduc ed om a a dis ance, a a supe -
na ional le el. The ecen ise o populism coincides, in many cases, wi h he
inc ease o ex e nal in e en ion om ins i u ions like he im and he eu.
Wha is he ela ionship be ween he wo phenomena and wha ela ion does
i bea wi h di e en de elopmen s in e ms o populis poli ics in Po ugal
and Spain? Mo e gene ally, a e he e any hidden a ini ies concealed behind
he open an agonisms be ween populis s and echnoc a s? I so, wha dange s
do hey ep esen o he logic and wo kings o ou democ acies?
e i emen pensions
Ou p oposed second opic o in es iga ion is he deba e a ound wel a e
e enchmen ega ding e i emen pensions. These we e, alongside wi h ci il
se an s’ sala ies, one o he T oika’s main a ge s in e ms o iscal consolida ion
in he 2010-2014 pe iod. This opic, like he nex one (unemploymen
bene i ), can be s udied in compa ison wi h Spain gi en he cen al posi ion
o e i emen pensions o he so-called “dualiza ion hesis”: gi en hei long
con ibu o y ca ee s, labou ma ke inside s a e hypo hesized o be pa icula ly
keen in de ending e i emen pensions om cu s. In he Po uguese case, he
deba e in ol ed no only poli ical pa ies ( he go e nmen s. he opposi ion
pa ies), bu also he Cons i u ional Cou , whose ulings ac ed as he las
line o de ence o highe le els o inside p o ec ion. The wo king hypo hesis
is ha he Cou ’s in e en ion (whose ulings we e exp essed in a language
o indi idual igh s and uni e sal gua an ees) made he deba e in Po ugal o
be amed less as a o m o “s uc u al iolence” in lic ed by neo-libe alism
(Engels 2015) han in Spain, whe e poli ical pa ies, such as Podemos, we e
why no populism in po ugal? 263
ee o depic cu s o e i emen pensions as an undese ed esul o economic
globaliza ion and neolibe al o ces, hus unleashing sen imen s o esen men
and ange agains he es ablishmen . I con i med, his hypo hesis would help
illumina e he easons o he pe o ma i e success o populism in Spain and
i s ailu e in Po ugal.
unemploymen bene i
A hi d opic o esea ch is wel a e e enchmen ega ding he unemploymen
bene i . As he p e ious one, his opic would also allow o a meaning ul, di ec
compa ison wi h Spain. B ie ly, wha was a s ake he e can be desc ibed as
ollows. Ac i e labou ma ke policies, concilia ing changes o unemploymen
bene i s (such as making i mo e mean- es ed dependen ), aining schemes
(such as making hese compulso y o bene icia ies), and public employmen
se ices (such as mo e e icien job cen es), we e a cen al ea u e o he T oika’s
Memo andum o Unde s anding and we e duly applied by he go e nmen .
Acco ding o he dualiza ion hesis, labou ma ke ou side s a e hypo hesized
o a ou needs-based policies such as unemploymen bene i a he expense
o policies dependen on con ibu ions. A plausible wo king hypo hesis
could be ha in Spain he clea age be ween ou side s (unemployed) and
inside s was amed in mo e clea ly populis e ms han in Po ugal, whe e
an “unna u al” alliance be ween o ganiza ions ep esen a i e o he in e es s
o pensione s and ou side s was isible a he heigh o he c isis. I con i med,
his hypo hesis would help illumina e he easons o he pe o ma i e success
o populism in Spain and i s ailu e in Po ugal.
sala y cu s
A ou h opic o esea ch is ela ed o he iscal consolida ion imposed by
he T oika. One o he mos poli ically con es ed decisions o he T oika yea s
was he sala y cu s o ci il se an s. O iginally in oduced in Po ugal be o e
he bailou in 2011 by he Socialis go e nmen o sala ies o e 1,500 Eu os,
la e he cen e- igh coali ion go e nmen would expand he cu s o sala ies
below ha h eshold. In Augus 2014, he Cons i u ional Cou imposed a
e u n o hei o iginal o mula ion and uled he p o oga ion o any cu s
beyond 2015 uncons i u ional. One wo king hypo hesis would be ha while
opposi ion pa ies did mobilize a esen ul he o ic by blaming he o ces o
264 ci izenship in c isis
economic globaliza ion and hei ins i u ional ep esen a i es – he T oika
and he go e nmen – o cu s deemed unnecessa y and unjus , he echnical-
ju idical language and he uni e salis logic o he Cou ’s uling con ibu ed
o aming he esen men and ange el by he Po uguese a ec ed by he cu s.
I p o en, his hypo hesis would u he help accoun o absence o populism
in Po ugal.
conclusion
The ou opics b ie ly discussed abo e o e a ealis ic amewo k o assess
ou heo e ical and me hodological claims ega ding how populism should be
s udied oday. As a whole, hey o m wha one could call a p ospec i e esea ch
p og amme o populis poli ics. Ou p ima y mo i a ion in designing such a
p og amme is wo- old. Fi s , and mo e immedia ely, ou aim has been o
answe he ques ion o why populism was no success ul and did no eme ge
in Po ugal in he a e ma h o he global inancial and economic c isis o
2008-2010, compa ed o wha happened in o he coun ies also a ec ed by
he c isis. I is ou belie ha an answe o his impo an ques ion equi es
an in e p e i e me hodological app oach. As we y o show by e e ence o
ou key wel a e e enchmen issues, he easons o he ela i e absence o
populism in Po ugal ha e less o do wi h objec i e socio-economic causes
(which we e simila in Spain and in many aspec s e en wo se in Po ugal),
han wi h he pe o ma ion o hese causes, hei na u e, and consequences,
by di e en poli ical agen s. Such pe o ma ion is o some ex en a ma e o
language, i. e., he in es iga ion o how populis he o ic is used by poli ical
and social ac o s o achie e poli ical ends. Bu i is also a ma e o he poli ical
cul u e, he policies, he echnologies, and all so s o ma e ial hings o which
ha language necessa ily e e s.
Ou second aim has been o make clea e o he eade he na u e and
scope o ou claims abou he na u e and unc ioning o populism. We do no
educe populism o empi ical con en s: esen men is he e unde s ood no as
an emo ion o eeling, bu as an unde lying logic, i. e. he way in which such
sen imen s a e socially and poli ically o ganized. This signi ies ha populism
seen as esen men is no o be s udied h ough su ey i ems conno ing
speci ic emo ions such as en y, indigna ion, age, o ha ed. Ye we do no
educe i o a pu ely discu si e logic ei he . Ou p agma ic unde s anding o
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 271
Sou he n Eu ope be ween 2000 and 2015. A posi i e ela ionship be ween
he ci izens’ wel a e s a e expe iences and poli ical us ( ha is, a he mic o-
le el) has been obse ed elsewhe e, howe e (Kumlin 2002; Kumlin and
Haugsgje d 2017).
This chap e analyses he ela ionship be ween wel a e s a e pe o mance
(namely in he lesse -s udied sub ields o heal h and educa ion) and us in
poli ical ins i u ions in Po ugal and Spain a h ee key momen s: be o e he
inancial c isis (2008), du ing i s peak (2012), and a e he end o he o eign
aid p og ammes (2014): a ull- ledged bailou in he case o Po ugal (2011-
2014) and he injec ion o unds in Spanish banks (2012). Bo h coun ies a e
new democ acies, wi h sligh ly di e en ins i u ional p o iles (B uneau e al.
2001) and pa y sys ems wi h simila deg ees o s abili y, egis e ing an inc ease
in ola ili y only in he pos -2008 pe iod (Sanches 2017). Ne e heless, hese
coun ies ha e been a ec ed unequally by he ecen Eu ozone c isis (Bellucci,
Lobo and Lewis-Beck 2012; Magalhães 2014): while Po ugal expe ienced
he mos acu e c isis and had o be escued by he T oika, Spain also saw a
wo sening o se e al mac oeconomic indica o s such as go e nmen deb and
he unemploymen a e, bu he ex e nal in e en ion was o a conside ably
milde na u e: cash lows o Spanish banks in pe il. The con ex o he pos -
2008 inancial and economic c isis in hese coun ies is an in e es ing one
o es hypo heses abou he ac o s ha in luence poli ical us , since he
u moil was o g ea e olume han any o he pa e n o nega i e economic
pe o mance expe ienced by mos Eu opean democ acies in he las decades.
F om his b oad depic ion, wha in e es s us he mos is how pe cep ions o
wel a e pe o mance may ha e had di e en impac s on le els o poli ical us
in Po ugal and Spain, be o e, du ing, and a e he peak o he so e eign deb
c isis, and o ci izens wi h di e en le els o cogni i e mobiliza ion.
This chap e is s uc u ed as ollows. In he nex sec ion we e iew he li e a u e
on he ac o s unde lying poli ical us in democ a ic socie ies, wi h a special
ocus on s udies ca ied ou in Po ugal and Spain and on hose ha a emp ed
o ind a causal link be ween wel a e and us in ep esen a i e ins i u ions
(Guillén, Ál a ez, and Sil a 2003). Then, ecen wel a e s a e de elopmen s and
ci izens’ pe cep ions o wel a e pe o mance in bo h coun ies a e discussed. The
ollowing sec ion p esen s he goals, hypo heses, and da a used in his chap e .
The ou h sec ion is de o ed o he discussion o he esul s o se e al eg ession
models compu ed wi h he aim o es ing ou hypo heses. The chap e ends wi h
he summa y and discussion o he main empi ical pa e ns obse ed.

272 ci izenship in c isis
us in poli ical ins i u ions: an o e iew
T us in poli ical ins i u ions is a ecu ing heme in he poli ical science
esea ch agenda. This includes s udies looking a poli ical us as an
explana o y ac o o poli ical a i udes and beha iou s such as sa is ac ion
wi h democ acy and poli ical pa icipa ion (Almond and Ve ba, 1963; Kaase
1999; Ingleha 1999; Zme li and New on 2008), bu also hose con ibu ions
seeking o iden i y he cul u al, economic, and policy ac o s o poli ical us ,
a ei he he mic o o mac o-le el (New on and No is 1999; Mishle and
Rose 2001; Hooghe, Ma ien and Ose 2017; Zme li and an De Mee 2017).
This second esea ch s eam, o which he p esen chap e con ibu es, can be
di ided in o wo main schools o hough : cul u al and ins i u ional.
Cul u al heo ies sugges ha poli ical us is exogenous, ha i is
gene a ed ou side he poli ical sphe e. Wi hin his accoun poli ical us is
pe cei ed as “an ex ension o in e pe sonal us , lea ned ea ly in li e and,
much la e , p ojec ed on o poli ical ins i u ions” (Mishle and Rose 2001, 31).
In o he wo ds, i is de e mined by he le el o social us ha indi iduals
de elop h oughou li e, esul ing om hei socializa ion in speci ic cul u al
no ms. Almond and Ve ba (1963) we e he i s o heo ize his ela ionship by
pos ula ing ha social us was an impo an componen o he democ a ic
ci ic cul u e. La e , Pu nam e al. (1983) and Pu nam, Leona di and None i
(1993) a gued ha ci izens’ in eg a ion in social ne wo ks p oduced o ms
o social capi al and o mu ual us ha helped o inc ease he e ec i eness
and i ali y o democ a ic poli ical ins i u ions. A ew ecen empi ical s udies
ha e, indeed, obse ed such a ela ionship: he e a e signi ican co ela ions
be ween social and ins i u ional us a he mac o-le el and, when impo an
con ols a e included in he analysis, he ela ionship be ween social and
poli ical us is also obse ed a he indi idual le el (Zme li and New on
2008; New on and Zme li 2011).
Al e na i ely, ins i u ional heo ies a gue ha us is endogenous, a esul
o he e alua ions people make o he pe o mance o poli ical ins i u ions
(Mishle and Rose 2001; an de Mee and Zme li 2017). Ins i u ional heo ies
con end ha he quali y and he pe o mance o ins i u ions is wha bes
p edic s us , hus sugges ing ha us is qui e ins umen al: “Ins i u ions ha
pe o m well gene a e us ; un us wo hy ins i u ions gene a e skep icism
and dis us ” (Mishle and Rose 2001, 31). This explana o y accoun an icipa es
sho - e m changes in us le els as a esul o shi s in economic g ow h o
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 273
pe cep ions o co up ion. Many empi ical s udies ha e es ed he e ec o
ins i u ional pe o mance, ei he alone o in conjunc ion wi h cul u al a iables.
