Fluid Ne wo ks and Hegemonic Powe s in he Wes e n Indian Ocean
© 2017 Cen o de Es udos In e nacionais do Ins i u o Uni e si á io de Lisboa (ISCTE-IUL)
The So ala Coas (Mozambique) in he 16 h Cen u y:
be ween he A ican ade ou es and Indian
Ocean ade
Ana C is ina Roque
Cen e o His o y, Facul y o Le e s o he Uni e si y o Lisbon
Po ugal
20 The So ala Coas (Mozambique) in he 16 h Cen u y: be ween he A ican ade ou es and Indian Ocean ade
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This a icle add esses he local and egional impac o he se lemen o he Po uguese
in So ala, Mozambique, in he 16 h cen u y. Using he documen al a chi e sou ces on he
So ala coas we highligh he speci ici y o he in e ac ion be ween he Po uguese and he
local communi ies, he impo ance o he “non-o icial” s a egies used by he Po uguese
in o de o be accep ed by he local chie aincies, he impac o hei in eg a ion in o he
local and egional ne wo ks and how hei a i ude o med new geog aphies o powe in
he a ea, while exposing poli ical, economic, social, cul u al and eligious dicho omies.
Focusing ou a en ion on hese aspec s we make new con ibu ions o he analysis o
he So ala egion in he 16 h cen u y o a be e unde s anding o i s ole in he A ican
and Indian Ocean ading ne wo ks in he Po uguese empi e, mos ly based in in o mal
economic and poli ical con ol and hus p e y close o he concep o "shadow empi e".
keywo ds: Po uguese Expansion, “Shadow empi e”, In e con inen al ading ne wo ks, So ala,
Mozambique, Indian Ocean
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When a i ing in he Indian Ocean in he ea ly 16 h cen u y, he Po uguese
we e con on ed wi h an impo an in e con inen al ade ne wo k domina ed
by Muslim me chan s. This ne wo k in ol ed he Eas A ican coas al po s,
India and he Fa Eas as well as inland A ican kingdoms and was pa o a
much la ge , ancien Muslim ne wo k o ade, kinship and po -s a e complexes
(Tibbe s, 1981; Abu-Lughod, 1989; Chaudhu i, 1990) connec ing A ica, Asia and
Eu ope (Fig. 1).
Regional A ican ade ou es played a e y impo an ole in his sys em
because o he coas al po s om he Baza u o Islands up o he No h o
Mozambique. A ican ade goods, including gold, we e expo ed om hese
po s o he no he n Swahili owns and h ough hem o he Indian Ocean whe e
hey exchanged o co on, beads, spices and o he Indian goods (Beach, 1980;
Smi h, 1983). A huge ade ne wo k co e ing he Middle Eas and he Fa Eas e n
coun ies, domina ed mainly hough no exclusi ely by Muslim me chan s
(Sica d, 1968).
As ea ly as he 8 h cen u y, a chaeological e idence o his long-dis ance ade
con i ms he exis ence and impo ance o hese coas al po s (Sinclai ; 1982,
Sinclai , 1987; Sinclai e al, 2012; Wood e al, 2012), pa icula ly a ound he Sa e
del a (Sica d, 1968).1 This sugges s ha his ade was o p ima y impo ance o
he p ospe i y o he no he n owns and some smalle sou he n A ican po s,
such as So ala o Mozambique Island, long be o e he Po uguese a i ed in he
egion (Newi , 1995) and ha i was he eason o he i s Po uguese se le-
men s on he Eas A ican coas .
A e building a o i ied ading pos in So ala in 1505, Po ugal expec ed o
con ol he gold ade and hus gua an ee he gold i needed o pu chase Indian
spices. A he same ime, ans o ming Mozambique Island in o a Po uguese
po o call would gua an ee bo h he possibili y o p o isioning ships on hei
way o India and p o iding sailo s and a elle s wi h acili ies o es and e-
co e y (Boxe , 1961).
