Immig a ion om he Mig an s’
Pe spec i e
Social Inclusion
Immig a ion om he Mig an s’
Pe spec i e
Edi o s
Alice Ramos, Eldad Da ido , Pe e Schmid , Ma a Vila Rosales
and Dina Maskileyson
Open Access Jou nal | ISSN: 2183-2803
Volume 7, Issue 4 (2019)
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4
Immig a ion om he Mig an s’ Pe spec i e
Published by Cogi a io P ess
Rua Fialho de Almeida 14, 2º Esq.,
1070-129 Lisbon
Po ugal
Academic Edi o s
Alice Ramos (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal)
Eldad Da ido (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many/Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land)
Pe e Schmid (Uni e si y o Giessen, Ge many)
Ma a Vila Rosales (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal)
Dina Maskileyson (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many)
A ailable online a : www.cogi a iop ess.com/socialinclusion
This issue is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
A icles may be ep oduced p o ided ha c edi is gi en o he o iginal and Social Inclusion is
acknowledged as he o iginal enue o publica ion.
Immig a ion om he Immig an s’ Pe spec i e: Analyzing Su ey Da a
Collec ed among Immig an s and Hos Socie y Membe s
Alice Ramos, Eldad Da ido , Pe e Schmid , Ma a Vila Rosales
and Dina Maskileyson 253–256
Poli ical In e es among Eu opean You h wi h and wi hou an Immig an
Backg ound
Osh a Hochman and Gema Ga cía-Albace e 257–278
The In luence o a Mig a ion Backg ound on A i udes Towa ds Immig a ion
Cha lo e Cla a Becke 279–292
Feeling Blue by Ex ension: In a amily T ansmission and Economic P essu es
Explain he Na i e-Immig an Gap in Well-Being among You h in Swi ze land
O iane Sa asin, E a G. T. G een, Gina Po a ca, Claudio Bolzman
and U sina Kuhn 293–303
In Sea ch o he Heal hy Immig an E ec in Fou Wes Eu opean Coun ies
Dina Maskileyson, Moshe Semyono and Eldad Da ido 304–319
Con ac s be ween Na i es and Mig an s in Ge many: Pe cep ions o he
Na i e Popula ion since 1980 and an Examina ion o he
Con ac Hypo heses
B yan Boh e , Ma ia-The ese F iehs, Pe e Schmid and S e an Weick 320–331
Nos algic, Con e ed, o Cosmopoli an: Typology o Young Spanish Mig an s
Rubén Rod íguez-Pue as and Alexand a Ainz 332–342
Table o Con en s
Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803)
2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 253–256
DOI: 10.17645/si. 7i4.2695
Edi o ial
Immig a ion om he Immig an s’ Pe spec i e: Analyzing Su ey Da a
Collec ed among Immig an s and Hos Socie y Membe s
Alice Ramos 1,*, Eldad Da ido 2, 3, Pe e Schmid 4, Ma a Vila Rosales 1and Dina Maskileyson 2
1Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Lisbon, 1600-189 Lisbon, Po ugal; E-Mails: alice. [email p o ec ed] (A.R.),
ma a. [email p o ec ed] (M.V.R.)
2Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology, Uni e si y o Cologne, 50923 Cologne, Ge many;
E-Mails: e.da ido @uni-koeln.de (E.D.), [email protected] (D.M.)
3Uni e si y Resea ch P io i y P og am “Social Ne wo ks,” Uni e si y o Zu ich, 8006 Zu ich, Swi ze land
4Depa men o Poli ical Science, Uni e si y o Giessen, 35390 Giessen, Ge many;
E-Mail: pe e [email p o ec ed]
* Co esponding au ho
Submi ed: 8 Decembe 2019 | Published: 27 Decembe 2019
Abs ac
Immig a ion has been one o he mos c ucial global phenomena, changing he ab ic o many socie ies, and a opic o
subs an ial esea ch. Much o his esea ch has ocused on how he hos socie y iews immig an s and immig a ion, o on
he socie al ac o s in luencing he la e . The goal o his hema ic issue is o p esen di e en s udies ocusing on a ious
aspec s o immig a ion om a pe spec i e ha has no been o en iewed unde he magni ying glass so a , bu which is
o majo impo ance: looking a immig a ion om he immig an s’ poin o iew.
Keywo ds
adap a ion; a i udes owa d immig a ion; communi y; immig an s’ ecep ion; in eg a ion; mig an s’ pe spec i e;
pe cei ed heal h; well-being
Issue
This edi o ial is pa o he issue “Immig a ion om he Mig an s’ Pe spec i e” edi ed by Alice Ramos (Ins i u e o Social
Sciences, Po ugal), Eldad Da ido (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many/Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land), Pe e Schmid
(Uni e si y o Giessen, Ge many), Ma a Vila Rosales (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal) and Dina Maskileyson
(Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many).
© 2019 by he au ho s; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu-
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
Immig a ion has been one o he mos c ucial global phe-
nomena changing he ab ic o many socie ies, and a
opic o subs an ial esea ch. Much o his esea ch has
ocused on how he hos socie y iews immig an s and
immig a ion o on he socie al ac o s in luencing immi-
g a ion. The goal o his hema ic issue is o p esen di -
e en s udies ocusing on a ious aspec s o immig a ion
om a pe spec i e ha has no been o en iewed unde
he magni ying glass so a , bu which is o majo impo -
ance: looking a immig a ion om he immig an s’ poin
o iew.
Na i es’ a i udes owa d immig a ion ha e been
ho oughly analyzed in he li e a u e using su ey da a.
A mul i ude o a icles con ibu ing o he s udy o ci -
izens’ a i udes and opinions abou immig an s and im-
mig a ion policies, including hei de e minan s and con-
sequen s, ha e been published based on su ey da a, o
example, om he Eu opean Social Su ey (Hea h e al.,
2019) o o he in e na ional la ge-scale su eys. Indeed,
opposi ion o membe s o he hos socie y o immig a-
ion, hei pe cep ions o h ea due o immig an s and
immig a ion, o p e e ences ega ding immig a ion and
in eg a ion policies, a e jus some o he opics ha ha e
been add essed om he pe spec i e o he hos soci-
e y membe s (Ceobanu & Escandell, 2010; Hainmuelle
& Hopkins, 2014). Howe e , and in spi e o he conside -
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 253–256 253
able numbe o quali a i e, e hnog aphy-based esea ch
p ojec s ocusing on he poin o iew o immig an s,
we lack ex ensi e su ey-based wo k on immig an s’ ex-
pe ience o immig a ion and hei opinions o a i udes
abou immig a ion. Indeed, li le is known abou immi-
g an s’ own expe ience o immig a ion, abou how im-
mig an popula ions and communi ies e alua e he a -
i al o o he immig an s in o he coun y, hei poli i-
cal in e es s, hei heal h o well-being, o hei con ac
wi h na i es. In eali y, immig an s may possess mul i-
ple iden i ies: On he one hand, hey a e concei ed o
as immig an s om he poin o iew o na i es; on he
o he hand, hey a e in he p ocess o in eg a ing in o
he hos socie y hemsel es, hey may expe ience di i-
cul ies associa ed wi h immig a ion, and may in u n be
h ea ened by new immig an s. This hema ic issue in-
cludes s udies ha analyze, in a heo y-d i en way and
using su ey da a, such a ious aspec s o immig an s’
expe ience in he hos socie y, like poli ical in e es and
pa icipa ion (Hochman & Ga cía-Albace e, 2019), a -
i udes owa d o he immig an s (Becke , 2019), well-
being (Sa asin, G een, Po a ca, Bolzman, & Kuhn, 2019),
pe cei ed heal h (Maskileyson, Semyono , & Da ido ,
2019), con ac wi h na i es (Boh e , F iehs, Schmid , &
Weick, 2019), o adap a ion and in eg a ion in o he hos
socie y (Rod íguez-Pue as & Ainz, 2019). These ques-
ions a e ocused on in hese s udies om a compa a i e
o longi udinal pe spec i e.