Lis haug and Wibe g (1995) ound ha a he mac o-le el, unemploymen and
go e nmen al ins abili y a e nega i ely co ela ed wi h us in go e nmen and
in pa liamen . New on and No is (1999) ha e shown ha nei he social us
no associa i ism a e key ac o s o indi idual us in poli ical ins i u ions; in
ac , he pe o mance o go e nmen s and poli ical ins i u ions a e he s onges
explana ions o he decline o poli ical us obse ed in wes e n democ acies
be ween he 1980s and he 1990s. Focusing on he Cen al and Eas e n
Eu opean pos -communis coun ies, Mishle and Rose (2001) also concluded
ha he o igins o poli ical us lie mainly in ins i u ional explana ions, being
la gely de e mined by he coun ies’ poli ical and economic pe o mance.
Lühis e (2006) de eloped a simila s udy o Es onia, La ia, and Li huania,
no ing ha he pe o mance o poli ical ins i u ions (pe cep ions abou he
economy, co up ion, and e olu ion o ci il igh s) explains he con idence in
poli ical ins i u ions be e han cul u al a iables.
The ecen wa e o s udies aiming a explaining he e osion o us in
poli ical ins i u ions in Sou he n Eu ope, namely in Po ugal and Spain, ha e
poin ed ou he ele ance o he ins i u ional ac o s, bu also o cul u al ac o s
and poli ical a i udes. Teixei a and F ei e (2010), o ins ance, analysing he
de e minan s o us in pa liamen s in Po ugal, Spain, and I aly, ound ha he
g ea e he in e es in poli ics and he us in o he ins i u ions, he g ea e he
con idence in pa liamen s. In e es ingly enough, Po ugal was he only coun y
in which economy and go e nmen pe o mance a iables we e s a is ically
signi ican , and Spain he only one in which social us has a signi ican e ec .
This does no mean ha hese a e opposi e cases, bu ins ead ha he e a e
wi hin-coun y speci ici ies ha need o be aken in o conside a ion. To cal
(2014) also s udied he de e minan s o us in poli ical ins i u ions in Spain
and Po ugal du ing he c isis, using as main independen a iables assessmen s
o he economy and esponsi eness ( ha is, he ex en o which poli ical eli es
ca e abou wha people hink). One o he mos signi ican esul s is ha policy
esponsi eness is he mos impo an and obus p edic o o us , sugges ing
ha he ac ha ci izens hink poli ical eli es do no ca e abou hei opinion
is wha mos nega i ely a ec s us in poli ical ins i u ions. His s udy also
inds a signi ican e ec o economic assessmen s, especially socio opic
assessmen s, in he le els o us in ep esen a i e ins i u ions. Analysing he
cases o I aly, Po ugal, G eece, and Spain, Mu o and Vidal (2017) es ed he
274 ci izenship in c isis
e ec s o he quali y o ins i u ional ou pu s, obse ing ha le els o public
deb , unemploymen , and pe cep ions o co up ion we e he main p edic o s
o poli ical us , while in la ion, gdp, and go e nmen e ec i eness had no
signi ican consis en e ec s, unlike he gini index, which also eme ges as a
signi ican p edic o . Teixei a, Tsa sanis and Belchio (2014) obse ed ha
sho - e m ac o s (e alua ions o he go e nmen pe o mance, he economy,
and he main pa ies du ing he c isis) we e hose wi h la ge and mo e egula
e ec s on us in pa liamen s in Po ugal and G eece be ween 2008 and 2012.
Mo e ecen ly, in a mac o-le el s udy o us in na ional poli ical ins i u ions,
Fe nandes e al. ( o hcoming) no ed ha highe le els o us in ep esen a i e
poli ical ins i u ions we e co ela ed wi h lowe a es o unemploymen and
po e y isk in Sou he n Eu ope.
Wi hin he ins i u ional amewo k, s udies ocusing on he ela ionship
be ween wel a e s a e pe o mance and us in poli ical ins i u ions a e, as
we no ed abo e, less common (Kumlin 2002; Kumlin and Haugsgje d 2017;
Fe nandes e al. o hcoming). Ou knowledge on he e ec s o wel a e
pe o mance on poli ical us lags behind wha we know abou he e ec s o
in e pe sonal us , and sho - e m economic and go e nmen pe o mance.
Howe e , ci izens’ pe sonal expe iences wi h di e en kinds o wel a e
ins i u ions can play an impo an ole in gene a ing us (Kumlin 2002),
because ci izens will make in e ences abou he unc ioning o he poli ical
sys em and he conduc o public o icials on he basis o hei expe iences
wi h hese ins i u ions (Ro hs ein and S olle 2008).
wel a e s a e in po ugal and spain:
ecen e olu ion and ci izen pe cep ions
The c ea ion o wel a e sys ems in Po ugal and Spain da es back o he second
hal o he 1970s wi h he disman ling o he au ho i a ian egimes and he
ansi ion o democ acy. The new democ a ic cons i u ions sanc ioned he
ci izens’ igh o social p o ec ion, such as access o public educa ion and
heal h sys ems (Fe e a 2000; Sil a 2013). Eu opean in eg a ion has ac i a ed
a se o e o ms aimed a mode nizing and imp o ing he social p o ec ion
sys ems (Fe e a 2005; Pe mesidou and Guillén 2014). Al hough se e al
indica o s poin o an imp o emen o he social p o ec ion sys em, some
dys unc ionali ies pe sis in he wo coun ies (Al es 2015; Sil a 2013).
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 275
The ou b eak o he c isis in 2008 and he ollowing ecession and i s social
and economic e ec s ha e pu he wel a e sys ems o Sou he n Eu opean
coun ies unde s ess. S uc u al e o ms o he wel a e sys ems and cu s in
social p o ec ion we e ca ied ou du ing he c isis, and key sec o s such as
pensions, wo ke s’ p o ec ion, heal hca e, and educa ion we e a ge ed by
aus e i y measu es ( Gu ié ez 2014; Pe ei inha and Mu ei a 2016; Villo a and
Vásquez- Cupei o 2016), causing in es men in hese a eas o ob ain smalle
p opo ions o go e nmen al spending is-à- is p e ious pe iods. Indeed,
i we conside public heal h expendi u e as a pe cen age o he go e nmen
expendi u e, he da a show a dec ease o 2.8 pe cen age poin s in Po ugal
and 1.2 pe cen age poin s in Spain be ween 2008 and 2014 (Table 11.1). A he
sys em le el he measu es unde aken mean a shi o he cos s o heal hca e
inc easing o pa ien s, wi h po en ial nega i e e ec s in e ms o access and
inclusion (Pe mesidou, Pa olini and Guillén 2014). Public in es men in he
educa ional sys em has allen as well, bu no a he same ime in he Ibe ian
coun ies. In 2009 Po ugal came close o he Eu opean a e age in e ms o
go e nmen expendi u e in educa ion, bu i quickly eg essed o lowe le els
in 2010; in Spain, a isible go e nmen al disin es men is appa en only om
2012 on (Table 11.1).
To wha ex en has his se o de elopmen s had an impac on he way he
Po uguese and Spanish assess he pe o mance o hei wel a e s a es, namely
in e ms o he quali y o heal hca e and public educa ion? In bo h coun ies
ci izens show h oughou his pe iod low, mode a e, o nega i e, le els o
Public expendi u e on heal h and educa ion: ends in Po ugal and Spain
(2008-2014)
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
Public heal h expendi u e
(% o he go e nmen
expendi u e)
Po ugal
Spain
eu
14.7
15.7
15.5
14.3
15.6
15.6
13.8
15.5
15.5
13.3
15.3
15.7
12.9
14.1
15.7
12.5
14.5
16.0
11.9
14.5
16.0
Expendi u e on educa ion
as % o o al go e nmen
expendi u e
Po ugal
Spain
eu
10.4
10.9
11.9
11.1
10.6
11.4
10.4
10.6
11.1
10.2
10.6
11.1
10.2
9.2
11.3
10.6
9.5
11.5
9.9
9.6
11.6
Sou ce: Wo ld Bank.
No es: eu = Eu opean Union: Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, C oa ia, Cyp us, Czech Republic, Denma k, Es onia,
Finland, F ance, Ge many, G eece, Hunga y, I eland, I aly, La ia, Li huania, Luxembu g, Mal a, Ne he lands,
Poland, Po ugal, Romania, Slo ak Republic, Slo enia, Spain, Sweden, Uni ed Kingdom.
Table 11.1
276 ci izenship in c isis
sa is ac ion wi h he pe o mance o hei wel a e sys ems (see Table 11.2).
The Eu opean Social Su ey da a o 2008-2014 shows ha he pano ama in
Po ugal is o ela i e s abili y, while in Spain he e is a con inuous dec ease in
he pe cep ions o wel a e pe o mance. This end may be su p ising i one
conside s ha , g osso modo, cu s we e no signi ican ly ha she in Spain han
in Po ugal, and could be explained by he ac ha he dec ease in public
in es men in hese sec o s may ha e been di ec ed o mo e isible aspec s
o he heal h and educa ion sys ems in Spain han in Po ugal, o may ha e
ecei ed mo e nega i e media co e age. Also, he ac ha Po ugal had o
implemen ha she aus e i y measu es unde he oika p og amme a ge ing
se e al o he a eas o he wel a e sys em migh ha e pola ized he media and
he public deba e a ound o he opics (wage eeze, cu in pensions, massi e
emig a ion), leading o he same eeble impac on ci izen pe cep ions o how
he heal hca e and educa ion sys ems we e pe o ming.
goals, hypo heses, and da a
This chap e has wo main goals a i s co e: o es he e ec s o wel a e
pe o mance pe cep ions on poli ical us and o examine whe he he e a e
di e ences in he e ec s o wel a e pe o mance on poli ical us in Po ugal
and Spain a di e en momen s o he so e eign deb c isis, as well as o
ci izens wi h di e en le els o cogni i e mobiliza ion.
Fou main hypo heses will be es ed. Fi s , in line wi h he ins i u ional
heo ies and inspi ed by he wo k o Kumlin (2002) and Kumlin and
Haugsgje d (2017), we expec ha us in poli ical ins i u ions will be g ea e
amongs he ci izens who assess he pe o mance o he wel a e s a e in a mo e
posi i e manne (hypo hesis 1). Assessmen s o he wel a e s a e pe o mance
and le els o us in poli ical ins i u ions ha ul ima ely decide how much and
how o manage he wel a e sys em a e di e en and ai ly independen ea u es.
While us can be seen as an a ec i e o ien a ion owa d he poli ical sys em,
wel a e assessmen s exp ess an e alua i e o ien a ion conce ning speci ic
poli ical/ins i u ional objec s (Almond and Ve ba 1963). E en hough us
may ha e, in speci ic ci cums ances and o a numbe o ci izens, a biasing
impac on sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance, we expec he o me o be
a consequence o he la e . In o he wo ds, ci izens will us as a esul o an
ins umen al e alua ion o how well ins i u ions pe o m, based on he quali y

poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 277
o he ou pu s. Thus, how ci izens assess he pe o mance o key sec o s o
he wel a e s a e (speci ically heal h and educa ion) is likely o gene a e us
o o he wise dis us in he poli ical ins i u ions ha a e esponsible o
implemen ing wel a e policies.
In addi ion, we expec ha wel a e pe o mance pe cep ions will ha e a
s onge ole a e he ad en o he so e eign deb c isis (hypo hesis 2). This
expec a ion is based on he assump ion ha he con ex o c isis may ha e
pola ized hese pe cep ions and gi en hem a s onge poli ical meaning.
We also es he assump ion ha du ing he c isis yea s, he impac o
wel a e assessmen s is less in Po ugal (in which wel a e cu s could be seen
as exogenous) han in Spain (in which hey did no s em om a bailou
p og amme). In he i s case, he wel a e cu s we e associa ed wi h he
bailou , while in he la e a o mal bailou ne e occu ed; he e o e, i
makes sense ha he na ional poli ical ins i u ions in Spain would su e
mo e in e ms o hei us wo hiness due o nega i e assessmen s o
he wel a e s a e pe o mance. On he con a y, in Po ugal he c isis was
ini ially seen as “impo ed” and he incumben pa y was no s ongly
punished o i a he polls in 2009 (F ei e and San ana Pe ei a 2012), and
he need o aus e i y measu es was s ongly linked wi h he h ee-yea
o eign aid p og amme. Co obo a ing his depic ion, i has been shown
ha Po ugal has he lowes sha e (e en i s ill majo i a ian) o ci izens
holding he go e nmen accoun able o he c isis when compa ed o he
o he Sou he n Eu opean coun ies (Lobo and Lewis-Beck 2012). The e o e,
na ional poli ical ins i u ions may ha e been compa a i ely less blamed o
he quali y o wel a e se ices in Po ugal han in Spain. In sho , du ing
he peak o he c isis, he impac o wel a e pe o mance pe cep ions on
he le els o us in poli ical ins i u ions will be s onge in Spain han in
Po ugal (hypo hesis 3).