Howe e , expec a ions and eali y we e wo e y di e en hings and in he
ea ly 16 h cen u y he Po uguese we e inding i e y di icul o eplace he well
es ablished Muslim ne wo ks.
1 Sica d s a es ha , be o e he Muslim ade s, me chan s om Asian o igin would ha e used he po o Singó o
Nshawa in he Sa e Del a o gold ading. This po , which he au ho iden i ies as he island o Wasika epo ed
by Ibn-Madjid, would ha e been he key poin in he Indian Ocean ade ou es and also he inland A ican ade
ou e, since going up he Sa e Ri e , i was possible o each Bu ua whe e he gold was mined. Based on Blake-
Thompson’s wo ks he also s a es ha he Sa e was na igable in small boa s all he way h ough Mozambique a
leas as a as he con luence wi h he Lundi, whe e aces o a po wi h e idence o ma ine and es ua ine auna
ha e been ound.
22 The So ala Coas (Mozambique) in he 16 h Cen u y: be ween he A ican ade ou es and Indian Ocean ade
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Fig. 1. T ade be ween A ica, Asia and Eu ope on he e e o he Po uguese expansion
In: Fage, 1978, p. 27
Po ugal, So ala and he Indian Ocean ade ne wo k in he
16 h cen u y
A he u n o he 16 h cen u y, he a i al o he Po uguese on he Eas
A ican coas and he Indian Ocean o eshadowed he ad en o deep changes
in he exis ing ans- egional social and comme cial ne wo ks and ha hese
changes we e iewed di e en ly by hose in ol ed.
Fo he Muslim ne wo ks i was he beginning o he end o a long pe iod
o indispu able sup emacy in he Indian Ocean and hey eac ed immedia ely
by appealing o a med esis ance agains he newcome s, in ude s and io-
len Po uguese (al-Maliba i, ci . in Ho, 2004, p.222). Fo he Po uguese, i was
he beginning o a p ocess o con ac s and exchanges essen ial o he consoli-
da ion o he Po uguese p esence in he Indian Ocean and he cons uc ion o
he Po uguese Empi e. They belie ed ha , wha e e he ci cums ances, hei
igh o con ol he ocean was unques ionable. Violence was he e o e o be used
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i necessa y, and he Indian Ocean soon u ned in o “an a ena o mili a y and
comme cial geo-s a egy” (Ho, 2004, p.217).
In his con ex he es ablishmen o he So ala ading pos in 1505 was
he main basis o he s uc u e o his p esence in he i s qua e o he 16 h
cen u y.
The in o ma ion om Vasco da Gama’s i s oyage (1497-98) had shown how
essen ial i was o he success o he Po uguese plan o con ol Indian Ocean
ade o se up a ading pos on he Eas A ican coas . Acco dingly, based on
he assump ion ha i would no be di icul o eplace he “Moo s” ( he Muslim
me chan s domina ing Indian Ocean ading and social ne wo ks) Sancho de
To a was sen wi h Ped o l a es Cab al´s lee , in 1500, wi h speci ic ins uc-
ions o se up a Po uguese ading pos in So ala. The launch o his ini ia i e
was conside ed so impo an and u gen ha a new Fei o (adminis a o )2 was
appoin ed o So ala e en be o e he e u n o Cab al’s lee and in he absence o
any in o ma ion con i ming he es ablishmen o he pos . In ac , his new Fei o
sailed wi h João da No a’s lee in 1502. The only eason why he did no s ay in
So ala was because, du ing a s opo e a Aguada de S. B az (p esen day Mossel
Bay in Sou h A ica), hey we e in o med ha he ading pos had no ye been
buil (Co eia, 1858).
This se back did ha e he bene i o gi ing King Manuel ime o se pu he
guidelines o his policy owa ds he egion, s essing he need o se up ading
pos s in So ala and Kilwa o ensu e con ol o he pi o al A ican poin s in ade
wi h he A ican hin e land (So ala/gold) and he Eas Indian Ocean coun ies
(Kilwa/clo h and beads).