The i s a icle, by Hochman and Ga cía-Albace e
(2019), s udies whe he —and o wha ex en —you h
wi h and wi hou an immig a ion backg ound engage
wi h poli ics by looking a di e ences in poli ical in e es
among immig an s, hei o sp ing, and na i es. Indeed,
poli ical in e es is conside ed an impo an aspec o im-
mig an s’ in eg a ion in o he hos socie y. The au ho s
ocus on ou Eu opean coun ies, England, Ge many, he
Ne he lands, and Sweden, using da a om he CILS4EU
p ojec (N =11,747 esponden s). Relying on social iden-
i y heo y, hey expec a link wi h na ional iden i ica ion
and poli ical in e es . Thei indings show ha espon-
den s wi h an immig a ion backg ound who also ha e a
s ong na ional iden i ica ion wi h hei hos coun y a e
mo e likely o epo poli ical in e es han na i es. By
way o con as , esponden s wi h an immig a ion back-
g ound, who ha e a low na ional iden i ica ion, a e less
likely o epo poli ical in e es han na i es. While na-
ional iden i ica ion was o li le impo ance o poli ical
in e es o young people in Sweden, i was signi ican
in Ge many.
Becke (2019) in es iga es whe he he e a e any
di e ences in a i udes owa d immig a ion be ween
immig an s and na i es. The au ho used pooled da a
om he 2008–2016 ounds o he Ame ican Gene al
Social Su ey. The subsample included 7,362 espon-
den s, 2,811 o whom had a mig a ion backg ound o he
i s , second, o hi d gene a ion. Relying on social dis-
ance and con ac heo y, he s udy demons a ed ha
i s -gene a ion immig an s had, as expec ed, mo e a-
o able a i udes owa d immig a ion compa ed o hose
wi hou a mig a ion backg ound. Howe e , he a i udes
o second- and hi d-gene a ion immig an s did no di -
e signi ican ly om hose o na i es.
Sa asin e al. (2019) combine wo explana ions o
he na i e–immig an gap in well-being. The i s sug-
ges s ha low pa en al well-being is ansmi ed o
hei o sp ing, hus de e io a ing o sp ing’s well-being.
The second sugges s ha immig an s su e om a
highe economic p essu e which is in u n ansmi ed
o hei o sp ing and lowe s o sp ing’s well-being. The
s udy employs da a om he Swiss Household Panel
(N =1,354) o examine he ex en o which immig an
backg ound and economic p essu es ela e o well-being
o adolescen s and young adul s h ough he nega i e
a ec expe ienced by hei mo he s and a he s. The
indings demons a ed ha young people wi h o eign
oo s we e mo e likely o li e in a household ha ex-
pe ienced economic p essu es, which, in u n, was e-
la ed o impai ed pa en al well-being which was hen in
u n ela ed o an impai ed own well-being. An immig a-
ion backg ound, economic p essu es, and pa en al well-
being we e all ela ed o young people’s nega i e a ec .
Maskileyson e al. (2019) examine whe he he
“heal hy immig an e ec ” hesis obse ed in he
Ame ican con ex p e ails also in he Wes Eu opean con-
ex . Acco ding o he heal hy immig an e ec , immi-
g an s a e expec ed o be heal hie han he na i e popu-
la ion. This e ec has been obse ed epea edly in immi-
g a ion coun ies like he USA, Canada, o Aus alia. Fou
coun ies we e analyzed—Aus ia, F ance, Ge many, and
he Ne he lands—using he Gende and Gene a ions
Su ey (Aus ia N =3,892, F ance N =8,731, Ge many
N=8,052, and he Ne he lands N =7,219). Unlike p e-
ious indings, in hese Eu opean coun ies, immig an s
epo ed wo se heal h han na i es, hus, no lending
suppo o he e ec . The s udy ies o sugges se -
e al explana ions o he indings in he speci ic Wes
Eu opean con ex .
Boh e e al. (2019) explo e whe he , and o wha
ex en , con ac be ween na i e Eas and Wes Ge mans
and o eigne s has changed in he las ou decades, em-
ploying ALLBUS da a collec ed be ween 1980 and 2016.
The au ho s e idence a la ge inc ease in con ac o e
hese 36 yea s. Fu he mo e, he s udy also employs ou
wa es o he GESIS access panel da a collec ed be ween
2015 and 2016 in Ge many o es he con ac heo y and
examine whe he and o wha ex en posi i e con ac
wi h immig an s is linked wi h mo e posi i e a i udes
owa d immig an s (o ice e sa) among Ge man e-
sponden s. Al hough he e was some e idence o such
a link in he da a, he e ec s we e much smalle han
in o he p e ious c oss-sec ional s udies, and hey we e
also mixed, depending on he me hod o analysis used.
Finally, Rod íguez-Pue as and Ainz (2019) conduc in-
dep h in e iews wi h young Spanish mig an s and analy-
ze da a ob ained om hese in e iews and om dis-
cussion g oups o unde s and he mig a ion p ocess and
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 253–256 254

sociocul u al in eg a ion o hose mig an s in hei hos
coun ies. They desc ibe and explain changes in hei pe -
cep ions o bo h hei home and hos socie ies. We hope
ha he hema ic issue and he s udies included in i u -
he con ibu e o a be e unde s anding o immig an s’
expe ience in con empo a y socie ies.
Acknowledgmen s
All academic edi o s would like o hank he edi o ial
eam o Social Inclusion o hei suppo du ing wo k on
his hema ic issue. The academic edi o s would also like
o hank Lisa T ie weile o he English p oo o his edi-
o ial. The wo k o Eldad Da ido was suppo ed by he
Uni e si y o Zu ich Resea ch P io i y P og am “Social
Ne wo ks.”
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
Re e ences
Becke , C. C. (2019). The in luence o a mig a ion back-
g ound on a i udes owa ds immig a ion. Social In-
clusion,7(4), 279–292.
Boh e , B., F iehs, M.-T., Schmid , P., & Weick, S. (2019).
Con ac s be ween na i es and mig an s in Ge many:
Pe cep ions o he na i e popula ion since 1980 and
an examina ion o he con ac hypo heses. Social In-
clusion,7(4), 320–331.
Ceobanu, A. M., & Escandell, X. (2010). Compa a-
i e analyses o public a i udes owa d immig an s
and immig a ion using mul ina ional su ey da a:
A e iew o heo ies and esea ch. Annual Re iew
o Sociology,36, 309–328. h ps://doi.o g/10.1146/
annu e .soc.012809.102651
Hainmuelle , J., & Hopkins, D. J. (2014). Public a i-
udes owa d immig a ion. Annual Re iew o Poli -
ical Science,17, 225–249. h ps://doi.o g/10.1146/
annu e -polisci-102512-194818
Hea h, A., Da ido , E., Fo d, R., G een, E. G. T., Ramos,
A., & Schmid , P. (2019). Con es ed e ain: Explain-
ing di e gen pa e ns o public opinion owa ds im-
mig a ion wi hin Eu ope. Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a-
ion S udies. Ad anced online publica ion. h ps://
doi.o g/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1550145
Hochman, O., & Ga cía-Albace e, G. (2019). Poli ical
in e es among Eu opean you h wi h and wi hou
an immig an backg ound. Social Inclusion,7(4),
257–278.
Maskileyson, D., Semyono , M., & Da ido , E. (2019). In
sea ch o he heal hy immig an e ec in ou wes
Eu opean coun ies. Social Inclusion,7(4), 304–319.
Rod íguez-Pue as, R., & Ainz, A. (2019). Nos algic, con-
e ed, o cosmopoli an: Typology o young Spanish
mig an s. Social Inclusion,7(4), 332–342.
Sa asin, O., G een, E. G. T., Po a ca, G., Bolzman, C., &
Kuhn, U. (2019). Feeling blue by ex ension: In a am-
ily ansmission and economic p essu es explain he
na i e-immig an gap in well-being among you h in
Swi ze land. Social Inclusion,7(4), 293–303.