Las ly, we examine he ex en o which he e ec s o wel a e pe o mance on
us a e signi ican ly shaped by he way ci izens p ocess poli ical in o ma ion.
The heo y o cogni i e mobiliza ion sugges s ha hose who a e be e
educa ed and hose who ha e mo e access o in o ma ion will ha e mo e
suppo i e a i udes owa d he poli ical sys em (Ingleha 1970, 1977), bu
also ely less on sho - e m cues o assess he deg ee o us wo hiness poli ical
ins i u ions a e en i led o. I ha is he case, we should expec sa is ac ion
wi h wel a e pe o mance o be less impo an o hose wi h highe le els o
cogni i e mobiliza ion. In o he wo ds, ci izens wi h highe le els o cogni i e
278 ci izenship in c isis
mobiliza ion will display weake links be ween hei pe cep ions o he wel a e
pe o mance and us in poli ical ins i u ions (hypo hesis 4).
Ou analysis d aws on da a om h ee ounds o he Eu opean Social
Su ey (ess) conduc ed a he onse (2008), he peak (2012), and he a e ma h
(2014) o he c isis in Po ugal and Spain. The dependen a iable is an index
o poli ical us ha a ies be ween 0 (no us a all) and 10 (comple e us ).
I epo s ci izens’ le els o us owa d h ee ep esen a i e ins i u ions/
ac o s: poli ical pa ies, na ional pa liamen , and poli icians. The decision o
collapse ci izens’ a ings in o an index ollows con en ional concep ualiza ions
ha ea ep esen a i e poli ical ins i u ions as a clus e (Ma ien 2011) and
is u he mo e suppo ed by bo h ac o and eliabili y analysis ha e eal a
unidimensional s uc u e o us in ou da a.1 As Figu e 11.1 demons a es,
le els o con idence in poli ical ins i u ions a e pa icula ly low no only in
Po ugal and Spain, bu ac oss he sample o cases included in he ess. S ill,
he e a e some di e ences ha me i highligh ing. Fi s , ci izens o he wo
Sou he n Eu opean coun ies (Po ugal in pa icula ) display much lowe
le els o poli ical us when compa ed o mos Eu opean coun ies. F om
a longi udinal pe spec i e, howe e , le els o us exhibi a mo e d ama ic
all among he Spanish han he Po uguese. Second, le els o us ollow a
downwa d end du ing he c isis and eco e a li le in 2014.
To explain hese di e ences, ou main independen a iable is wel a e
pe o mance, which is measu ed as an index2 ha agg ega es ci izens’
app aisals o he s a e o educa ion and o heal h se ices using a scale on
which 0 means “ex emely bad” and 10 “ex emely good”.3 This a iable en e s
he models alone and in e ac ed wi h an index o cogni i e mobiliza ion ha
conside s ci izens’ le els o media exposu e and in e es in poli ics. The index
anges be ween 0 (when he e is no in e es in poli ics and no ime a all
de o ed o wa ching/lis ening/ eading news abou poli ics and cu en a ai s
p og ammes) and 4 (when he highes le el o in e es in poli ics and exposu e
o in o ma ion on poli ics is eached).
1 Bo h analyses we e pe o med o each coun y and yea conside ed. All ac o analyses p oduced a
one-componen solu ion ha explained a leas 70% o he o al a iance. The C onbach Al as a e good,
unning om 0.861 (Spain 2008) o 0.890 (Po ugal 2012).
2 C onbach Al as a e accep able, unning om 0.570 (Po ugal 2008) o 0.765 (Spain 2014).
3 Un o una ely he su ey does no include ques ions on he pe o mance o social secu i y o
pension sys ems, which is why we ocus on educa ion and heal h sys ems.
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 279
Addi ionally, we ha e conside ed a se o con ols ha come ac oss as
ele an p edic o s wi hin he main heo ies o us . Following he cul u al
app oach discussed abo e (Mishle and Rose 2001), in e pe sonal us was
included in he analysis, wi h he expec a ion ha i will bea posi i ely on
poli ical us . In e pe sonal us is measu ed by he ques ion “gene ally
speaking, would you say ha mos people can be us ed, o ha you can’ be
oo ca e ul in dealing wi h people?”, wi h answe s being con ined o a scale on
which 0 means “you can’ be oo ca e ul” and 10 means ha “mos people can
be us ed”. Also, based on he ins i u ional app oach (Mishle and Rose 2001),
we use sa is ac ion wi h he economy and sa is ac ion wi h he go e nmen
as a way o con ol o he e ec o ins i u ional pe o mance on ma e s
un ela ed o wel a e on us . Bo h a iables a e measu ed simila ly, h ough
a scale unning om 0 “ex emely dissa is ied” o 10 “ex emely sa is ied”.4
We also added a a iable measu ing he le el o ag eemen wi h he sen ence
“The go e nmen should ake measu es o educe di e ences in income
le els” (o iginal scale was ecoded so ha 1 means “disag ee s ongly” and
5 “ag ee s ongly”). Finally, socio-demog aphic a iables we e also included:
4 Ques ion: On he whole how sa is ied a e you wi h he p esen s a e o he economy/go e nmen in
[coun y]?
T us in poli ical ins i u ions in Po ugal and Spain (2008, 2012, 2014)
Ques ion: Using his ca d, please ell me on a scale o 0-10 how much you pe sonally us each o he ins i u ions I
ead ou . 0 means you do no us an ins i u ion a all, and 10 means you ha e comple e us . [Pa liamen , poli ical
pa ies, and poli icians]
No e: Russia and Is ael we e no included in he calcula ion o he ess a e age.
Figu e 11.1
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
201420122008
Po ugal Spain ess a e age
280 ci izenship in c isis
age (in yea s), gende (0 = emale; 1 = male), educa ion (in yea s), household
income ( uns om he lowes – 1s decile – o he highes income le el – 10 h
decile), wo king s a us (1 = i esponden had a paid job in he las se en days;
0 = i o he wise), and adicalism, which is measu ed as he dis ance be ween
ci izens’ placemen in he le - igh scale (whe e 0 means “le ” and 10 means
“ igh ”) and he cen e poin o he scale.
A o al o six eg ession models we e es ima ed o each coun y. Tha is, o
each o he yea s conside ed (2008, 2012, and 2014) we es ima ed one model
ha comp ises all independen and con ol a iables and a second model
ha adds he in e ac ion e m be ween wel a e pe o mance and cogni i e
mobiliza ion.
Desc ip i e s a is ics o he independen and con ol a iables, p esen ed
in Table 11.2, allow us o make an ini ial cha ac e iza ion o Po ugal and
Spain ac oss he h ee ime poin s conside ed. Rega ding sa is ac ion wi h
Summa y s a is ics on independen and con ol a iables
po ugal spain
2008 2012 2014 2008 2012 2014
a e age alues Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd Mean sd
Wel a e pe o mance 4.2 1.8 4.3 2.0 4.5 2.1 5.7 1.8 4.9 2.2 4.5 2.2
Cogni i e mobiliza ion 2.5 0.7 2.8 0.8 2.8 0.9 2.5 0.7 2.7 0.9 2.8 0.9
In e pe sonal us 3.7 2.3 3.7 2.3 3.7 2.5 5.0 2.0 5.1 2.1 4.9 2.1
Sa is ac ion wi h
he economy 2.9 1.9 2.2 1.9 3.0 2.1 3.6 2.0 2.2 2.0 2.9 2.2
Sa is ac ion wi h he
go e nmen 3.3 2.2 2.2 2.0 3.0 2.5 4.1 2.2 2.5 2.5 2.7 2.4
Reducing di e ences
in income le els 4.2 0.7 4.4 0.7 4.3 0.8 4.0 0.9 4.1 0.9 4.3 0.9
Age 46.6 19.4 48.3 19.0 49.1 19.4 46.0 18.7 46.9 18.1 47.9 18.5
Yea s o educa ion 8.0 4.7 8.7 5.0 9.1 5.0 11.6 5.3 12.9 6.0 13.1 5.9
Income 4.6 1.8 3.8 2.0 5.0 2.7 5.1 2.6 4.7 2.9 5.0 2.7
Radicalism 1.0 1.2 1.0 1.4 1.7 1.8 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.5
pe cen ages
Gende (male) 47.8 46.8 47.0 48.9 48.9 48.8
Occupa ion (paid wo k) 47.9 42.9 45.1 55.3 44.3 46.7
Table 11.2
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 287
Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance and
cogni i e mobiliza ion (2014)
No e: Adjus ed P edic ions wi h 90% CIs. All o he a iables a e cen ed a hei mean. No mobiliza ion = no
exposu e o news on poli ics and public a ai s in he media and no in e es a all in poli ics, High mobiliza ion =
highe exposu e o news on poli ics and public a ai s and highe in e es in poli ics.
Figu e 11.7
6
4
2
0
02468
10
0246810
po ugal
linea p edic ion
sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance
spain
High mobiliza ion No mobiliza ion
Adjus ed p edic ions o poli ical us as a unc ion o wel a e pe o mance and
cogni i e mobiliza ion (2012)
No e: Adjus ed P edic ions wi h 90% CIs. All o he a iables a e cen ed a hei mean. No mobiliza ion = no
exposu e o news on poli ics and public a ai s in he media and no in e es a all in poli ics, High mobiliza ion =
highe exposu e o news on poli ics and public a ai s and highe in e es in poli ics.
Figu e 11.6
6
4
2
0
02468
10
0246810
po ugal
linea p edic ion
sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance
spain
High mobiliza ion No mobiliza ion

288 ci izenship in c isis
conclusion
Ci izens’ us in poli ical ins i u ions is o en seen as a ba ome e o democ a ic
heal h. The las decade has wi nessed a widesp ead skep icism and dis us in
poli ical ins i u ions, pa icula ly a ec ing ep esen a i e poli ical ins i u ions
and poli icians in Eu opean democ acies. This chap e sough o iden i y he
sou ces o poli ical (dis) us in wo coun ies ha we e p o oundly a ec ed
by he Eu o Zone c isis. Ou main a gumen s we e wo old. Fi s ly, ha le els
o us we e s ongly in luenced by ci izens’ in e ac ions and expe iences wi h
wel a e ins i u ions such as he educa ion and heal hca e sys ems. This ma e s
because i is on he basis o hese expe iences (pe cei ed as good, bad, ai ,
and un ai e c.) ha ci izens base hei assessmen s o poli ical ins i u ions.
Mo eo e , since in bo h coun ies he e had been impo an e o ms in
wel a e sys ems, especially du ing he c isis, i was likely ha his could bea
nega i ely on ci izens’ le els o poli ical (dis) us . The second a gumen was
ha his e ec would be weake o hose mo e cogni i ely mobilized. To es
hese a gumen s, we pe o med eg ession analyses be o e (in 2008), du ing
(in 2012), and a e he peak o he economic c isis (2014) using ess da a o
Po ugal and Spain.
The esul s ga e suppo o mos o ou expec a ions and con i med
he main explana o y accoun s in he li e a u e (cul u al and ins i u ional
explana ions). A i s se o esul s con i med ha he e is a causal link be ween
sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance and poli ical us : he highe he le el
o sa is ac ion wi h how heal h and educa ion sys ems pe o med, he highe
he le el o us . This was mo e e iden in he case o Spain and also a he
s a (2008) and a e he c isis peak (in 2014). In ac , in 2012, which we used
as benchma k o he peak o he c isis, sa is ac ion wi h wel a e pe o mance
had ligh e (Spain) o no signi ican e ec on poli ical us (Po ugal). A
possible explana ion o he di e ences be ween Po ugal and Spain migh
ha e o do wi h he ex en o which he Po uguese ci izens – mo e han he
Spanish – we e mo e p one o hold he Eu opean Union – a he he na ional
execu i e – esponsible o he c isis. This migh ha e shielded ep esen a i e
poli ical ins i u ions om ha she app aisals o hei pe o mance du ing
he c isis. The ac ha wel a e pe o mance assessmen s ma e ed less a he
peak o he c isis sugges s ha o he compe ing/con ol a iables, such as
sa is ac ion wi h he economy and wi h he go e nmen , played a la ge ole
in shaping ci izens’ pe cep ions.