The model ha was d awn up – a ading o ess (Fo aleza- ei o ia)3 – was
e y e ealing o he idea he Po uguese had o he egion and he possible
hos ili y o i s inhabi an s. I also highligh ed he u gency o aking app op ia e
measu es o suppo he Po uguese p ojec , e en in he absence o any su ey
o he egion and igno ance o he ma ke s uc u e, in ol ing bo h Eas A ica
and he Eas e n coun ies on he Indian Ocean. Howe e , his sho coming was
la gely o e come by a con ic ion o he impo ance o ade, especially in gold,
which in i sel seemed o jus i y he in es men .
2 Fei o – Royal o icial esponsible o he economic and inancial managemen o he ading pos and he
collec ion o axes on behal o he king
3 The se ing up o a ading o ess in he p esence o a ai ly hos ile en i onmen om a poli ical poin o iew
equi es he p e-exis ence o ade in one o mo e su icien ly aluable p oduc s o jus i y such a la ge in es men
as he cons uc ion o a o and he main enance o i s ga ison o soldie s and oyal o icials (M. E. M. San os &
V. Rod igues, 1989, p. 237).

24 The So ala Coas (Mozambique) in he 16 h Cen u y: be ween he A ican ade ou es and Indian Ocean ade
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The So ala ading pos embodied he Po uguese d eam o mas e ing he
A ican gold ade o p o ide he necessa y capi al o pu chasing peppe
(Newi , 1995) and was he e o e he i s s ep owa ds building wha would be
he Po uguese Empi e in he Eas .
Fu he mo e, So ala was he eason o Kilwa’s p ospe i y. As a po o he
expo o gold om he hin e land, he Po uguese ega ded So ala as he ocal
poin o his ade and conque ing i would au oma ically ensu e con ol o he
gold ade. The e o e, he a ailabili y o mili a y esou ces o suppo his deci-
sion and cau ion in d awing up s a egies o he occupa ion o es ablishmen o
a ne wo k o local alliances became c ucial o acili a ing success ul comple ion
o he p ojec .
Once he guidelines o he Po uguese policy o he egion had been de ined,
i was necessa y o implemen a plan ha ook accoun o possible scena ios
and ways o o e come po en ial di icul ies.4 In ac , depending on he speci ic-
i y o each si ua ion, he occupa ion o he coas ollowed ou di e en mod-
els, namely, he conques o posi ions by o ce o a ms (Kilwa), he submission
o Po uguese so e eign y exp essed in paymen o a ibu e (Zanziba ), he
alliance wi h impo an pa ne s in he egion (Malindi) o he deploymen nego-
ia ed wi h he local chie ains, in ol ing he a ailabili y o a physical space and
he g an o exclusi e ading igh s (So ala) (Roque, 2012, pp. 209-236).
The implemen a ion o his policy assumed ha ade on his coas he ea e
would be he monopoly o he Po uguese C own, he local indigenous people
would be espec ed and he “Moo s” would be subdued by he Po uguese and
would ag ee o pay axes, ees and licences, i necessa y, by o ce o a ms. The la -
e was he posi ion ha p e ailed in he ea ly yea s5 when he Po uguese had o
ace he opposi ion o he Muslim communi ies he e and h oughou he Indian
Ocean, whe e hey we e s ongly deployed.
Howe e , e en a e he es ablishmen o o esses, ading pos s and alli-
ances o he imposi ion o a sys em o ade licences – ca azes – (Villie s,1986;
Ma hew, 1986) on behal o he Po uguese C own, he sys em p o ed o be ine -
ec i e.
The absence o p io , accu a e, c edible in o ma ion on he poli ical, social
and economic s uc u e o he local communi ies o he size and cha ac e is ics o
4 In his espec , he Regimen o do Capi ão-mó , D. F ancisco de Almeida (1505) is a key documen in unde s anding
he main lines o Po uguese policies bo h o his egion and he Indian Ocean in gene al.