Abou he Au ho s
Alice Ramos, PhD in Sociology by he Uni e si y o Lisbon, is a Resea che a he Ins i u e o Social
Sciences (ICS), Uni e si y o Lisbon. He academic co e in e es s ollow wo main lines o esea ch:
one aiming o analyze he impac o he a icula ion be ween indi idual ac o s ( alues and a i-
udes) and social con ex s in he de elopmen o disc imina o y a i udes; ano he , ocused on he
me hodology o compa a i e and longi udinal s udies and on ad anced me hods o da a analysis. She
is cu en ly he Po uguese na ional coo dina o o he Eu opean Social Su ey and he Eu opean
Values S udy.
Eldad Da ido is P o esso a he Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology a he Uni e si y o
Cologne, Ge many, and he Depa men o Sociology a he Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land, and co-
di ec o o he Uni e si y o Zu ich Resea ch P io i y P og am “Social Ne wo ks.” He was p esiden o
he Eu opean Su ey Resea ch Associa ion (ESRA) be ween 2015 and 2017. His esea ch in e es s a e
applica ions o s uc u al equa ion modeling o su ey da a, especially in c oss-cul u al and longi udi-
nal esea ch. Applica ions include human alues, na ional iden i y, and a i udes owa d immig an s
and o he mino i ies.
Pe e Schmid is P o esso Eme i us o Social Resea ch Me hods and Poli ical Science a he Uni e si y
o Giessen, a he depa men o poli ical science, Ge many. His esea ch in e es s a e he oun-
da ions and applica ions o s uc u al equa ion models, analysis o panel da a, and empi ical es -
ing o a ional choice heo y. Applica ions include na ional iden i y, immig a ion, and en i onmen-
al beha io .
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 253–256 255
Ma a Vila Rosales, PhD in An h opology, is a Resea che a Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o
Lisbon. He main ield o esea ch is con empo a y mig a ion mo emen s in and ou o Po ugal and
hei in e sec ions wi h he mo emen s o hings. She has done e hnog aphic esea ch in Mozambique,
B azil, Canada and he USA, and is cu en ly engaged in a la ge esea ch p ojec which in ol es he
ansi s o people and s u be ween ou majo ci ies: Lisboa, Sidney, Be lin and Luanda. She is a
membe o IMISCOE—A Eu opean Ne wo k o Excellence on Mig a ion S udies.
Dina Maskileyson is Pos doc o al Resea che a he Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology a he
Uni e si y o Cologne. He esea ch in e es s lie in he a eas o immig a ion, heal h, and labo ma ke
and weal h inequali y. He ecen publica ions ocus on immig an s’ labo ma ke in eg a ion as well
as heal h ajec o ies o immig an s a e he a i al o he hos coun y.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 253–256 256
Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803)
2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278
DOI: 10.17645/si. 7i4.2312
A icle
Poli ical In e es among Eu opean You h wi h and wi hou an
Immig an Backg ound
Osh a Hochman 1,* and Gema Ga cía-Albace e 2
1GESIS—Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences, 68159 Mannheim, Ge many; E-Mail: osh a [email protected] g
2Depa men o Social Sciences, Uni e sidad Ca los III de Mad id, 28903 Mad id, Spain; E-Mail: gemga [email p o ec ed]
* Co esponding au ho
Submi ed: 28 June 2019 | Accep ed: 19 No embe 2019 | Published: 27 Decembe 2019
Abs ac
Ou a icle in es iga es poli ical engagemen among you h wi h and wi hou an immig a ion backg ound. Tapping o cu -
en deba es on in e gene a ional assimila ion p ocesses in Eu ope, we look a di e ences in le els o poli ical in e es
be ween immig an s, child en o immig an s and na i es. In pa icula , we a gue ha such di e ences a e a unc ion o
esponden s’ iden i ica ion wi h he ecei ing socie y. We p edic ha among esponden s wi h an immig an backg ound
highe le els o na ional iden i ica ion will be posi i ely co ela ed wi h poli ical in e es . Among na i es, poli ical in e es
will no depend on le els o na ional iden i ica ion. These expec a ions e lec he ideas o he social iden i y pe spec i e
acco ding o which g oup iden i ica ion inc eases adhe ence o g oup no ms and adhe ence o no ms is s onge among
indi iduals who su e om iden i y unce ain y. We es ou model in ou Eu opean coun ies: England, Ge many, he
Ne he lands, and Sweden, using da a om he CILS4EU p ojec . Ou indings indica e ha in e es in he poli ics o he
su ey coun y di e s be ween esponden s wi h and wi hou an immig an backg ound. Responden s wi h an immig an
backg ound who also ha e a s ong na ional iden i ica ion a e mo e likely o epo a poli ical in e es han na i es. Respon-
den s wi h an immig an backg ound who ha e a low na ional iden i ica ion, a e less likely o epo a poli ical in e es han
na i es. The indings also e eal ha poli ical discussions a home and associa ionism posi i ely p edic poli ical in e es
whe eas gi ls show signi ican ly lowe odds o be poli ically in e es ed.
Keywo ds
assimila ion; CILS4EU p ojec ; immig an backg ound; na ional iden i ica ion; poli ical in e es ; you h
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Immig a ion om he Mig an s’ Pe spec i e” edi ed by Alice Ramos (Ins i u e o Social
Sciences, Po ugal), Eldad Da ido (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many/Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land), Pe e Schmid
(Uni e si y o Giessen, Ge many), Ma a Vila Rosales (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal) and Dina Maskileyson
(Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many).
© 2019 by he au ho s; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu-
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
Poli ical in e es indica es “ he deg ee o which poli ics
a ouses a ci izen’s cu iosi y” ( an De h, 1990, p. 278).
I is o en unde s ood as one o he main de e mi-
nan s o poli ical pa icipa ion (Milb a h, 1965, p. 40;
Ve ba, Schlozman, & B ady, 1995, p. 334), also o
young people (Ga cía-Albace e, 2014), and as a p e eq-
uisi e o an ac i e and democ a ic ci izen y (i.e., an
De h & El , 2004, p. 478). Whe he young people de-
elop poli ical in e es o no is pa icula ly c i ical o
hei u u e as ac i e (o inac i e) ci izens. Poli ical in-
e es has been ound o de elop du ing young adul -
hood, pa icula ly du ing he so-called “ o ma i e yea s”
(Kinde & Sea s, 1985; Ve ba e al., 1995) and o be
ema kably s able o e he li espan (Neundo , Sme s,
& Ga cía-Albace e, 2013). Fo ha eason, adolescence
and young adul hood a e key pe iods o s udy poli ical
in e es . Co obo a ing he ele ance o his pe iod, p e-
ious esea ch indica es ha indi iduals who de elop
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 257
a as e o poli ics in adolescence will be mo e poli i-
cally engaged in adul hood (G eco Mo asso, 2012; P io ,
2010). Ac i e poli ical engagemen , a he same ime,
can be unde s ood as an impo an ci ic no m in democ-
acy and a cen al quali y o ci izens’ ideal o “good ci i-
zen” ( an De h, 2009).
Despi e i s ele ance as an indica ion o social in e-
g a ion and a u u e ac i e ci izen y, he de elopmen
o in e es in poli ics among young people wi h an im-
mig an backg ound has a ely been examined. One ex-
cep ion in his ega d is he PIDOP p ojec , in which
Kim and Amnâ (2015) o example, compa ed I aqi and
Ku dish immig an s and na i es in Sweden. Using a small
and non- andom sample (N =538) o young adul s
aged 16 o 26 yea s, he au ho s ind no di e ences be-
ween he wo immig an g oups and he na i es (Kim &
Amnâ, 2015, p. 257). Fe nandes-Jesus, Mala aia, Ribei o,
and Menezes (2015) compa ed Po uguese na i es and
B azilian and Angolan immig an s in Po ugal. Wi h a
sligh ly la ge ye non- andom sample, hey epo ha
Po uguese you h shows a signi ican ly highe in e es in
poli ics compa ed wi h he wo mig an g oups.