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 289
A second se o esul s discon i med ou expec a ion ha wel a e
pe o mance would ma e less o he mo e cogni i ely mobilized indi iduals
in e ms o shaping hei le els o us . The only ins ance in which he e is a
signi ican mode a ing e ec o cogni i e mobiliza ion was in Spain in 2014,
and he end is opposi e o ou hypo hesis: indeed, he impac o wel a e
pe o mance assessmen was s onge o hose mo e cogni i ely mobilized.
The e o e, i seems ha i and when in e es in poli ics and exposu e o poli ical
in o ma ion had an impac on he explana o y powe o wel a e assessmen s
on poli ical us , his impac is posi i e, ein o cing and s eng hening he ies
be ween ou comes and us . Addi ional esea ch, namely ocused on wha i
mean o be s ongly exposed o poli ical in o ma ion du ing hese yea s in
Po ugal and Spain (in e ms o salience and aming o wel a e issues), migh
shed addi ional ligh on his inding.
____________________________________
edalina od igues sanches
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
A . P o . Aníbal Be encou 9 — 1600-036 Lisboa, Po ugal
e sanch[email p o ec ed]oa.p
o cid.o g/0000-0001-6007-3680
____________________________________
josé san ana pe ei a
isc e-iul and cies-iul
jose.san ana.p[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0002-1713-3710
____________________________________
isabella azzuoli
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
[email p o ec ed]
o cid.o g/0000-0002-2693-267x
____________________________________
290 ci izenship in c isis
Appendix 11.A De e minan s o poli ical us in Po ugal: he e ec s o wel a e pe o mance
and cogni i e mobiliza ion
2008 2012 2014
Wel a e pe o mance -0.05(0.18) -0.01(0.12) 0.25(0.11)*
Cogni i e mobiliza ion
2 -0.64(0.84) 0.10(0.58) 1.19(0.53)*
3 -0.39(0.85) 0.94(0.59) 1.42(0.56)*
4 0.03(0.94) 0.51(0.62) 1.80(0.56)**
Wel a e pe o mance * Cogni i e mobiliza ion
2 0.25(0.18) 0.10(0.12) -0.11(0.12)
3 0.28(0.18) -0.01(0.12) -0.04(0.12)
4 0.24(0.20) 0.05(0.13) -0.08(0.12)
In e pe sonal us 0.07(0.02)** 0.11(0.02)*** 0.06(0.03)*
Sa is ac ion wi h he economy 0.34(0.03)*** 0.44(0.03)*** 0.33(0.03)***
Sa is ac ion wi h he go e nmen 0.02(0.01)** 0.00(0.01) 0.01(0.01)*
Reducing di e ences in income le els -0.07(0.07) -0.06(0.07) -0.11(0.07)
Age 0.00(0.00) 0.00(0.00) 0.00(0.00)
Gende (male) -0.07(0.11) -0.22(0.10)* -0.29(0.12)*
Yea s o educa ion 0.01(0.02) 0.00(0.01) 0.05(0.02)**
Income 0.15(0.03)*** 0.09(0.03)** -0.02(0.03)
Occupa ion (Paid wo k) -0.15(0.13) -0.15(0.12) -0.28(0.13)*
Radicalism 0.07(0.05) -0.03(0.04) 0.04(0.03)
_cons 0.79(0.92) -0.03(0.68) -0.45(0.64)
Numbe o obse a ions 933 972 983
R-squa ed 0.32 0.30 0.32
Adj R-squa ed 0.31 0.28 0.30
No e: signi ican a +p<0.1*p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001.
poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 291
Appendix 11.B De e minan s o poli ical us in Spain: he e ec s o wel a e pe o mance and
cogni i e mobiliza ion
2008 2012 2014
Wel a e pe o mance 0.35(0.12)** 0.11(0.09) -0.09(0.11)
Cogni i e mobiliza ion
2 -0.10(0.13) 0.03(0.09) 0.30(0.12)*
3 -0.06(0.13) 0.08(0.09) 0.33(0.12)**
4 -0.04(0.15) 0.13(0.10) 0.38(0.12)**
Wel a e pe o mance * Cogni i e mobiliza ion
2 -0.10(0.13) 0.03(0.09) 0.30(0.12)*
3 -0.06(0.13) 0.08(0.09) 0.33(0.12)**
4 -0.04(0.15) 0.13(0.10) 0.38(0.12)**
In e pe sonal us 0.19(0.02)*** 0.12(0.02)*** 0.14(0.02)***
Sa is ac ion wi h he economy 0.33(0.02)*** 0.39(0.03)*** 0.30(0.02)***
Sa is ac ion wi h he go e nmen 0.00(0.00) 0.02(0.01)** 0.02(0.01)***
Reducing di e ences in income le els -0.01(0.05) -0.12(0.05)* -0.10(0.05)+
Age 0.00(0.00) 0.00(0.00) 0.00(0.00)
Gende (male) -0.24(0.09)** -0.18(0.09)* 0.04(0.10)
Yea s o educa ion 0.00(0.01) 0.01(0.01) 0.01(0.01)
Income 0.03(0.02) 0.01(0.02) -0.03(0.02)
Occupa ion (Paid wo k) 0.05(0.11) -0.19(0.10)* -0.40(0.11)***
Radicalism 0.11(0.03)** 0.06(0.03)* 0.01(0.03)
_cons -1.40(0.78)+ 0.11(0.49) 0.84(0.63)
Numbe o obse a ions 1534 1452 1382
R-squa ed 0.33 0.33 0.32
Adj R-squa ed 0.32 0.32 0.31
No e: signi ican a +p<0.1*p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001.
292 ci izenship in c isis
e e ences
almond, G., S. Ve ba. 1963. The Ci ic Cul u e: Poli ical A i udes and Democ acy in Fi e
Na ions. usa: P ince on Uni e si y P ess.
al es, S. 2015. “Wel a e s a es changes and ou comes. The cases o Po ugal and Denma k
om a compa a i e pe spec i e”. Social Policy and Adminis a ion, 49 (1): 1-23.
bélange , É., R. Nadeau. 2005. “Poli ical us and he o e in mul ipa y elec ions: he
Canadian case”. Eu opean Jou nal o Poli ical Resea ch, 44 (1): 121-146.
belchio , A. M. 2015. Con iança nas Ins i uições Polí icas. Lisbon: Fundação F ancisco
Manuel do San os.
bellucci, P., M. C. Lobo, and M. S. Lewis-Beck. 2012. “Economic c isis and elec ions: he
Eu opean pe iphe y”. Elec o al S udies, 31 (3): 469-71.
b uneau, T. C., e al. 2001. “Democ acy, sou he n Eu opean s yle”. In Pa ies, Poli ics, and
Democ acy in he New Sou he n Eu ope, o gs. P. N. Diamandou os and R. Gun he .
Bal imo e and London: The Johns Hopkins Uni e si y P ess, 16-82.
eas on, D. 1975. “A e-assessmen o he concep o poli ical suppo ”. B i ish Jou nal o
Poli ical Science, 5 (4): 435-57.
e nandes, T., e al. o hcoming. Ins i uições e Cul u a Polí ica na Eu opa do Sul. Lisbon: ms.
e e a, M. 2000. “Recons uc ing he wel a e s a e in sou he n Eu ope”. In The Su i al o
he Eu opean Wel a e S a e, o gs. J. an De h, S. Kuhnle. New Yo k: Rou ledge, 166-181.
e e a, M. 2005. “Wel a e s a es and social sa e y ne s in sou he n Eu ope. An
in oduc ion”. In Wel a e S a e Re o m in Sou he n Eu ope. Figh ing Po e y and Social
Exclusion in I aly, Spain, Po ugal and G eece, o g. M. Fe e a. New Yo k: Rou ledge,
1-23.
ei e, A., J. S. Pe ei a. 2012. “Economic o ing in Po ugal, 2002-2009”. Elec o al S udies, 31
(3): 506-512.
guillén, A., S. Ál a ez, and P. A. e Sil a. 2003. “Redesigning he Spanish and Po uguese
wel a e s a es: he impac o accession in o he Eu opean Union”. Sou h Eu opean Socie y
and Poli ics, 8 (1-2): 231-268.
gu ié ez, R. 2014. “Wel a e pe o mance in Sou he n Eu ope. Employmen c isis and
po e y isk”. Sou h Eu opean Socie y and Poli ics, 19 (3): 371-392.
he he ing on, M. J. 1999. “The e ec o poli ical us on he p esiden ial o e, 1968-96”.
Ame ican Poli ical Science Re iew, 93 (2): 311-326.
he he ing on, M. J., S. Globe i. 2002. “Poli ical us and acial policy p e e ences”.
Ame ican Jou nal o Poli ical Science, 46 (2): 253-275.
hooghe, M., S. Ma ien. 2013. “A compa a i e analysis o he ela ion be ween poli ical us
and o ms o poli ical pa icipa ion in Eu ope”. Eu opean Socie ies, 15 (1): 131-152.
hooghe, M., S. Ma ien, and J. Ose . 2017. “G ea expec a ions: he e ec o democ a ic
ideals on poli ical us in Eu opean democ acies.” Con empo a y Poli ics, 23 (2): 214-
-230.
ingleha , R. 1970. “Cogni i e mobiliza ion and Eu opean iden i y”. Compa a i e Poli ics, 3
(1): 45-70.
ingleha , R. 1977. The Silen Re olu ion: Changing Values and Poli ical S yles among Wes e n
Publics. P ince on, nj: P ince on Uni e si y P ess.
ingleha , R. 1999. “T us , well-being and democ acy”. In Democ acy and T us , o g. M. E.
Wa en. Camb idge, Massachuse s: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 88-120.

poli ical us in po ugal and spain (2008-2014) 293
kaase, M. 1999. “In e pe sonal us , poli ical us and nonins i u ionalised poli ical
pa icipa ion in Wes e n Eu ope”. Wes Eu opean Poli ics, 22 (3): 1-21.
kumlin, S. 2002. “Ins i u ions, expe iences and p e e ences: how wel a e s a e design a ec s
poli ical us and ideology”. In Res uc u ing he Wel a e S a e: Poli ical Ins i u ions and
Policy Change, o gs. B. Ro hs ein, S. S einmo. New Yo k: Palg a e Macmillan, 20-50.
kumlin, S., A. Haugsgje d. 2017. “The wel a e s a e and poli ical us : b inging pe o mance
back in”. In Handbook o Poli ical T us , o gs. S. Zme li, T. W. G. Van De Mee . Chel enham,
uk: Edwa d Elga Publishing, 285-301.
lis haug, O., M. Wibe g. 1995. “Con idence in p i a e and public ins i u ions”. In Ci izens
and he S a e, o gs. H.-D. Klingemann, D. Fuchs. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 298-
322.
lobo, M. C., M. S. Lewis-Beck. 2012. “The in eg a ion hypo hesis: how he Eu opean Union
shapes economic o ing”. Elec o al S udies, 31 (3): 522-528.
lühis e, K. 2006. “Explaining us in poli ical ins i u ions: some illus a ions om he Bal ic
s a es”. Communis and Pos -Communis S udies, 39: 475-496.
magalhães, P. C. 2014. “The elec ions o he g ea ecession in Po ugal: pe o mance o ing
unde a blu ed esponsibili y o he economy”. Jou nal o Elec ions, Public Opinion and
Pa ies, 24 (2): 180-202.
ma ien, S. 2011. “Measu ing poli ical us ac oss ime and space”. In Poli ical T us . Why
Con ex Ma e s, o gs. M. Hooghe, S. Zme li. Colches e : ecp P ess, 13-46.
mishle , W., R. Rose. 2001. “Wha a e he o igins o poli ical us ? Tes ing ins i u ional and
cul u al heo ies in pos -communis socie ies”. Compa a i e Poli ical S udies, 34 (1): 30-62.
mu o, D., G. Vidal. 2017. “Poli ical mis us in Sou he n Eu ope since he g ea ecession”.
Medi e anean Poli ics, 22 (2): 197-217. h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/13629395.2016.1168962.
new on, K., S. Zme li. 2011. “Th ee o ms o us and hei associa ion”. Eu opean Poli ical
Science Re iew, 3 (2): 169-200.
new on, K., P. No is. 1999. Con idence in Public Ins i u ions: Fai h, Cul u e o Pe o mance?.