5 Among he mos signi ican examples o he use o o ce, we ha e he conques o Kilwa and he sacking o
Mombasa in 1505 unde he o de s o F ancisco de Almeida, he T is an da Cunha campaigns on Madagasca ’s
no hwes coas in 1506 and he sack o Oge also in 1506 pe o med by T is an da Cunha, A onso de Albuque que
and João da No a. Anonymous, 1521(?), Caps. 70 and 71
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he Muslim diaspo a in he Indian Ocean o i s impo ance in Eas A ica mean
he Po uguese had no idea on how o ac e ec i ely. Only a e se ling did hey
ealise he u gen need o change he basis on which he whole plan o con ol he
A ican Indian a ea was cen ed.
Indeed, he need o his adjus men became clea sho ly a e he nego ia ions
be ween Ped o de Anhaia and Yusu , King o So ala, on he es ablishmen o he
ading pos . They showed ha o achie e i s objec i es, he Po uguese C own
had o ind a di e en policy. On he one hand, he impo ance o he Muslim
communi y in he egion could clea ly no be igno ed and ha he Po uguese
should be able o coope a e, a leas un il hey we e able o eplace hese “Moo s”
and hei ne wo ks. On he o he hand, i became equally ob ious ha i he
Po uguese wan ed o mas e he Indian Ocean ade ou es be ween Eas A ica
and he Eas , hey also had o adap hei usual ange o commodi ies o A ican
p e e ences and equi emen s, especially wi h espec o he gold ade.
The mon hs ollowing he opening o So ala ading pos we e c ucial o he
Po uguese o ealise he impo ance and he ole o hese “Moo s” and, espe-
cially, o lea n how o handle he si ua ion and ake ad an age o i o hei own
bene i .
Be o e he a i al o he Po uguese, ade in he Indian Ocean was ee o im-
posi ions and es ic ions on he mo emen o people and goods (Ma hew, 1986;
Pouwels, 2002; Ho, 2004). I ope a ed on he basis o comme cial ne wo ks buil
on in e -pe sonal ela ionships linking he communi ies o he no he n Swahili
owns wi h he sou he n A ican po s and he hin e land ai s. This enabled he
“Moo s” o domina e coas al a ic and mos o he ade be ween he coas and
inland kingdoms and chie aincies (Roque, 2013, pp. 189-193).
Toge he wi h hei local agen s hey we e no only in con ol o he ade
ou es o A ican gold and Indian clo hs and beads, which we e he b eadwin-
ne s o he coas al es ablishmen s, bu also o essen ial ood supplies o local
esiden s and many o he A ican p oduc s wi h high demand in he Eas e n
ma ke s, such as i o y, p ecious woods, pea ls, seed pea ls, o oiseshell, animal
skins, ambe , elephan oil, ee h o “ ish-woman”, medicinal plan s, sla es and
e en aw co on (Anonymous, 1497, pp. 98-21). Co on was a egional p oduc ex-
clusi ely in ended o he manu ac u e o ex iles (Ba bosa, 1516, p.18; Moncla o,
1569, p. 547) ha we e so special hey could only be wo n by he local uling eli e
(Ba os, 1552, p. 377).
This ne wo k also encompassed o he key economic sec o s, such as ship-
building and boa cha e s o ca y passenge s and goods along he coas . In bo h
cases, he communi ies in ol ed bene i ed om a secula backg ound, p o iding
26 The So ala Coas (Mozambique) in he 16 h Cen u y: be ween he A ican ade ou es and Indian Ocean ade
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know-how and expe ise o e many gene a ions, which made hem highly mo-
bile and able o adap o changes o new si ua ions (Roque, 2013).
The in luence o he “Moo s” had clea ly been unde es ima ed by he
Po uguese C own and i would no be easy o emo e o eplace hem wi hin he
igh s ensh ined by he papal bulls (Rex Re um, 1436; Dum Di e sas, 1452; Romanus
Pon i ex, 1455 and In e Cae e a, 1456) o he guidelines o he Regimen os and
p o isions o he i s oyal ins uc ions, which clea ly e ealed he king’s p io i-
ies o Po uguese ac ions in o e seas e i o ies (Russell-Wood, 2007, p.16).