In he cu en s udy, we oo ocus on poli ical in e es .
Complemen ing exis ing wo k, we in es iga e he eme -
gence o in e es in he poli ics o he “ ecei ing” coun-
y in pa icula and es ima e di e ences be ween na-
i es and immig an s as well as di e ences be ween na-
i es and child en o immig an s, hus explo ing poli ical
assimila ion ends. Following Alba and Nee (1997) we
de ine assimila ion as “ he decline and a i s endpoin
he disappea ance, o an e hnic/ acial dis inc ion and he
cul u al and social di e ences ha exp ess i ” (Alba &
Nee, 1997, p. 863). In addi ion, we es whe he di e -
ences in poli ical in e es a e mode a ed by le els o na-
ional iden i ica ion.
In ou in es iga ion, we also con ol o esponden s’
iendship and language p e e ences as well as addi-
ional ac o s associa ed wi h immig an s’ assimila ion.
Following poli ical beha io heo ies, we u he include
se e al p edic o s o poli ical in e es in he analysis.
Pa en al ansmission, ha is, he equency o poli ical
alk wi hin he amily while an indi idual was a child,
has been epea edly ound o be among he mos impo -
an p edic o s o poli ical in e es (Neundo e al., 2013;
P io , 2010; Te iquez & Kwon, 2015). Pa en s in luence
hei child en’s poli ical engagemen bo h h ough hei
social s a us, and hei in e es , engagemen and pa ici-
pa ion s yle (Jennings, S oke , & Bowe s, 2009). Jennings
e al. (2009) u he show ha g owing up in a poli icized
amily, in which poli ics is o en discussed, is also a good
p edic o o an ea ly de elopmen o poli ical in e es as
well as o he poli ical o ien a ions. No only he pa en s
bu also pee s, he school, and o he ins i u ions con-
ibu e o he poli ical engagemen o you h (Quin elie ,
2015). The con ibu ion o pee s o poli ical engagemen
is pa icula ly la ge among young people who ha e no
de eloped a poli ical in e es a home (Ga cía-Albace e,
2013; Neundo , Niemi, & Sme s, 2016).
The ela ionship be ween na ional iden i ica ion
and poli ical in e es has hus a gained su p isingly
limi ed a en ion om immig a ion esea ch (Hind iks,
Ve kuy en, & Coende s, 2017). One eason o his la-
cuna is su ely he ac ha he causal ela ions be ween
he wo concep s a e di icul o disen angle. In his a -
icle, we do no a emp o sol e his deba e. Relying
on he Social Iden i y Theo y (SIT), we main ain ins ead
ha iden i ica ion shapes poli ical in e es and no he
o he way a ound. Speci ically, we con end ha na ional
iden i ica ion shapes he p obabili ies o immig an s and
child en o immig an s o exp ess in e es in poli ics and
mode a es he e ec o ha ing an immig an backg ound
on poli ical in e es . Analy ically, we a e howe e unable
o exclude he possibili y o e e sed causali y.
Ou s udy makes he ollowing con ibu ions: (1) we
in es iga e di e ences be ween na i es and immi-
g an s, as well as be ween na i es and child en o im-
mig an s, u ilizing da a om ou di e en Eu opean
coun ies. Pooling hese coun ies oge he we ha e su -
icien da a o es ima e logis ic eg ession models o
his pu pose, wi h a wide se o con ol a iables; (2) o
a oid mixing in e es in he poli ics o he ecei ing so-
cie y wi h in e es in he poli ics o a espec i e coun y
o o igin, we ocus speci ically on he o me ; (3) e e -
ing o he SIT we p opose a mechanism ha may cla -
i y he eme gence o di e ences in poli ical in e es be-
ween na i es, immig an s and child en o immig an s.
Speci ically, we es o a mode a ion o na ional iden i-
ica ion in he ela ions be ween immig an s a us and
poli ical in e es .
2. Theo e ical F amewo k
2.1. Poli ical Engagemen : An In e gene a ional
Assimila ion P ocess?
Since e y ea ly on, esea che s main ained ha assimi-
la ion is an in e gene a ional p ocess (e.g., Gans, 1979;
Libe son, 1973). Howe e , while some schola s main ain
ha assimila ion inc eases o e gene a ions (Alba & Nee,
1997; Gans, 1992), o he s a e o he opinion ha his is
no necessa ily he case (e.g., Zhou, 1997). Indeed, p o-
ponen s o he segmen ed assimila ion heo y in No h
Ame ica showed ha child en o immig an s a e unable
o na ow he s uc u al gap wi h pee s who a e no chil-
d en o immig an s. They also epo ha in some immi-
g an g oups, he o sp ing o en hold on o hei cul u al
he i age and e hnic iden i ica ion (Po es & Rumbau ,
2001). S udies on assimila ion in Eu ope o he mos pa
ailed o indica e a p ocess o segmen ed assimila ion
and seem o suppo he idea ha assimila ion in ensi-
ies o e gene a ions (see, e.g., Diehl & Schnell, 2006;
Hochman, 2010; Kal e , 2018).
In line wi h he classic assimila ion heo y, p e ious
s udies epo ha among immig an s, he longe hey
s ay in he ecei ing socie y, he s onge is hei poli -
ical engagemen (Bass & Caspe , 2001; Messina, 2006;
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 258
Wi hin his con ex , we ocus ou a en ion on he issue
o poli ical in e es , a key de e minan o poli ical assim-
ila ion, which un il now emained unde s udied. We in-
es iga e poli ical in e es among you h in ou Eu opean
immig an - ecei ing coun ies. Ou ocus on you h al-
lows us o lea n abou he eme gence o poli ical in e -
es , which acco ding o he li e a u e de elops in adoles-
cence. In pa icula , we look in o he ela ions be ween
poli ical in e es and na ional iden i ica ion, ano he pe -
sonali y elemen ha de elops du ing his s age in he
li e-cou se, among indi iduals wi h and wi hou an immi-
g an backg ound. We i s in es iga ed whe he in e es
in he poli ics o he ecei ing socie y di e s be ween na-
i es, child en o immig an s and immig an s. Second, we
es ed whe he such di e ences can be explained by di -
e en ial le els o na ional iden i ica ion. The assump ion
he e was ha due o hei iden i y unce ain y, IIBs will
show highe poli ical in e es as hei na ional iden i ica-
ion becomes s onge .
As men ioned elsewhe e in he a icle, we did no
a emp o sol e he causal deba e ega ding he ela-
ions be ween na ional iden i ica ion and poli ical in e -
es . Ins ead, we used da a om he second wa e o he
CILS4EU o in es iga e he ela ions be ween assimila-
ion and in e es in he poli ics o he su ey coun y, as-
suming ha na ional iden i ica ion is an impo an p e-
dic o o i . In e es in he poli ics o he ecei ing coun y
was only measu ed wice in he CILS4EU p ojec c oss-
na ionally, limi ing ou possibili ies o measu e i s long-
e m ela ionship wi h na ional iden i ica ion. An ob i-
ous ex ension o his p ojec is hus o use he longi udi-
nal e sion o he CILS4EU in Ge many, whe e he ques-
ion was included in u he wa es. Fu he mo e, a ques-
ion could be aised as o he po en ial o class o school-
le el in o ma ion ha is a ailable in he CILS4EU da a, o
which we made no use. Rega ding he sample, i is im-
po an o no e ha he da a co e s a highly selec i e
se o coun ies in Eu ope which wa ns cau ion ega ding
gene alizing he conclusions o o he coun ies. Fu u e
esea ch should hus y o include mo e coun ies and
conside mac o-le el mechanisms o accoun o di e -
ences be ween hem.