Pape p esen ed a he Annual Mee ing o he Ame ican Poli ical Science Associa ion,
A lan a, 1-5 Sep embe .
no is, P., o g. 1999. C i ical Ci izens: Global Suppo o Democ a ic Go e nmen . Ox o d:
Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
pe ei inha, J. A., M. C. Mu ei a. 2016. “The Po uguese wel a e sys em in a ime o c isis
and iscal aus e i y”. In Challenges o Eu opean Wel a e Sys ems, o gs. K. Schube , P. de
Villo a, and J. Kuhlmann. Heidelbe g: Sp inge , 587-613.
pe mesidou, M., E. Pa olini, and A. M. Guillén. 2014. “Sou h Eu opean heal h ca e sys ems
unde ha sh aus e i y: a p og ess- eg ession mix?”. Sou h Eu opean Socie y and Poli ics, 19
(3): 331-352.
pe mesidou, M., A. M. Guillén. 2014. “Can he wel a e s a e as we know i su i e? A iew
om he c isis- idden Sou h Eu opean pe iphe y”. Sou h Eu opean Socie y and Poli ics, 19
(3): 295-307.
pu nam, R. D., e al. 1983. “Explaining ins i u ional success: he case o I alian egional
go e nmen ”. The Ame ican Poli ical Science Re iew, 77 (1): 55-74.
pu nam, R. D., R. Leona di, and R. Y. None i. 1993. Making Democ acy Wo k: Ci ic T adi ions
In Mode n I aly. New Je sey: P ince on Uni e si y P ess.
o hs ein, B., D. S olle. 2008. “The s a e and social capi al: an ins i u ional heo y o
gene alized us ”. Compa a i e Poli ics, 40 (4): 441-459.
294 ci izenship in c isis
sanches, E. R. 2017. “Os sis emas pa idá ios em pe spe i a compa ada.” In Va iedades de
Democ acia na Eu opa do Sul 1968-2016: Uma Compa ação En e Espanha, F ança, G écia,
I ália e Po ugal, o g. T. Fe nandes. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 127-163.
sil a, F. C. da. 2013. O Fu u o do Es ado Social. Lisbon: Fundação F ancisco Manuel dos San os.
eixei a, C. P., A. F ei e. 2010. “Decline, ans o ma ion and us in pa liamen s: he
Po uguese case in a longi udinal and compa a i e pe spec i e”. Re is a Ibe o-Ame icana
de Es udos Legisla i os, 1 (1): 24-37.
eixei a, C. P., E. Tsa sanis, and A. M. Belchio . 2014. “Suppo o democ acy in imes o
c isis: di use and speci ic egime suppo in Po ugal and G eece”. Sou h Eu opean Socie y
and Poli ics, 19 (4): 501-518.
o cal, M. 2014. “The decline o poli ical us in Spain and Po ugal: economic pe o mance
o poli ical esponsi eness?”. Ame ican Beha io al Scien is , 58 (12): 1542-1567.
o cal, M., J. R. Mon e o, o gs. 2006. Poli ical Disa ec ion in Con empo a y Democ acies:
Social Capi al, Ins i u ions, and Poli ics. London & New Yo k: Rou ledge.
an de mee , T. 2010. “In wha we us ? A mul i-le el s udy in o us in pa liamen as an
e alu a ion o s a e cha ac e is ics”. In e na ional Re iew o Adminis a i e Sciences, 76 (3):
517-536.
an de mee , T. W. G., S. Zme li. 2017. “The deeply oo ed conce n wi h poli ical us ”.
In Handbook on Poli ical T us , o gs. S. Zme li, T. W. G. Van De Mee . Chel enham, uk:
Edwa d Elga Publishing, 1-15.
illo a, P., S. Vázquez-Cupei o. 2016. “The es uc u ing o he Spanish wel a e s a e: one
s ep o wa d, wo s eps back?”. In Challenges o Eu opean wel a e sys ems, o gs. K. Schube ,
P. de Villo a, and J. Kuhlmann. Heidelbe g: Sp inge , 197-221.
zme li, S., T. W. G. Van De Mee , o gs. 2017. Handbook on Poli ical T us . Chel enham, uk:
Edwa d Elga Publishing.
zme li, S., K. New on. 2008. “Social T us and A i udes owa d Democ acy”. Public Opinion
Qua e ly 72 (4): 706-24.
ci e his chap e as:
sanches, E. R., J. S. Pe ei a, I. Razzuoli. 2018. “In wel a e we us ? Poli ical us in Po ugal and Spain,
2008-2014?”. In Changing Socie ies: Legacies and Challenges. Vol. ii. Ci izenship in C isis, eds. M. C.
Lobo, F. C. da Sil a and J. P. Zúque e. Lisbon: Imp ensa de Ciências Sociais, 269-294.
h ps://doi.o g/10.31447/ics9789726715047.11
C i ical ends o
ci izen pa icipa ion
in policymaking.
Insigh s om
Po ugal
Robe o Falanga
12.
296 ci izenship in c isis
in oduc ion
Wo ldwide, ci izen y mis us in go e nmen s, go e no s, and in e na ional
inancial ma ke s is posing g ea challenges o democ acy. Disa ec ion g ows
agains he sp ead o e hnic, poli ical, and eligious in ole ance, pai ed by he
ise o populis ins ances ha h ea en human and ci il igh s wo ldwide.
Wi hin his u bulen scena io a emp s o eco e he ela ionship be ween
ci izen y and poli ical ins i u ions ha e been u ged by a wide ange o agen s
ha ing di e en inancial and poli ical in luences o e he s a e.
Mechanisms o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking ha e eme ged
as one o he ins umen s aimed a s eng hening democ acies. In he las
h ee decades pa icipa o y p ocesses ha e sp ead a ound he wo ld, mainly
in he o m o pa icipa o y budge s. In his span o ime, discou ses and
p ac ices o ci izen pa icipa ion ha e changed while models o go e nance
ha e been demanded o e ec i ely adap o he global scena io. Su p isingly,
changes in ci izens’ pa icipa ion and hei ela ions wi h he global poli ical
and inancial amewo k ha e been weakly add essed by schola s. The
in ica e ela ionship be ween global agencies in luencing na ional and
local go e nmen s in he enac men o ci izen pa icipa ion is he objec o
analysis in his chap e .
To explo e his issue, ligh will be shed on he con e gence o in e na ional
and ansna ional agencies on he p omo ion o a global ci izen pa icipa ion
agenda ha ma ches and ep oduces some o he neolibe al alues. The
dissemina ion o pa icipa o y p ocesses is app oached om a c i ical
pe spec i e by poin ing ou h ee main ends eme ging om his global
con e gence: he de achmen o local pa icipa o y p ac ices om global issues;
he shi owa d echnoc a ic app oaches in de imen o poli ical-o ien ed
p ac ices; and he sca ci y o e alua ion in con as o he mush ooming o
pilo s. In he second pa o he chap e he expansion o ci izen pa icipa ion
in Po ugal will be analysed in ligh o his amewo k. Conside ing he high
numbe o pa icipa o y p ocesses cu en ly implemen ed in he coun y
and celeb a ed in e na ionally, he discussion will con as na ional e idence
wi h he h ee global c i ical ends in ci izen pa icipa ion.
c i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking 303
dis inguished a he in e na ional le el. The coun y cu en ly hos s mo e han
180 ini ia i es dis ibu ed be ween municipali ies and pa ishes, which is he
highes a e in he wo ld when conside ing he a io be ween p ocesses wi h
he 308 municipali ies and 3092 pa ishes. Along wi h his, he implemen a ion
o he na ional pa icipa o y budge in 2017, alloca ing 3 million eu os o
he pa icipa ion o ci izens, and i s second edi ion in 2018 wi h an inc eased
amoun o 5 million eu os, u he ma ks a wo ld eco d o Po ugal.2
Since he mid-2000s he g ow h o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking
has become a case in poin in Po ugal, Spain, and I aly (Fon e al. 2014). These
coun ies we e especially a ec ed by he ecen inancial c isis and, agains isks
o con agion, he Po uguese go e nmen ag eed on he p o ision o a bailou
package o 78 million eu os unde he supe ision o im , ec, and Eu opean
Cen al Bank (ecb). The in e en ion o he “T oika” was a gued o e lec he
high ulne abili y o he coun y o he e ec s o he global c isis. The h ee
mains eam pa ies – Socialis Pa y (ps), Social Democ a ic Pa y (psd), and
Popula Pa y (cds-pp) – ag eed o consolida e domes ic inances and imp o e
in e na ional compe i i eness.3 The Memo andum o Unde s anding (mou)
in Po ugal was p eceded in 2010 by he a emp o he socialis go e nmen
led by José Sóc a es o pass aus e i y measu es, which led o a u- u n om
expansiona y and coun e cyclical iscal measu es (Acco ne o and Pin o 2018;
De Gio gi e al. 2015). Be ween 2011 and 2014 he implemen a ion o he
economic adjus men p og amme unde he mou imposed signi ican p o-
cyclical iscal consolida ion measu es, in line wi h he bailou s p o ided o
o he coun ies in he same pe iod (I eland, G eece, Cyp us, Spain).
Compa ed o coun ies like Spain and G eece, social mobiliza ion agains he
aus e i y in Po ugal was weake and, acco ding o Caldas (2012), cha ac e ized by
inc easing aliena ion om he poli ical class, pe cei ed as co up and dishones .
2 In 2017 an addi ional na ional measu e was launched o he young sec o o socie y: he Na ional
You h Pa icipa o y Budge , implemen ed be ween Oc obe and Decembe wi h a sha e o 300,000
eu os, and simila guiding ules o he npb (www.opjo em.go .p ).
3 The package, wi h an eu-sha e o 52 billion eu os, ep esen ed he hi d im in e en ion in Po ugal
( he i s in 1979 and he second in 1983), and was aimed a eco e ing low economic g ow h, high
le els o public deb , and in e na ional compe i i eness. The assis ance was made condi ional on he
implemen a ion o policy e o ms, in e nally moni o ed by he special go e nmen al uni esame. The
p og amme included o e uns on goods and se ices, wi h ax hikes and sala y cu s o public se an s,
including a wo-yea suspension o 13 h and 14 h mon hly wages and pensions e en ually e oked by
he Cons i u ional Cou .

304 ci izenship in c isis
Mou y and S and ing (2017) explain ha aliena ion o g ass oo s mo emen s
and sel -o ganized g oups, especially o p o essional bodies, occu ed because
aus e i y was p esen ed as a ai accompli, wi h na ow ma gins o e ision.
This aliena ion exace ba ed he nega i e ou look on longs anding ends o
disa ec ion owa d poli ical ep esen a i es and ins i u ions in he coun y (De
Sousa e al. 2014). No wi hs anding ha , social p o es s and s ikes inc eased
du ing he peak o he c isis be ween 2011 and 2012, wi h bo h di ec and
indi ec suppo o labou unions and poli ical pa ies a he a end o he le
spec um.4 Mobiliza ions managed o a ac public in e es o e la ge pay oll
ax inc eases, some o which we e e en ually suspended.5
T us owa d na ional policymake s was p og essi ely e oded du ing he
implemen a ion o he adjus men p og amme (im , 2015; ec, 2016). Da a
om he Eu oba ome e show ha be ween 2012 and 2013 us in eu and
posi i e in luence o na ional economy dec eased emendously (ec.eu opa.
eu/comm on o ice/publicopinion/a chi es/eb/eb79/eb79_ i s _en.pd ).
Nega i ely a ec ed by he ise o he alue added ax, discon en also sp ead
among business sec o s, and wi hin pa y anks o bo h go e nmen coali ion
and opposi ion. The majo mains eam pa y o he opposi ion, he ps, decided
o s op suppo ing he go e nmen in 2012 by o ing agains amendmen s o
he 2012 budge and he 2013 budge , a a ime when pools on o ing in en ions
ga e i an edge o e he coali ion (De Gio gi e al. 2015). Addi ionally, he
Cons i u ional Cou played a key ole in legi imizing dis us and discon en ,
as se e al measu es we e o ced o be suspended, such as he Labou Code
amendmen s in 2013 (Decision 602/2013), ollowed by he Law 27/2014,
hough ha came in o o ce despi e he opposi ion o he labou unions
(Ca doso and B anco 2017).
Agains his backd op, im and ec s ess ha he p og amme should ha e
been be e unde s ood and communica ed by he na ional go e nmen
(im 2016). While he communica ion s a egy was ailing o gain b oade
social suppo , esea che s made i clea ha he go e nmen was keen o
4 Fo ins ance, in 2012 he Uni e si y o Coimb a c ea ed he Obse a ó io sob e c ises e
al e na i as (www.ces.uc.p /obse a o ios/c isal ), and in he same yea ci il socie y launched he
Cong esso Democ á ico das Al e na i as composed o , in e alia, ade unions’ membe s, le -wing
mili an s, and suppo e s o social mo emen s (www.cong essoal e na i as.o g/).