As poin ed ou by Ma hews (1986, p. 73), Po uguese “aspi a ions o app o-
p ia e ade in he Indian Ocean we e based on ce ain assump ions which did
no s and he es o ac ual encoun e wi h he exis ing sys ems in Eas A ica”. I
was he e o e necessa y o show some lexibili y and adap abili y o gain g adual
bu undispu able con ol.
As ea ly as No embe 1506, he i s esul s o his eadjus men we e epo -
ed by Manuel Fe nandes, he local Fei o . Hoping o educe business ha he
ading pos was unable o con ol and bene i om he local in luence o he
Muslim communi y, Fe nandes, s ongly commi ed himsel o o ming a g oup
o “ iendly Moo s and subjec s o he King” – Mou os amigos e se ido es d’el-Rei –
(Fe nandes, 1506, p. 692). They would ac as in e media ies be ween he ading
pos and he hin e land kingdoms in a ou o Po uguese in e es s. The ini ia-
i e had li le success bu his successo s we e s ill keen on p ese ing and e en
s eng hening his link. They asked he “Moo s” o se e o icially as media o s
in nego ia ions (Sob inho, 1515, pp. 240-246; Soa es, 1513, p. 466) and included
hem in Po uguese embassies sen o local kingdoms and chie aincies (Anhaia,
1506, pp. 508-519; Rol do pagamen o de soldos … 1518, p. 429).
Fa om meaning hey we e gi ing up on hei goals, he a i ude o he
Po uguese was in line wi h common p ac ice among local chie s. I showed an
awa eness o a si ua ion ha equi ed changes and adjus men s wi h immedia e
impac on he ading pos and he su i al o he people li ing and wo king
he e. In his con ex , he a ailabili y o sui able goods in demand in he local
and egional A ican ma ke s was as impo an as ensu ing he egula supply o
ood o he ading pos (Roque, 2012).
When i came o alliances, he di icul y o keeping local indigenous people
and “Moo s” apa combined wi h impossibili y o conside ing hem sepa a e-
ly in business. This la e aspec was pa icula ly impo an in he pu chase o
p o isions. Al hough oyal ins uc ions demanded ha he o ess should al-
ways ha e enough supplies o main ain s a and esiden s o abou six mon hs
(Regimen o do Capi ão-mó D. F ancisco de Almeida, 1505, p. 234; Regimen o
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de So ala, 1530, p. 348), in p ac ice hey we e all a he me cy o wha could be
bough locally (Regimen o de So ala, 1530, p. 348 and 368). And i , heo e ically,
a ailable goods we e condi ioned by ma ke supplies, in ac he main cons ain
was access o egional p oduc ion and dis ibu ion ne wo ks, mos ly domina ed
by “Moo s”, who ac ed in collusion wi h So ala chie s.
In he diploma ic app oach o he local chie aincies and kingdoms, he
Po uguese ca e ully hough h ough he sys em o alliances so as no o jeop-
a dise he p o isioning o he ading pos . In u n, his s a egy also allowed
hem o de elop pe sonal ela ionships wi h he mos impo an chie s in he
So ala egion and o join egional and local ade ne wo ks. This esul ed in
pa ne ships and associa ions especially a an indi idual le el, and he subse-
quen accep ance o many Po uguese in o he local communi ies (Roque, 2004;
Roque,2012).
This ela ionship highligh s how quickly he Po uguese in So ala ealised he
modus ope andi o he local s uc u es and began o use simila models o ensu e
hei own accep ance. As a esul , in he i s qua e o he 16 h cen u y, many
Po uguese we e al eady li ing in he inland egions.
Some o hem, who engaged in diploma ic o comme cial ac i i ies, e en wen
o li e in he cou s o he local chie doms such as he Kingdom o Qui e e.6
O he s, such as c iminals banished om Po uguese se lemen s, in es ed a hei
own isk in backcoun y ade (Roque, 2012). Some o hese con ic s e en ually
achie ed p es igious posi ions in local and egional ade ne wo ks, whe e hey
ea ned a li ing, and, la e , he s a us o o icial in e media ies in ade wi h he
same Po uguese who exiled hem (Nau gio da Nao São Thomé …1589, p. 29).