No wi hs anding i s limi a ions, he cu en s udy is a
i s and necessa y s ep ha p o ides impo an insigh s
in o immig an s’ poli ical assimila ion. The indings p e-
sen ed abo e indica e i s ha na ional iden i ica ion,
de ined as a sense o a achmen o he in-g oup, is an
impo an mechanism ha posi i ely con ibu es o poli -
ical in e es among you h in Eu ope. Gi en ha democ a-
cies equi e, by de ini ion, ci izens’ poli ical pa icipa ion,
and ha poli ical in e es is a p e equisi e o such pa ici-
pa ion, ou indings indica e ha Eu opean democ acies
would be sma in explo ing po en ial ways o inc ease
na ional iden i ica ion among young pe sons. A e all,
whe he hey de elop poli ical in e es –o no —a an
ea ly age will de e mine hei u u e pa icipa o y beha -
io and among o he s hei elec o al u n-ou .
Second, ou indings show ha he ele ance o na-
ional iden i ica ion o poli ical in e es di e s be ween
na i es and IIBs. Two issues a ise om his esul : i s ,
conside ing he impo ance o de eloping na ional iden-
i ica ion among young people, his inding speaks o
he ac ha na ions compe e wi h a long lis o o he
social g oups wi h which you h, and pa icula ly na i e
you h iden i ies. Thus, he ask o inc easing his iden-
i ica ion among hem should no be unde es ima ed.
Second, conside ing he s onge associa ion be ween
na ional iden i ica ion and poli ical in e es among im-
mig an s, we belie e his inding suppo s p e ious indi-
ca ions o he assimila ion o immig an s in Eu opean
socie ies. Mo eo e , i shows how he a achmen o im-
mig an s o he ecei ing socie y inc eases hei chances
o be in e es ed in i s poli ics. This inding hus indica es
ha na ional iden i ica ion o immig an s holds an impo -
an key o sus aining democ acy in mo e han one way.
By inc easing na ional iden i ica ion among immig an s,
and o some ex en also child en o immig an s, ecei -
ing socie ies in Eu ope may os e hei poli ical pa ici-
pa ion and inc ease democ a iza ion in hei highly di e -
si ied socie ies. Mo eo e , by p o iding immig an s he
oppo uni y o aise hei oice in poli ics, democ acies
can become mo e equali a ian. Hochman (2011) inds in
his con ex ha pa y iden i ica ion inc eases he odds
o IIBs in Ge many o epo in en ions o na u aliza ion.
Finally, he coun y-di e ences we obse e in ou
da a emain o be explained. Al hough his is a goal ha
goes beyond he scope o his a icle, ou i s in e p e-
a ion e e s o he impo an ole o he p es ige o po-
li ical in e es as a no m o ci izenship in each coun y
on he one hand, and he openness o he poli ical sys-
em o immig an s in e ms o assimila ion on he o he .
While na ional iden i ica ion ma e s li le o he poli i-
cal in e es o young people in Sweden, i ma e s signi -
ican ly in Ge many. In addi ion, in Ge many poli ical in-
e es is ela i ely high. The combina ion o bo h ac o s
could explain why in Ge many hose immig an s o chil-
d en o immig an s ha a e poli ically in e es ed a e he
ones mo i a ed due o hei posi i e iden i ica ion wi h
he coun y and hei willingness o assimila e. This is a
specula ion ha equi es u he analysis and p o ides a
u u e enue o esea ch.
Acknowledgmen s
We hank he h ee anonymous e iewe s as well as
membe s o he GESIS Poli ical Science Round able
(2018) o hei use ul and cons uc i e commen s. This
wo k was suppo ed by he Spanish Minis y o Economy
and Compe i i eness, g an CSO2016-75090-R, and by
he GESIS—Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences.
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 265

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Abou he Au ho s
Osh a Hochman is a Team Leade a GESIS—Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences in Mannheim,
Ge many. He esea ch ela es o social in eg a ion o immig an s and a i udes owa ds immig an s
and immig a ion in Eu ope and Is ael, as well as o social inequali y p ima ily in weal h. He wo k has
been published in jou nals like he Eu opean Social Su ey, he In e na ional Jou nal o Compa a i e
Sociology, In e na ional Mig a ion, he Jou nal o E hnic and Mig a ion S udies, and Resea ch in Social
S a i ica ion and Mobili y among o he s.
Gema Ga cía-Albace e is Assis an P o esso a he Depa men o Social Sciences o Uni e sidad
Ca los III de Mad id. He esea ch ela es o ci izens’ inequali ies in poli ical in e es , knowledge and po-
li ical pa icipa ion ac oss Wes e n democ acies. He wo k has been published in jou nals such as Wes
Eu opean Poli ics, In e na ional Jou nal o P ess/Poli ics,Poli ics & Gende , he In e na ional Jou nal
o Public Opinion Resea ch, o In o ma ion, Communica ion and Socie y, among o he s. He mono-
g aph Young People’s Poli ical Pa icipa ion in Wes e n Eu ope summa izes some o he wo k on you h
and poli ics.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 268
Appendix
Table A1. Lis o a iables and how hey we e measu ed.
Va iable O iginal i em Final measu e
Poli ical
in e es
How in e es ed a e you in su ey coun y’s poli ics?
(1) e y much (5) e y li le o no a all
(0) No in e es ed (1) In e es ed
Immig an
s a us
Gene a ed CILS4EU a iable (1) Immig an s (2) Child en o immig an s
(0) O he and na i e
Na ional
iden i ica ion
How s ongly do you eel [su ey coun y membe ]
(1) e y s ongly o (5) no a all s ongly
(1) no a all, no s ongly (2) Fai ly
s ongly (3) e y s ongly
E hnic
iden i ica ion
How s ongly do you eel you belong o [g oup 1] (1) e y
s ongly o (5) no a all s ongly
(1) no a all, no s ongly (2) Fai ly
s ongly (3) e y s ongly
F iendship
pa e ns
Thinking now abou all o you iends. How many o hem
ha e a [su ey coun y] backg ound
(0) hal o mo e o iends same g oup
(1) hal o mo e o iends o he g oup
Language
p e e ences
Is he e a language o he han <su ey coun y language>
spoken a you home? In his language, how o en do you:
Talk o you amily, wa ch TV, alk o you iends
Sum scale among hose who epo ed
“yes” o o he language spoken a home
Subjec i e
disc imina ion
(Round 1)
How o en eel disc imina ed agains o ea ed un ai ly/
In he las 12 mon h el disc imina ed in: school;
ains/buses/ ams/subways; shops/s o es/ca és/
es au an s/ nigh clubs;by police o secu i y gua ds
(1) always o (4) ne e
(0) ne e el disc imina ed (1) Fel
disc imina ed a ely o mo e o en
Na ionali y
(Round 1)
Wha is you na ionali y (which coun y is you passpo
om)? I you ha e mo e han one na ionali y, please ick
all ha apply (1) Only su ey coun y, (2) su ey coun y
and o he , (3) only o he
Same as o iginal i em
Poli ical
discussions a
home
In gene al, how o en does/do one o bo h o you pa en s
do he ollowing hings wi h you? alk o you abou
poli ical and social issues (1) e e y day o (5) ne e
Same as o iginal i em
Associa ionism In you spa e ime how o en spend ime in a
spo s/music/d ama/o he club (1) e e y day o (5) ne e
Same as o iginal i em
Religious
pa icipa ion
How o en do you isi a eligious mee ing place (e.g., a
chu ch, mosque, synagogue o emple)? (1) ne e o
(5) e e y day
Same as o iginal i em
Gi l A e you a boy o a gi l (1) and (2) espec i ely (0) boy (1) gi l
Region o
o igin
Gene a ed SILC4EU a iable A ica and Middle-Eas ; Asia; Sou h
Ame ica and he Ca ibean; Eu ope
No h-Ame ica and Oceania; Su ey
coun y
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 269
Table A2. Desc ip i e s a is ics o he sample in he analysis wi h weigh s (immig an s and child en o immig an s only).