5 Di e en app oaches o he p og amme led o he app o al o Law 23/2012 e o ming he Labou Code
unde he ipa i e ag eemen wi h ug , his o ically linked o mains eam pa ies, and he opposi ion o
he main labou union cg p, his o ically linked o he communis pa y, calling o gene al s ike.
c i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking 305
pe suade socie y on he need o aus e i y. The ina (The e Is No Al e na i e)
he o ic, abundan ly adop ed by go e nmen leade s, was suppo ed by a ich
epe oi e o a gumen s shi ing blame o bo h p e ious adminis a ions and
ex e nal ac o s (Fonseca and Fe ei a 2015; Mou y and S and ing 2017). The
goal seemed o be ha o s eng hening i s posi ion in he domes ic a ena and
enla ging powe o disc e ion o pass policies ha d o be app o ed o he wise
(Ca doso and B anco 2017).
Go e nmen s a egy, howe e , esul ed in a con idence d op-o
is-à- is d ama ic socioeconomic condi ions, ising unemploymen (especially
among high-p o ile skilled people), and young gene a ions’ lows o mig a ion
(De Sousa e al. 2014). Aliena ion om he poli ical sphe e eached he highes
abs en ion a es since 1979 in he 2013 local elec ions (47.4 %), p eceded
by 41.9% in 2011 and ollowed by 44.1% o abs en ion in 2015 in legisla i e
elec ions6. De Sousa and Maia (2017) show ha abs en ion was posi i ely
associa ed wi h lowe socioeconomic esou ces and educa ional skills. In his
sense, he c isis exace ba ed he exclusion o he mos ulne able g oups om
ha ing in luence in public decision (oecd, 2015).7
Al hough mobiliza ions we e pe cei ed as a legi imized way o dissen ,
scep icism pe sis ed and p o es s we e o en pe cei ed as con olled by labou
unions and poli ical pa ies (Obse a o y o he Quali y o Democ acy
epo 2012: www.oqd.ulisboa.p ). As a ma e o ac , labou unions we e
key in he o ganiza ion o p o es s and he ou gene al s ikes called be ween
2010 and 2013, as hei in luence is a gued o ha e limi ed he a i ma ion o
in e na ional claims and connec ions (Baumga en 2013). Bo de s be ween
ins i u ional and non-ins i u ional sphe es o en blu as ac i ism and poli ics
sha e, on occasion, he same ac o s (Acco ne o and Ramos Pin o 2018). This
condi ion made Po uguese socie y’s eac ion o he c isis di e en om
6 The nega i e ou look in he e alua ion o democ a ic go e nance and poli ical ep esen a i es’
pe o mance g ew om 2007 and plunged o c i ical a es in 2012 (De Sousa e al. 2014; Acco ne o
and Ramos Pin o 2018). The Obse a o y o he Quali y o Democ acy Repo 2012 shows ha he
ole o Eu opean Union and in e na ional co po a i e agencies was ex ensi ely c i icized as i was seen
o in e e e e wi h popula so e eigni y. Recogni ion o na ional copo a i e g oups and labou unions as
legi ima e pa ne s in poli ical dialogue equally dec eased wi h he gene al public opinion on hei ole in
he ace o he c isis (Balbona and Begega 2015).
7 The Gini coe icien emained s able a ound 34% be ween 2009 and 2014, as social and economic
inequali y showed se e e g ow h ( he ex emes o he no mal dis ibu ion iden i ying he poo e and he
iche we e u he dis anced), and exis ing asymme ies gained new s eng h (Rod igues e al. 2016).
306 ci izenship in c isis
he dis up ion o mo emen s and an i-sys em pa ies in Spain and G eece.
Poli ical pa ies in Po ugal a he ended o inco po a e some o he ins ances
claimed by he mo emen s, ad ancing slow ins i u ional changes and poli ical
s a egies wi h ew shocks o he sys em (A onso e al. 2015).
A he end o he 3-yea adjus men p og amme, Po ugal was conside ed
a case o success by im , ec, despi e he lack o en husiasm in ci il socie y.8
Indeed, he na ional elec ions in 2015 exp essed he will o e e se he aus e i y
agenda, as i s e icacy con inues o be ques ioned a i s hea by economis s
and expe s. While im ecognizes much “ a igue” in he implemen a ion
o he p og amme, da a show ha he ise o unemploymen and po e y
exceeded wha had been an icipa ed in he mou (oecd, 2015). Acco ding o
some schola s, ecessiona y e ec s we e in luen ial in secu ing he neolibe al
poli ical agenda imposed by banks and inancial ins i u ions, which e en ually
a ec ed wel a e egimes in all Sou he n Eu opean membe s a es in a way ha
could no be ob ained by democ a ic means (Caldas 2012). These condi ions
no only b oke wi h co po a is adi ions in hese coun ies (Balbona and
Begega 2015) bu also in e up ed secula ends o g ea e equali y and
inclusion (Pe ez and Ma saganis 2017).
ci izen pa icipa ion in po ugal: eco d-b eaking le els
Social mobiliza ion a he peak o he c isis amed wi hin disa ec ion
owa d decision-make s had a unique poli ical momen um in Po ugal, li le
connec ed by he g ow h o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking, hough. The
adop ion o ins i u ional designs delibe a ely seeking o engage indi iduals
a he han o ganized and g ass oo s g oups cha ac e ized he di usion o
pa icipa o y budge s in he coun y. While aus e i y was being implemen ed,
howe e , nei he pe meabili y o he a enas no o ms o e up ion occu ed
wi hin hese p ocesses. In Spain, on he con a y, pa icipa o y p ocesses
8 The Pos -P og amme o Su eillance was ini ia ed when Po ugal exi ed he adjus men p og amme
in May 2014 in o de o moni o economic, iscal, and inancial policies un il a leas 75% o he inancial
assis ance ecei ed was epaid. Repo s o his p og amme s ess weaknesses in labou ma ke , public
adminis a ion, and judicial sys em in e alia. The p og amme also c i ically obse es he e e se o
some p e ious e o ms, such as he e u n o he 35 hou wo king week in ci il se ice; he inc ease o
public employmen ia new hi ing policies; he educ ion o a o ood a es au an s; back acking in
e o ming s a e-owned en e p ises, and concessions nega i ely a ec ing he capaci y o a ac o eign
di ec in es men .
c i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking 307
opened space o sel -o ganized g oups and mass mobiliza ions, e en ually
con ibu ing o he o ma ion o new an agonis poli ical subjec s (Baiocchi
and Ganuza 2016). Likewise, ins i u ional designs in he coun y ended o
encou age indi idual skills o ne wo k and campaign in a ou o hei ideas
in he pa icipa o y budge s. These mechanisms may ha e impai ed g ea
pa icipa ion om he mos ulne able sec o s o socie y, o en lacking he
necessa y esou ces o ha e an e ec i e oice in decision-making.
The adop ion o ins i u ional designs p omo ing he engagemen o
indi iduals and hei capaci y o compe e wi h o he ideas cha ac e ized he
di usion o pa icipa o y budge ing in he coun y. While La in Ame ican
p ac ices inspi ed a i s gene a ion o pa icipa o y p ocesses in he ea ly
2000s, he ini ia ion o he pa icipa o y budge in Lisbon be ween 2007 and
2008 opened o a massi e dissemina ion in Po ugal. The i s gene a ion
was cha ac e ized by consul a i e mechanisms in small ci ies, as in he case
o he pa icipa o y budge o Palmela in 2002 (Sin ome 2005; Sin ome
and Alleg e i 2009). The empowe ing discou se p omo ed by he B azilian
Wo ke s’ Pa y on social jus ice and s a e e o m was gene ally eplaced by a
mo e pa e nalis ic a i ude a his s age (Sin ome and Alleg e i 2009). The
pa icipa o y budge o Lisbon opened an his o ical phase in which ci izen
pa icipa ion was endo sed by bo h le and igh poli ical pa ies’ local agendas
(ye wi h no iceable p e alence o PS-led go e nmen s), and indi iduals we e
pu a he cen e o decision-making, wi h powe o p oposing and o ing.
The Lisbon p ocess alloca ed 5 million eu os o ci izen pa icipa ion
un il 2012, d opping o 2.5 million eu os due o budge a y cu s. Dias (2008)
de ined his delibe a i e model as “compe i ion o ideas”. Ci izens we e pu
a he cen e o he p ocess and in i ed o p opose (and o e o ) ideas on
a one- o-one basis: one ci izen, one p oposal, and one o mo e o es. The
model clea ly elied on he capaci y ha each ci izen had o ne wo k and
campaign o inc ease he chances o single p ojec s o be o ed on, unded, and
implemen ed9. This model has been eplica ed by mos o he municipali ies
in Po ugal, and only a ew excep ions ha e adop ed di e en models o
delibe a ion. In Cascais, o example, ci izens a e eques ed o delibe a e in
public assemblies by sho lis ing he p oposals o be o ed on and imposing
9 The pa icipa o y budge in Lisbon was acknowledged by un-Habi a in 2009 (Cabannes 2009)
and oecd in 2010 (oecd 2011, 216) as an e ec i e democ a ic inno a ion, and in he same yea he
Eu oci ies o ganiza ion sho lis ed his pb as a no able pa icipa o y p ac ice (websi e: h p://www.
eu oci ies.eu/eu oci ies/eu oci ies-awa ds/awa ds2009).
308 ci izenship in c isis
he ule o nego ia ion in ound- ables (and educing he lis o p oposals o be
o ed on).10 In Lisbon, o he municipal p ac ices ha e challenged he model
o ideas’ compe i ion and p omo ed local pa ne ships’ pa icipa ion, as in he
case o he BipZip.11 All in all, he ew exis ing a ia ions o he one- o-one
model p o e ha i con inues o be he main e e ence in he coun y, as i also
was ecen ly adop ed in he scaling up o he na ional pa icipa o y budge .
The Na ional Pa icipa o y Budge (npb) was launched as a pilla o he
socialis pa y p og amme leading he go e nmen in coali ion wi h he
communis pa y (pcp) and he le bloc (be) (A . 3, Law 42/2016) om
2015. npb was designed o p omo e: (i) he quali y o democ acy; (ii) ac i e
and in o med pa icipa ion; (iii) economic and social cohesion (Diá io da
República n.º 21/2017, Sé ie i de 2017-01-30). In he i s edi ion (2017)
ci izen p oposals we e made in he 50 local mee ings o ganized by he
leading eam h oughou he coun y be ween Janua y and Ap il. P oposals
we e equi ed o iden i y he scale o implemen a ion, ei he na ional (i. e.
in ol ing mo e han one egion) o egional (i. e. in ol ing mo e han one
municipali y)12, while policy a eas included: cul u e, science, educa ion and
adul lea ning, ag icul u e, jus ice, public adminis a ion ( he las wo only
in he wo au onomous egions o Madei a and Azo es). A e he analysis o
he p oposals acco ding o p ede ined c i e ia, 38 winning p ojec s ha had
been o ed on ( ia bo h online pla o m and sms), we e publicly p esen ed in
Sep embe 2017.13
10 The pa icipa o y budge in Cascais was ecen ly ecognized as a bes p ac ice by he Global Ini ia i e
o Fiscal T anspa ency (www. iscal anspa ency.ne /blog_open_public.php?IdToOpen=5408) and an
ex ensi e ou look on i s ou pu s was published in he same yea (www.cm-cascais.p /si es/de aul / iles/
anexos/ge ais/new/2017_op_li o_ingles_ inal.pd ).
11 The BipZip p og amme p o ides a sha e o a ound 2 million eu os pe yea on an open compe i ion
basis o ngos and ci izens’ g oups o design and implemen u ban egene a i e p ojec s in c i ical a eas
o he ci y (www.bipzip.cm-lisboa.p ). I was ecognized as bes pa icipa o y p ac ice in 2013 by he
In e na ional Obse a o y o Pa icipa o y Democ acy (www.oidp.ne ).
12 Regions we e dis inguished in mainland – No h, Cen e, Lisbon and Tagus Valley (aml), Alen ejo,
Alga e – and au onomous – Madei a and Azo es. The amoun o 3 million eu os was dis ibu ed in o
375,000 eu os o na ional p ojec s; 375,000 eu os o egional p ojec s; and 375,000 eu os o he wo
au onomous egions (Azo es and Madei a).
13 P oposals could no add ess in as uc u e building; suppo p i a e se ice deli e y; con a ene
he na ional go e nmen coali ion p og amme no he implemen a ion o speci ic public policies; be
echnically una ainable; be impossible o ansla e in o a conc e e p ojec ; exceed a 200,000 eu os
budge pe p ojec .