One o he mos in e es ing cha ac e is ics o he Po uguese So ala o i ied
ading pos was i s people’s abili y o su i e by blending in socially and cul u -
ally wi h he local communi ies (Roque, 2013). This p ocess was pa icula ly im-
po an om he mid-16 h cen u y. This was when he gold ade in he Zambezi
Valley began o pola ize a en ion and esou ces and So ala expe ienced a p o-
g essi e disengagemen om he Po uguese C own in a ou o Mozambique
Island. The island was u he no h and nea e o he Zambezi Del a, whe e a
new ading pos and po o call we e unde de elopmen o suppo he Ca ei a
da Índia and assis he Po uguese in Eas A ica and A ica Indian ocean ade
(Boxe , 1961).
E en hough he easons o his loss o in e es a e no analysed he e, we
should no e ha his posi ion s emmed om a clea ma ginalisa ion o So ala.
6 See he case o Rod igo Lobo, in he la e 16 h cen u y, who was g an ed by he King o Qui e e wi h mo e han a
hal o Ma oupe Island in So ala’s Ri e and awa ded wi h he i le o “king’s wi e”. San os, 1609, p. 139.
34 The So ala Coas (Mozambique) in he 16 h Cen u y: be ween he A ican ade ou es and Indian Ocean ade
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“Regimen o do Capi ão-mó , D. F ancisco de Almeida (5 de Ma ço de 1505)”: Documen os
dos Po ugueses em Moçambique e na Á ica Cen al (DPMAC)/1497-1840, Vol. I, Doc.18
(Ed.1962, pp. 156-261). Lisboa: Na ional A chi es o Rhodesia/Cen o de Es udos
His ó icos Ul ama inos.
“Regimen o (p oje o de) de Cid Ba budo (? Se emb o de 1505)” Documen os dos Po ugueses
em Moçambique e na Á ica Cen al (DPMAC)/1497-1840, Vol. I, Doc. 20 (d. 1962, pp. 266-
-287). Lisboa: Na ional A chi es o Rhodesia/Cen o de Es udos His ó icos Ul ama inos.
“Rol do pagamen o de soldos e man imen os na Fo aleza de So ala (So ala, 31 de
Ma ço de 1518)”: Documen os dos Po ugueses em Moçambique e na Á ica Cen al
(DPMAC)/1497-1840, Vol. V, Doc. 55 (ed. 1966, pp. 400-435). Lisboa: Na ional A chi es
o Rhodesia/Cen o de Es udos His ó icos Ul ama inos.
San os, F ei João dos (1609), E iópia O ien al, (Ed. 1999). Lisboa: Comissão Nacional pa a a
Comemo ação dos Descob imen os Po ugueses.
Soa es, Ped o Vaz (1513), “Ca a de Pe o Vaz Soa es, ei o de So ala, pa a el-Rei (So ala,
30 de Junho de 1513)”: Documen os dos Po ugueses em Moçambique e na Á ica Cen al
(DPMAC)/1497-1840, Vol. III, Doc 76 (Ed. 1974, pp. 458-4469). Lisboa: Na ional
A chi es o Rhodesia/Cen o de Es udos His ó icos Ul ama inos.
Sob inho, Pe o e Homem, Diogo (1515), “Au o passado po Pe o Sob inho e Diogo Homem,
esc i ão da Fei o ia de So ala (So ala,15 de Ab il de 1515)”: Documen os dos Po ugueses
em Moçambique e na Á ica Cen al (DPMAC)/1497-1840, Vol. III, Doc.37 (ed. 1974,
pp. 234-249), Lisboa: Na ional A chi es o Rhodesia/Cen o de Es udos His ó icos
Ul ama inos.
Sil ei a, An ónio (1518), “Ca a (T eslado da) de D. An ónio da Sil ei a pa a el-Rei (pos .
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