England Ge many The Ne he lands Sweden
Poli ical in e es (o iginal scale) 2.1 (1.1) 2.7 (1.2) 2.6 (1.0) 2.2 (1.1)
% S ong poli ical in e es 29.7% 60.6% 62.3% 40.2%
Immig an s a us:
Immig an 36.2% 18.3% 22.3% 25.8%
Child o immig an 63.8% 81.7% 77.7% 74.2%
% Ve y s ong Na ional iden i ica ion 28% 31.9% 21.9% 26.8%
% Ve y s ong E hnic iden i ica ion 23.6% 26.9% 26.6% 22.7%
Use o second language 2.4 (2.6) 3.4 (2.6) 2.6 (2.7) 3.0 (2.6)
Na ionali y:
Only o su ey coun y 47.7% 49.8% 73.4% 85.8%
Only o o he coun y 17.2% 22.9% 19.3% 14.2%
Su ey coun y and o he 35.1% 27.3% 7.3% —
Mixed iendships:
No 29.9% 23% 20.5% 24%
Yes 70.1% 77% 79.5% 76%
% expe ienced disc imina ion 61.1% 61.5% 36.2% 44.6%
Talk o pa en s abou poli ics 2.9 (1.2) 2.8 (1.2) 3.0 (1.2) 2.8 (1.2)
Associa ionism 2.8 (1.3) 3.0 (1.4) 3.1 (1.4) 2.9 (1.4)
Religious pa icipa ion:
Less han once a mon h 63.3% 71.6% 77.5% 85.3%
A leas once a mon h 36.7% 28.4% 22.5% 14.7%
Gende :
Boy 47.7% 44.9% 44.7% 50.6%
Gi l 52.3% 55.1% 55.3% 49.4%
Coun y o o igin:
A ica and he Middle Eas 20.38% 30.6% 24.4% 28.6%
Asia 50.8% 9.5% 27.4% 14.6%
Sou h Ame ica and he Ca ibbean 10.5% 5% 20.5% 7%
Eu ope and no h Ame ica 18.3% 54.8% 27.7% 49.7%
N 993 1113 850 1481
Sou ce: CILS4EU
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 270

Table A3. Code o coun y o o igin.
England Ge many Ne he lands Sweden
A ica and Middle Nige ia, Wes A ica, No h A ica, Mo occo No h A ica,
Eas (+Tu key) Lebanon Lebanon, I aq, Sy ia,
I an
Eas A ica O he A ica A ica
O he A ica Eas A ica, Somalia
O he A ica
Asia Sou h Asia, Eas Asia Sou h Asia, Sou h Asia, Indonesia Sou h Asia,
Sou heas Asia
Pakis an, India, Wes Asia Wes Asia Wes Asia
Bangladesh
o he Asia o he Asia o he Asia o he Asia
La in Ame ica and La in Ame ica and he La in Ame ica La in Ame ica and he La in Ame ica and
he Ca ibbean Ca ibbean, Ca ibbean and he Ca ibbean, Su inam, he Ca ibbean
Ca ibbean An illeans
Eu ope, No h No h Ame ica and No h Ame ica No h Ame ica and Oceania No h Ame ica and
Ame ica and Oceania and Oceania Oceania
Oceania
Eas Eu ope Eas Eu ope, FSU, Poland, Fo me Yugosla ia Eas Eu ope
eas Eu ope, Fo me
Yugosla ia, Poland
Sou h Eu ope Sou h Eu ope, Sou h Eu ope Sou h Eu ope
I aly, G eece
Finland, Denma k,
No way
O he Eu ope, I eland O he Eu ope, Wes Eu ope
Missing Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown
Su ey coun y Su ey coun y Su ey coun y Su ey coun y Su ey coun y
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 271
Table A4. Odds a ios ( obus SE) om he pooled logi model p edic ing he p obabili ies o epo in e es in poli ics o
he su ey coun y wi h pa en al in o ma ion (weigh ed sample, lis wise dele ion). Sou ce: CILS4EU da a; own analysis.
M1 M2 M3
Immig an 0.33** 0.36** 0.35**
(0.15) (0.16) (0.16)
Child o immig an (s) 0.38** 0.39** 0.40**
(0.15) (0.15) (0.16)
Na ional iden i ica ion (somewha s ongly, e : no a all/no e y) 0.98 0.98 0.96
(0.26) (0.25) (0.25)
Na ional iden i ica ion (s ongly) 1.15 1.12 1.12
(0.29) (0.27) (0.28)
Immig an * na ional iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 2.24* 2.12 2.21*
(1.07) (0.99) (1.05)
Immig an * na ional iden i ica ion e y s ongly 2.57* 2.48* 2.53*
(1.37) (1.30) (1.34)
Child o immig an * na ional iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 2.62** 2.53** 2.57**
(1.04) (1.00) (1.02)
Child o immig an * na ional iden i ica ion e y s ongly 1.84 1.85 1.82
(0.73) (0.73) (0.72)
England 0.64*** 0.64*** 0.66***
(0.09) (0.09) (0.09)
Ge many 4.65*** 4.31*** 4.82***
(0.52) (0.47) (0.57)
he Ne he lands 1.54*** 1.34** 1.59***
(0.21) (0.17) (0.22)
No e hnic iden i ica ion ( e : iden i y e y s ongly) 0.94 0.95 0.94
(0.21) (0.21) (0.20)
E hnic iden i ica ion: no a all/no e y s ongly 1.22 1.20 1.21
(0.33) (0.33) (0.33)
E hnic iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 1.09 1.09 1.08
(0.26) (0.26) (0.25)
Gi l 0.48*** 0.49*** 0.48***
(0.05) (0.05) (0.05)
Ci izenship =su ey coun y and o he 0.76 0.78 0.77
(0.18) (0.19) (0.19)
Ci izenship =only o he coun y 0.84 0.84 0.86
(0.23) (0.23) (0.24)
Poli ical discussion a home 2.17*** 2.23*** 2.18***
(0.10) (0.10) (0.10)
Mixed iendships 1.38* 1.41* 1.39*
(0.26) (0.27) (0.27)
Use o second language 1.01 1.01 1.01
(0.04) (0.04) (0.04)
Associa ionism 1.02 1.04 1.02
(0.04) (0.04) (0.04)
Religious ac i i ies 1.25*** 1.25*** 1.24***
(0.07) (0.07) (0.07)
Fel disc imina ed a ely o mo e o en 0.91 0.91 0.91
(0.10) (0.10) (0.10)
A ica and Middle Eas 1.38 1.43 1.41
(0.32) (0.32) (0.32)
Asia 2.10** 2.09** 2.01**
(0.61) (0.61) (0.58)
La in Ame ica and Ca ibbean 0.93 1.00 0.93
(0.34) (0.38) (0.34)
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 272
Table A4. (Con .) Odds a ios ( obus SE) om he pooled logi model p edic ing he p obabili ies o epo in e es in
poli ics o he su ey coun y wi h pa en al in o ma ion (weigh ed sample, lis wise dele ion). Sou ce: CILS4EU da a; own
analysis.
M1 M2 M3
Na ional iden i ica ion mo he somewha s ongly 1.12 1.14
(0.19) (0.19)
Na ional iden i ica ion mo he e y s ongly 1.19 1.25
(0.21) (0.22)
Pa en s academics 1.42*** 1.44***
(0.17) (0.18)
Cons an 0.04*** 0.03*** 0.03***
(0.01) (0.01) (0.01)
Obse a ions 7,700 7,700 7,700
AIC 678831.7 680908.6 678364.9
Log pseudolikelihood −339387.83 −340425.32 −339152.44
No e: Robus se (e o m) in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Table A5. Odds a io (SE) p edic ing poli ical in e es among esponden s wi h in e ac ion e ec s (weigh ed sample, lis wise
dele ion). Sou ce: CILS4EU da a; own analysis.