c i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking 309
Fo gaining an o e iew o pa icipa o y p ocesses in Po ugal oday,
upda ed in o ma ion p o ided by public au ho i ies is sca ce and agmen a y
(e. g. i is di icul , and o en impossible, o ob ain in o ma ion abou he
sociodemog aphic de ini ion o publics and he policies implemen ed o each
p ocess). Despi e he imp essi e numbe o p ocesses implemen ed in he
coun y, and he ecen implemen a ion o he npb, ew da a a e a ailable on
hei pe o mance and ou pu s, and scien i ic li e a u e is su p isingly limi ed
on hese opics.
The na ional obse a o y o pa icipa ion c ea ed by he p ojec Po ugal
Pa icipa: Caminhos pa a a Ino ação Socie al (www.po ugalpa icipa.
p /Moni o ing) can be conside ed as he main sou ce in his ield, as i
pe mi s isualizing local p ocesses acco ding o: (i) ypology (pa icipa o y
budge ; pa icipa o y pla o m; open p esidency; e e endum; municipal
anspa ency); (ii) phase (ongoing; suspended; and concluded); and (iii) local
au ho i ies. A web sea ch conduc ed in Augus 2017 on pa icipa o y budge s
and pa icipa o y pla o ms esul ed in 186 ongoing and 38 suspended
pa icipa o y budge s, inding only 8 pa icipa o y pla o ms implemen ed
(i. e. p ac ices conce ning he in ol emen o ci izens in speci ic policy a eas).
These p ocesses occu mainly a he municipal le el (a ound 80%), including
a high pe cen age o municipali ies wi h ewe han 15,000 inhabi an s, while
a ela i ely small sha e is implemen ed by pa ish go e nmen s.
c i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in po ugal
A c i ical discussion o ci izen pa icipa ion in Po ugal should be made in
ligh o he in ica e ela ions be ween global agencies, na ional go e nmen ,
and local au ho i ies in he las ew yea s. C i ical e lec ion should be able
o explo e he in luence ha ansna ional and in e na ional agencies ha e
had on he sp ead o pa icipa o y p ocesses and hei g ow h du ing he
implemen a ion o he aus e i y agenda.
The ela ion be ween local and global ac o s o ci izen pa icipa ion can
be looked a h ough he mic o-sociological a icula ion o discou se and
p ac ices. The a en ion paid by some agencies like he un and he oecd on
Po uguese pa icipa o y budge s has been ex ensi e since he ou se o he
pa icipa o y budge in Lisbon. This ela ion implied nei he iscal no explici
poli ical in e en ion in he p ocesses, al hough he ole o hese agencies in
shaping a common discou se on ci izen pa icipa ion canno be unde es ima ed.
310 ci izenship in c isis
On he one hand, p ac ices ha e been awa ded o complying wi h global
s anda ds ha de ine wha is cu en ly conside ed as a good p ac ice in ci izen
pa icipa ion. On he o he , he celeb a ion o hei success has mos likely
ein o ced he legi imacy o global discou se (and agen s), helping gene a e
expec a ions and new scena ios, bo h inside and ou side Po ugal.
The ac ion o local p ac i ione s, esea che s, and social ac o s is also key
o cha ac e ize he ela ion be ween global and local agen s. The oppo uni ies
looked o by local agen s and opened by in e na ional ins i u ions in e ms
o unding has led o he dissemina ion o esea ch and/o social inno a ion-
o ien ed p ojec s on ci izen pa icipa ion since he mid-2000s.14 Acknowledging
he au onomy o esea ch agendas and wo k-plans o hese p ojec s, i is wo h
highligh ing hei ole in eeding public in e es and, on occasion, aining
public se an s and decision-make s in ci izen pa icipa ion. I is emblema ic
ha he na ional ne wo k o municipali ies adop ing ci izen pa icipa ion
(Rede de Au a quias Pa icipa i as) was c ea ed unde one o hese p ojec s
(Po ugal Pa icipa: Caminhos pa a a Ino ação Socie al), con i ming ha
nei he in e na ional unding no poli ical ep esen a i es, hi d sec o , o
academia can be aken as an isola ed ac o in his analysis.
The in e na ional endo semen o ci izen pa icipa ion in Po ugal s a ed
be o e he peak o he c isis, passed h ough i , and con inues un il oday.
Apa om cu s in some pa icipa o y budge s, ci izen pa icipa ion su i ed
almos undis u bed by he u bulen c isis scena io. One o he easons why
he numbe o p ocesses g ew could be ela ed o cu s and eo ganiza ion
o local au ho i ies unde he mou (G een Pape on Local Adminis a ion
Re o m and he Law 22/2012).15 The equi emen o e iew public spending
in e icien ways p obably d o e some local au ho i ies o see pa icipa ion
as an a ailable de ice o con ene on public p io i ies and minimize isks o
14 The “Pa icipa o y Budge ing Po ugal” p ojec (“O çamen o Pa icipa i o Po ugal”), unded by
he equal Communi y Ini ia i e in 2008, was one o he i s p ojec s in his ield unde he leade ship
o na ional academia and hi d sec o (www.op-po ugal.o g). These pa ne ships ha e become key in
o he p ojec s, as in he ecen Eu opean Union- unded “Empa ia” (www.empa ia-p ojec .eu) and he
eea g an s- unded p ojec “Po ugal Pa icipa es: oads o socie al inno a ion” (“Po ugal Pa icipa:
caminhos pa a a ino ação socie al”) (www.po ugalpa icipa.p ).
15 The key measu es o local au ho i ies unde he mou en ailed educ ion o adminis a i e uni s;
educ ion o s a e g an s (abou 60% o local e enue); educ ion o municipali y s a by 2% in 2012 and
2013; dec ease o he local deb ; educ ion o municipal-owned en e p ises; new mechanisms o isk
managemen con ol, epo ing, and moni o ing (Teles 2016).
c i ical ends o ci izen pa icipa ion in policymaking 311
dec easing public legi imacy. Ne e heless, a om ep esen ing a “me ely”
an i-aus e i y phenomenon, pa icipa ion con inued o g ow a e he end o
he adjus men p og amme, as p o ed by ecen da a and he implemen a ion
o he npb.
This said, why should he ela ion be ween in e na ional and ansna ional
agencies wi h na ional and local decision-make s be conside ed as in ica e?
Focussing on he yea s o aus e i y, ci izen pa icipa ion, and he agenda
imposed by he T oika seemed o wo k in pa allel wi h li le isible in e ac ion
o ic ion. P e ious and concu ing legi imiza ion p o ided by p ojec -
unding, p ac ice awa ds, and o he o ms o in e na ional ecogni ion
may ha e p e en ed hese p ocesses om being d ama ically suspended by
aus e i y-led e enchmen measu es. Howe e , nei he did he T oika seem
o conside he expansion o pa icipa ion in he coun y as a h ea o an
oppo uni y, no did pa icipa o y p ocesses di ec ly add ess he aus e i y o,
o ins ance, e o mula e hei p inciples and mechanisms. Al hough Balbona
and Begega (2015) a gue ha a emp s we e made o ein o ce poli ical dialogue
wi h social pa ne s on he aus e i y guidelines, Teles (2016) men ions ha
signi ican consul a ion wi h he associa ions o local au ho i ies would ha e
p e en ed opposing aus e i y measu es as me ely op-down imposed e o ms.
This e idence mi o s wha Whi e (1996) a gued: “[i] pa icipa ion means
ha he oiceless gain a oice, we should expec his o b ing some con lic .
[…] The absence o con lic in many supposedly ‘pa icipa o y’ p og ammes
is some hing ha should aise ou suspicions” (Whi e 1996, 15).
The i ual exclusion o aus e i y om pa icipa o y p ocesses, and he
absence o e e ence o oppo uni ies and isks o ci izen pa icipa ion in
he mou should be unde s ood in ligh o he con e gence o global agendas
discussed abo e. Mo e poin edly, compa ing c i ical ends o ci izen
pa icipa ion wi h p ac ices in Po ugal, he nex sec ions aim o explo e he
opic om a c i ical pe spec i e. Focus on pa icipa o y budge s is mo i a ed
by hei g ea dissemina ion and openness in e ms o policy a eas and publics,
which con as s wi h ei he public o issue-based ypologies o pa icipa ion
(e. g. he abo emen ioned pa icipa o y pla o ms, o he BipZip p og amme).
local pa icipa ion
Rega ding he i s end, he implemen a ion o he npb challenges is a gued
o be he educ ion o pa icipa ion on he local scale. While so, i is also wo h
312 ci izenship in c isis
highligh ing ha nei he o mal no in o mal connec ions exis be ween npb
and local p ocesses, which means ha ci izen pa icipa ion is bo h p omo ed
and implemen ed sepa a ely on he wo scales. In hese e ms, npb ecalls
wha A i ze and Ramos (2016) de ine as a “weak” o m o scaling up ci izen
pa icipa ion, one ha p o ides li le a icula ion wi h local p ac ices, and,
hence, con ibu es li le o he c ea ion o a (new) na ional public sphe e. The
au ho s compa e his ypology o he mul i-scale sys em o delega ed and di ec
pa icipa ion in B azil. Acknowledging he challenges ha such ins i u ional
design posi s in e ms o s a e e o m, he implemen a ion o he npb aises
some conce n abou i s impac be o e he p oli e a ion o local p ocesses and,
mo e b oadly, on he possibili y o e ame ci izen pa icipa ion h ough a
mul i-scale app oach o policymaking. Wi hou his e o , small in e en ions
isk ba ely app oaching – o e en in e e ing wi h – cu en socio-poli ical
challenges.
echnoc a ic pa icipa ion
Rega ding he echnoc a ic ends, hu dles c ea ed by he use o echnical
ja gon in public communica ion, he g ow h o ic as a p i ileged channel o
in o ma ion and pa icipa ion, and/o he exis ence o a chi ec u al ba ie s
in public mee ings inc easingly ep esen a conce n o he design o hese
p ocesses in Po ugal. E o s o iden i y accessible places o public mee ings,
as well as he di e si ica ion o communica ion s a egies should be no ed a
bo h local and na ional le els. Howe e , he sys ema ic iden i ica ion o goals
o social inclusion and clea de ini ion o hei ope a ionaliza ion gene ally
a e lacking in pa icipa ion co enan s. Al hough pa icipa o y budge s o en
conceal enabling measu es o he pa icipa ion o he mos ulne able sec o s
o he socie y, isks o disc e iona y inclusi eness and/o sel -o ganized
lobbies a e g ea . When pa icipa ion is non-binding, he isk is o u he
exclude ci izens wi h no access o public con en ion. This end con i ms wha
Baiocchi and Ganuza (2016) a gue abou he inc easing ambigui y ega ding
social jus ice in pa icipa o y budge ing wo ldwide. Gi en he c i ical ou looks
on coun y-speci ic socioeconomic and educa ional indica o s (oecd, 2015;
ec, 2016; im , 2016), a en ion o he e ec i e ope a ionaliza ion o highe
inclusion o he g oups a he ma gins o socie y should no be dismissed om
a c i ical analysis o pa icipa ion in Po ugal.
Poli ical
consequences
o socio- e i o ial
con lic s.
Concep ualizing
changing pa hs
o ci izenship and
democ a ic go e nance
in he Andean Region
o La in Ame ica
Gonzalo Delamaza
13.

320 ci izenship in c isis
in oduc ion
Social con lic impinges on poli ical sys ems and hei dynamics in di e en
ways. I has been s udied by he heo y o social mo emen s, bu only ecen ly
has i ecei ed mo e a en ion om esea che s, p e iously mo e ocused on
i s o igins and dynamics. This chap e analyses socio- e i o ial con lic s — a
ype o con lic ha is on he ise in coun ies in he Andean Region o La in
Ame ica. We sugges ha socio- e i o ial con lic s ha e gene a ed a di e en
ype o poli ical ou come ha has enabled ci izen sec o s o me ly excluded
om poli ical exp ession o become inc easingly isible. Un il now, poli ical
ou comes ha e been conside ed o de i e mainly om u ban con lic s and
ha e no no mally been associa ed wi h socio- e i o ial con lic s. In u n,
poli ical exp ession had been he exclusi e p o ince o poli ical pa ies and
na ional o ganiza ions. Howe e , hings ha e changed in he new scena io
o democ a ic go e nance, loss o S a e powe and capaci y, and neolibe al
in e na ionaliza ion o he La in Ame ican economies. The on ie s o
“ex ac i ism” in he Andean Region ha e expanded; socio e i o ial con lic s
ha e sp ead all o e he egion; and he na u e o he ela ion be ween social
ac o s, poli ics, and he S a e is changing. In ways ha a e di e en om he
pas , local a ai s now ha e poli ical consequences, expanding he on ie s o
ci izenship and inco po a ing new social ac o s.