M1 M2
Immig an 0.77 0.50*
(0.24) (0.19)
Child o immig an (s) 0.78 0.45***
(0.19) (0.13)
Na ional iden i ica ion (somewha s ongly, e : no a all/no e y) 0.99 0.88
(0.20) (0.18)
Na ional iden i ica ion (s ongly) 1.11 1.00
(0.21) (0.19)
Immig an * na ional iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 1.63 1.75
(0.61) (0.64)
Immig an * na ional iden i ica ion e y s ongly 2.83*** 2.34**
(1.12) (1.00)
Child o immig an * na ional iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 2.11*** 2.19**
(0.59) (0.67)
Child o immig an * na ional iden i ica ion e y s ongly 1.46 1.56
(0.41) (0.50)
England 0.72*** 0.58***
(0.06) (0.06)
Ge many 4.09*** 4.43***
(0.32) (0.40)
he Ne he lands 1.50*** 1.38***
(0.14) (0.15)
No e hnic iden i ica ion ( e : iden i y e y s ongly) 1.03
(0.18)
E hnic iden i ica ion: no a all/no e y s ongly 1.23
(0.26)
E hnic iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 1.16
(0.21)
Gi l 0.55***
(0.05)
Ci izenship =su ey coun y and o he 0.82
(0.15)
Ci izenship =only o he coun y 0.84
(0.16)
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 273
Table A5. (Con .) Odds a io (SE) p edic ing poli ical in e es among esponden s wi h in e ac ion e ec s (weigh ed sample,
lis wise dele ion). Sou ce: CILS4EU da a; own analysis.
M1 M2
Poli ical discussion a home 2.28***
(0.09)
Mixed iendships 1.36**
(0.20)
Use o second language 0.10
(0.03)
Associa ionism 1.08**
(0.03)
Religious ac i i ies 1.23***
(0.05)
Fel disc imina ed a ely o mo e o en 1.00
(0.09)
A ica and Middle Eas 1.81***
(0.33)
Asia 1.68***
(0.33)
La in Ame ica and Ca ibbean 1.231
(0.35)
Cons an 0.42*** 0.03***
(0.08) (0.01)
Obse a ions 11,747 11,747
AIC 1146178 960698.1
Log pseudolikelihood −573077.17 −480322.03
No e: Robus se (e o m) in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Table A6. Odds a io (SE) p edic ing poli ical in e es among indi iduals wi h an immig an backg ound (weigh ed sample,
lis wise dele ion). Sou ce: CILS4EU da a; own analysis.
M1 M2 M3
Immig an 0.87 0.94 1.06
(0.13) (0.14) (0.17)
Na ional iden i ica ion (somewha s ongly, e : no a all/no e y) 1.63*** 1.60***
(0.26) (0.28)
Na ional iden i ica ion (s ongly) 1.64*** 1.46*
(0.28) (0.30)
England 0.64*** 0.63*** 0.40***
(0.08) (0.08) (0.07)
Ge many 2.26*** 2.36*** 2.55***
(0.28) (0.30) (0.39)
he Ne he lands 2.45*** 2.34*** 2.12***
(0.47) (0.45) (0.44)
No e hnic iden i ica ion ( e : iden i y e y s ongly) 1.09
(0.20)
E hnic iden i ica ion: no a all/no e y s ongly 0.82
(0.22)
E hnic iden i ica ion somewha s ongly 0.90
(0.16)
Gi l 0.58***
(0.08)
Ci izenship =su ey coun y and o he 1.06
(0.20)
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 257–278 274
sonal cha ac e is ics and ai s on immig a ion a i udes
included in e alia a iables on he esponden s’ he -
i age o mig a ion backg ound (B idges & Ma eu , 2014;
Hainmuelle & Hiscox, 2007; Mayda, 2006; O’Rou ke
& Sinno , 2006). Since mos o hese esea che s did
no discuss he e ec s o hese a iables di ec ly, in o -
ma ion mus be gleaned by a close inspec ion o hei
models and ables. Fo ins ance, in hei assessmen o
a i udes owa ds immig a ion o mig an s o a di e -
en and o he same ace, B idges and Ma eu (2014)
showed ha hose classi ied as o eign we e signi i-
can ly less likely o be opposed o immig a ion. Simila ly,
Hainmuelle and Hiscox’s (2007) as well as O’Rou ke
and Sinno ’s (2006) esul s indica ed ha hose who
we e bo n in he coun y o da a collec ion we e signi -
ican ly less likely o ake a p o-immig a ion s ance com-
pa ed o hose bo n elsewhe e. The same was ue o
hose whose pa en s we e bo n in he in e iew coun-
y as e lec ed in he signi ican ly highe p obabili y
o hese pe sons o endo se a subs an ial educ ion in
he numbe o immig an s in compa ison o hose wi h
pa en s bo n ab oad (O’Rou ke & Sinno , 2006). Also,
ha ing pa en s wi h a o eign ci izenship signi ican ly in-
c eased esponden s’ likelihood o be p o-immig a ion
(Mayda, 2006).
O e all, i appea s ha in s udies ocusing on he
compa ison o immig an s’ and non-immig an s’ a i-
udes owa ds immig a ion as well as in s udies ocus-
ing on he majo i y popula ion, hose wi h some o m
o mig a ion backg ound had signi ican ly mo e posi i e
a i udes owa ds immig a ion policies and immig a ion
han hose wi hou a mig a ion backg ound (B idges &
Ma eu , 2014; Buckle e al., 2009; Hainmuelle & Hiscox,
2007; Jus & Ande son, 2015; Mayda, 2006; O’Rou ke &
Sinno , 2006).
While simila conclusions can be d awn om he p e-
sen ed s udies, i should be no ed ha each o hem op-
e a ionalized he concep “mig a ion backg ound” di e -
en ly. While some esea che s con olled o mig a ion
backg ounds by simply excluding all pa icipan s who
we e bo n ou side he coun y o in e es (Mayda, 2006),
o he s op ed o include a iables assessing he bi h
place o he esponden s o hei ances o s (e.g., B idges
& Ma eu , 2014; Buckle e al., 2009; Hainmuelle &
Hiscox, 2007; Mayda, 2006; O’Rou ke & Sinno , 2006).
The simples o m was o include he esponden ’s bi h-
place (Hainmuelle & Hiscox, 2007). This made i possi-
ble o compa e i s -gene a ion mig an s wi h he es
o he popula ion. An al e na i e was he inclusion o
he bi hplace o he esponden ’s pa en s (Buckle e
al., 2009; Mayda, 2006) as well as a single a iable co -
e ing bo h bi hplace aspec s simul aneously (B idges &
Ma eu , 2014). Nei he o hem allowed a compa ison
be ween di e en gene a ions o mig an s. A compa i-
son o mul iple gene a ions o mig an s wi h each o he
as well as wi h pe sons wi hou a mig a ion backg ound
equi es sepa a e a iables o he di e en gene a ions’
bi h places o be included in o he analyses.