The ela ion be ween he c isis o he poli ical and economic models and
ci izenship has acqui ed speci ic ea u es in La in Ame ica. In Eu ope, he
adjus men policies applied o coun e he economic c isis o 2009 esul ed in
he u he disman ling o he Wel a e S a e. In u n, his called in o ques ion
Eu opean in eg a ion and he “globalizing consensus”, which had been
hegemonic concep s in Eu opean poli ics in ecen decades. In La in Ame ica
we mus s a om a di e en assump ion, gi en he equency o (economic)
c ises in his pa o he wo ld. The exhaus ion o he de elopmen alis
S a e economic model p omp ed deep neolibe al e o ms ha inc eased
o eign dependence and ans o med he poli ical and social pano ama.
Al hough he Andean coun ies we e able o ou g ow mili a y ule, he
eme ging democ acies did no ha e he ull capaci y o ins all an e ec i e
egime o ci izen pa icipa ion, and hus los legi imacy and suppo (Pin o
and Flis isch 2011). This was he igge ing con ex o he eme gence o
di e en non- adi ional ac o s ha ha e modi ied hei ela ionship wi h
poli ics as hey seek o conque ci izenship spaces and igh s. How can we
poli ical consequences o socio- e i o ial con lic s in he andean egion 321
in e p e he poli ical impac o hese new o ms o collec i e ac ion? Do
hey ha e he ac ual abili y o p omo e e o ms and acili a e he inclusion o
hi he o excluded sec o s in new poli ical deals?
This chap e analyses some o he poli ical consequences o he socio-
e i o ial con lic s, in ela ion o ins i u ional changes and he implemen a ion
o public policies. I also ocuses on he eme gence o new poli ical ac o s
in he e y same con lic e i o ies. I s aim is o concep ualize his kind o
phenomenon o imp o e ou unde s anding o he cu en ela ionship
be ween c isis and ci izenship. I p esen s empi ical e idence om ou
coun ies in he egion (Boli ia, Chile, Colombia, and Pe u) and a gene al
o e iew, o be deal wi h in g ea e dep h in u u e a icles. The hypo hesis o
he chap e is ha he e ha e been impo an changes in he his o ical pa e ns
o poli iciza ion p e ailing in he egion. They in ol e new poli ical ac o s
as well as new o ms o poli ical in luence and new con lic enues (non-
u ban, pe iphe al); hey keep hei dis ance om poli ical pa ies and o mal
o ganiza ions and ha e adop ed di e se and he e ogeneous p ocesses o
o ganiza ion and mobiliza ion (ne wo ks o a icula ion ha do no cons i u e
social mo emen s and ha e di e en o ien a ions in hei mids ). New ways
o ci izenship ha e eme ged (as is he case o indigenous people, o example).
O en in isible as hese changes a e, i is u gen o in es iga e hem o imp o e
ou unde s anding o poli ics in a globalized wo ld.
The chap e e lec s on he way in which ci izenship has e ol ed in he
con ex o he c isis, wi h he speci ic cha ac e is ics o his in a pa o La in
Ame ica. The c isis in i s a ious dimensions c ea es la ge challenges o he
way in which ci izenship can be exe cised. I in ol es new o ms o ela ionship
be ween poli ical o social dimensions. Ou app oach is a compa a i e one,
and in ends o include a egional dimension - ou coun ies- in he deba e o
he e olu ion o c ises and changes in ci izenship.
The chap e s a s wi h a e lec ion on he his o ical and concep ual deba e
on social mo emen s and poli ics in La in Ame ica, seeking o show he
pa icula na u e and no el y o socio- e i o ial con lic s. The second sec ion
explo es hese con lic s in connec ion wi h he deba e on “ex ac i ism” and
i s in ensi ica ion in he egion, and iden i ies di e en app oaches. This is
ollowed by he concep ualiza ion o he poli ical consequences o hese
con lic s, a discussion on he me hodological p oblems in ol ed in hei
esea ch, and inally some conclusions.
322 ci izenship in c isis
he deba e on he ela ion be ween social
and poli ical issues in la in ame ica
In he egion, socio-economic changes and ac ion by he S a e ha e p omp ed
p o ound changes in he dynamics o collec i e ac ion and i s link o poli ical
changes. The dynamics o collec i e ac ion and i s connec ion wi h poli ical
changes ha e unde gone nume ous p o ound ans o ma ions in keeping wi h
socio-economic changes and ac ion by he S a e in he egion. A e he in ense
mobiliza ions o he la e 1960s and ea ly 1970s, se e al coun ies o he egion
expe ienced au ho i a ian eg ession and pe iods o iolen ep ession. In
Chile, in i s ea ly days, he mili a y dic a o ship imposed a new economic model
cha ac e ized by an open economy, ma ke de egula ion, and he expansion
o di ec o eign in es men in na u al esou ces (F ench-Da is 2014). Bu in
mos o he o he coun ies in he egion economic ans o ma ion, o a g ea e
o lesse ex en , was o a i e ia economic adjus men , he p i a iza ion o
public companies, and he imposi ion o economic ules by in e na ional
o ganiza ions. These changes we e o ha e a signi ican e ec on he exe cise o
ci izenship and collec i e ac ion (Pin o and Flis isch 2011).
his o ical backg ound
Du ing he na ional-de elopmen alism s age, which s a ed in he la e 1920s
in La in Ame ica, he s a e expanded because o he impo s-subs i u ion
economic model and he de elopmen o he na ional indus y. Populis
leade s encou aged he poli ical mobiliza ion o la ge hi he o excluded
social sec o s, especially, ade union mo emen s. An ac ual wel a e s a e was
ne e es ablished and p oduc i e de elopmen and social equi y a ied om
coun y o coun y. I was du ing his pe iod ha he p ocesses ha called
o he inclusion o o me ly excluded social g oups ook place. Collie and
Collie (2002, 17), analysed eigh coun ies and classi ied hese mobiliza ions
in o ou ypes: by he S a e, by he elec o al mobiliza ion o adi ional pa ies,
labou populism, and adical populism.
Du ing he 1960s and ea ly 1970s he e we e di e en p ocesses o poli ical
adicaliza ion, which we e in e up ed by mili a y coups (in B azil and he
Sou he n Cone), ci il wa s and iolen a med con lic s (Cen al Ame ica,
Colombia). Social mo emen s became weake , as did he na ional-populis
mo emen s ha p o ided access o poli ics.
poli ical consequences o socio- e i o ial con lic s in he andean egion 323
In he 1980s he neolibe al model implemen ed in Chile, p o usely
ecommended by in e na ional o ganiza ions and sys ema ized by he
so-called Washing on Consensus, began o sp ead h ough he egion. The
1980s we e also a decade o impo e ishmen o he popula ion and scan
economic g ow h ( he “los decade”) due o his s uc u al adjus men . The
democ a ic ansi ion and he decline o au ho i a ian ule coincided wi h he
implemen a ion o his new model o s a e ac ion and p e alence o di ec
o eign in es men in na u al esou ces.1 I is wo h no ing ha he new wa e
o poli ical democ acy was no accompanied by mo e inclusion and ha he
adi ional pa e n o inequali y in he egion emained unchanged.
By he end o he 20 h cen u y and he ea ly 21s , he socio-economic
and poli ical e olu ion o he egion ga e ise o a ious na ional p ocesses.
A i s g oup o coun ies (Mexico, Pe u, Colombia, Chile) con inued opening
hei economies based on neolibe al unde pinnings, and implemen ed some
compensa o y social p og ammes. By con as , a second g oup o coun ies
(Boli ia, Ecuado , Venezuela) began a p ocess o an i-neolibe al poli ical
e- ounda ion. Ye a hi d g oup unde wen a somewha milde and a ied
“le u n” p ocess (B azil, A gen ina, U uguay, El Sal ado ) ha has al eady
come o an end.2 This pe iod o e lapped wi h a commodi ies boom, du ing
which he p ice o aw ma e ials inc eased, and he La in Ame ican economies
u ned o expo ing na u al esou ces, exploi ed by o eign companies, mainly
in he mining, oil, and powe sec o s.
The global c isis o 2009 did no hi La in Ame ica qui e as ha d as o he
egions. In gene al, “in he Sou h, he 2009 economic decline was no oo s eep,
and eco e y was mo e apid. G ow h p ojec ions by 2017 mo e han double
hose o he No h” (eclac 2012, 6). The subsequen slowdown o he Chinese
economy oned down he op imis ic o ecas s o 2012 because o i s impac
1 The cases a e di e en : old dic a o ial and au ho i a ian poli ical sys ems we e modi ied (Pa aguay,
Mexico), bu in gene al he e is no e u ning o he usual mili a y coups o he pas , al hough
au ho i a ianism inc eased in Pe u, du ing he Fujimo i adminis a ion, and in Pa aguay and Gua emala.
Many coun ies expe ienced he disman ling o he adi ional poli ical sys em, leading o pe iods o
g ea ins abili y (Ecuado , Venezuela, Boli ia, Pe u, A gen ina). Colombia kep i s adi ional poli ical
sys em, bu he s a e los con ol o e a la ge pa o he e i o y due o con on a ions wi h se e al
gue illa g oups, which con inued well in o he 21s cen u y.
2 Chile can also be classi ied wi hin his hi d g oup because since 1990, i has been go e ned mos ly
by a cen e-le coali ion ha ies o s eng hen social e o ms, al e na ing wi h igh -wing go e nmen s
ha y o undo hem (Ba óme o de Polí ica y Equidad 2017).
324 ci izenship in c isis
on he p ices o commodi ies, pa icula ly, oil and coppe , while ood p ices
con inued o inc ease.3 Bu e en so, his had a milde e ec on employmen
compa ed o o he egions such as sou he n Eu ope. Also, g ow h eco e ed
much as e han in he Uni ed S a es and some Eu opean coun ies.
Thus, La in Ame ica’s longs anding dependence, which has weakened i s
de elopmen p ospec s, unde wen a ans o ma ion in he las en o i een
yea s, which p o ided i s coun ies wi h mo e esou ces o inance social
policies and educe po e y. Howe e , hese coun ies g adually los con ol
and so e eign y o e non- enewable na u al esou ces as he ex ac i e
on ie expanded. Common goods such as wa e , and biodi e si y and he
en i onmen in gene al we e a ec ed.4 All o his igge ed new social con lic s,
a ising no om ins i u ional s uggles be ween poli ical p ojec s o om he
g ea na ional-popula mo emen s, bu om he new sec o s ha we e a ec ed
by hese changes. These shi s in he s uggle o expand ci izenship equi e a
concep ual e o o unde s anding, since hey a e pa o global change ends.
he s udy o con lic s and new pe spec i es
The weakening o he g ea social mo emen s o he pas , pa icula ly ade
union and peasan mo emen s, has gi en ise o o he o ms o collec i e ac ion
and he “ e i o ializa ion” o “localiza ion” o social con lic s (Pleye s 2011b,
26). The e o e, i is impo an how hese new dynamics a e concep ualized.
The unila e al emphasis on he disa icula ion o na ional mo emen s and he
di e si y o local spaces led some au ho s o see in his dynamic mainly he
e ec o neolibe al policies, he a omiza ion o socie y, and he ine ec i eness
o collec i e ac ion (Gómez 2010). O he s a he simply conside hese e en s
as nimby con lic s (Báez 2013, 101). The lack o i o empi ical dynamics wi h
p e ious heo e ical models o igina ing in s uc u alis Ma xism o in he
3 In 2016, eclac i sel was o ced o admi ha since 2011 he e had been a ma ked d op in
in e na ional p ices o aw ma e ials (ag icul u al p oduce, me als, and oil), which had pa icula ly
a ec ed Sou h Ame ica, an expo e o his ype o commodi y. On he con a y, Cen al Ame ica had
no been a ec ed gi en ha i is a ne impo e . The e has been a slow expansion o global comme ce
and inc eased in e na ional inancial unce ain y since he Uni ed Kingdom o ed in a ou o he B exi
op ion o wi hd aw om he Eu opean Union.
4 Boli ia is a pa icula case, as he S a e has egained con ol o e mining and hyd oca bon
exploi a ion. This has p oduced a signi ican inc ease in social spending, which, howe e , also ope a es
o he de imen o common goods a ec ed by his ype o p oduc ion.

[Document text truncated for crawler view.]