Only one o he abo e-men ioned s udies allowed
such compa isons: O’Rou ke and Sinno ’s (2006) esul s
sugges ha hose who a e na i e bo n o na i e-bo n
pa en s we e mos likely o epo an i-immig an a -
i udes, ollowed by hose who could be desc ibed as
second-gene a ion mig an s. Responden s wi h a i s -
gene a ion mig a ion backg ound epo ed he mos
posi i e a i ude owa ds immig a ion. In addi ion o
O’Rou ke and Sinno ’s (2006) s udy, o he s udies u il-
ising mig an -exclusi e da a se s can be employed o
u he explo e he di e ences be ween he gene a-
ions. Among La ino immig an s, o example, Rouse,
Wilkinson, and Ga and (2010) ound ha hose be-
longing o he second gene a ion as well as hose
belonging o la e gene a ions we e signi ican ly less
likely o epo a p o-immig a ion a i ude and had less
a ou able a i udes owa ds allowing mo e legal immi-
g an s in o he US, compa ed o i s -gene a ion La ino
immig an s. On he o he hand, in his desc ip i e analy-
ses o La ino a i udes, Su o (2005) showed ha whe eas
i s -gene a ion La inos we e mo e likely o hink ha im-
mig an s s eng hen he coun y, he e we e only ew
di e ences in he gene a ions’ opinions abou whe he
he amoun o legal immig a ion om La in Ame ica
should be educed o inc eased. Simila ly, when com-
pa ing i s - and second-gene a ion Mexican Ame icans
wi h Mexican Ame icans whose amilies ha e been in
he coun y o mo e gene a ions, Polina d, W inkle, and
de la Ga za (1984) ound no signi ican di e ences in
hei a i udes owa ds he a e o immig a ion as well as
o he aspec s o immig a ion. The sample o his s udy,
howe e , was no na ionally ep esen a i e, a he i was
comp ised o Mexican Ame icans om Texas, wi h a la ge
sha e o he esponden s li ing along he Mexican bo -
de . The high concen a ion o immig an s in his a ea
migh ha e inc eased esponden s pe cei ed compe i-
ion o esou ces (Hood e al., 1997). As sugges ed in a
la ge body o li e a u e on in e g oup con lic , his pe -
cei ed h ea can be used as an explana ion o nega-
i e a i udes owa ds ou g oup membe s (Blalock, 1967;
Campbell, 1967; Riek, Mania, & Gae ne , 2006), such
as new o po en ial immig an s (Meuleman, Da ido ,
& Billie , 2009; Quillian, 1995). Hence, he conclusion
d awn om s udies conduc ed in speci ic egions o he
US migh no be ans e able o gene a ional di e ences
wi hin he popula ion o he en i e coun y. In summa y,
he cu en ly exis ing li e a u e does no d aw a clea pic-
u e as o whe he la e gene a ions o mig an s ha e
less a ou able a i udes owa ds immig a ion in com-
pa ison o hose whose amilies immig a ed mo e e-
cen ly. S udies wi h b oade , na ionally ep esen a i e
samples, including esponden s wi h a ious mig a ion
backg ounds and om di e en o igins would be neces-
sa y o ocus on hese ques ions in de ail.
No wi hs anding hese indings, i is appa en ha
he e is e y limi ed esea ch on he compa ison o mi-
g an s’ and non-mig an s’ a i udes owa ds immig a-
ion. Fi s insigh s conce ning his e ec had o be ga h-
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 281

e ed om s udies ha ei he did no ocus on a i udes
owa ds immig a ion o did only include mig a ion as-
pec s as con ol a iables in o hei analyses. The goal
o his s udy is o b ing he compa ison o mig an s’ and
non-mig an s’ a i udes owa ds immig a ion in o ocus.
In addi ion, his a icle will con inue he line o wo k on
he a i udes o he di e en mig an gene a ions. He e,
an app oach simila o ha u ilised by O’Rou ke and
Sinno (2006) will be ollowed. In con as o hei wo k
and simila s udies on immig an speci ic da a se s, how-
e e , he ollowing s udy ac i ely di e en ia es h ee
gene a ions o mig an s om he es o he popula ion.
By examining and compa ing he a i udes o he di e -
en gene a ions, a close look a he assimila ion o a -
i udes owa ds immig an s and he di e ences among
gene a ions as well as be ween hem and he gene al
popula ion will be possible.
3. Theo y
Re iewing he li e a u e, I ind wo heo ies p o iding
an unde lying a ionale as o why a i udes owa ds im-
mig a ion may di e be ween a coun y’s na i e ci izens
and hei coun e pa s wi h a mig a ion backg ound: he
concep o social dis ance and he con ac heo y.
Fi s , social dis ance is seen as a subjec i e measu e
desc ibing he “deg ees o unde s anding and in imacy”
(Pa k, 1924, p. 339) be ween pe sons as well as be ween
social g oups. I is o en measu ed as he willingness o
engage wi h pe sons om speci ic social g oups a a -
ious le els o in imacy (Boga dus, 1925, 1967; Hind iks
e al., 2014). The highe he willingness o engage, he
lowe he social dis ance. Wi hin social g oups he will-
ingness o engage is usually high; hence, he pe cei ed
social dis ance is low. Howe e , as social dis ance o-
wa ds a g oup inc eases, he unce ain y ha comes wi h
he engagemen inc eases as well due o he dec ease
in knowledge ha indi iduals ha e abou he o he pe -
son and his o he g oup (Hill, 1984; Maddux, Scheibe ,
& Bass, 1982). This unce ain y leads o mo e di icul
in e ac ions as well as o he ein o cemen and ampli-
ica ion o exis ing p ejudices (Hill, 1984; Maddux e al.,
1982). Hence, people gene ally ha e a mo e posi i e a i-
ude owa ds hose indi iduals whom hey pe cei e less
social dis ance owa ds, in o he wo ds, pe sons who a e
simila o hemsel es, and hey p e e in e ac ing and en-
gaging wi h hem a he han wi h mo e socially dis an
o he s (Hill, 1984).
I is likely ha pe sons wi h a mig a ion backg ound
show a g ea e unde s anding o new immig an s and
immig a ion in gene al, because hey expe ienced he
same hemsel es o ha e ances o s who expe ienced
immig a ion. The e o e, hese indi iduals a e expec ed
o pe cei e a smalle social dis ance be ween hem-
sel es and new o po en ial immig an s. The social dis-
ance be ween hose wi hou a mig a ion backg ound
and new immig an s on he o he hand is expec ed o
be la ge . Hence, hose wi h a mig a ion backg ound a e
expec ed o ha e a mo e posi i e a i ude owa ds im-
mig a ion han hose wi hou a mig a ion backg ound
(Hypo hesis 1).
Bu no all mig an gene a ions a e expec ed o
pe cei e he same social dis ance o new o po en-
ial immig an s. Those who mig a ed hemsel es mos
likely eel ha hey belong o he same social g oup
(Cons an inou & Ha ey, 1985; Masuda, Hasegawa, &
Ma sumo o, 1973; Masuda, Ma sumo o, & Me edi h,
1970) and possibly pe cei e he lowes social dis ance.
This g oup o indi iduals can ela e bes o he po-
en ial immig an s because hey expe ienced he same
si ua ion hemsel es. In compa ison, second- o hi d-
gene a ion mig an s did no ha e he expe ience hem-
sel es and he e o e possibly pe cei e a la ge social
dis ance. Especially hi d-gene a ion mig an s, who do
no e en hea ales o mig a ion ecoun ed by hei pa -
en s, is expec ed o show less unde s anding owa ds
new mig an s. The e o e, o he h ee gene a ions ex-
amined he e, hey a e expec ed o pe cei e he la ges
social dis ance owa ds immig an s. In conclusion, in-
di iduals wi h a i s -gene a ion mig a ion backg ound
a e expec ed o ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds
immig an s han indi iduals wi h a second- o hi d-
gene a ion backg ound (Hypo hesis 2). Mo eo e , indi-
iduals wi h a second-gene a ion mig a ion backg ound
a e expec ed o ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds im-
mig a ion han hi d-gene a ion mig an s (Hypo hesis 3).
In o he wo ds, he a i udes owa ds immig a ion be-
come less posi i e wi h he inc easing ime span since
he own amily’s mig a ion expe ience.
Second, he con ac heo y should also be aken in o
conside a ion when ying o explain di e ences in im-
mig a ion a i udes o hose wi h and wi hou a mig a-
ion backg ound. I assumes ha in e ac ion be ween
wo people o wo social g oups is necessa y in o de o
dissol e g oup ba ie s exis ing be ween hem (Allpo ,
1954). Th ough con ac , people s a seeing each o he
as indi iduals wi h unique cha ac e is ics a he han as
simple ep esen a i es o a uni o m g oup (B ewe &
Mille , 1984). This indi idualisa ion also leads o a de-
c ease in disc imina ion and s e eo ypes as well as o
mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds each o he and each
o he ’s g oups (B ewe & Mille , 1984). Howe e , con ac
alone is no su icien o de elop a posi i e a i ude o-
wa ds a g oup (Ami , 1969). Ra he , ce ain cha ac e is-
ics o he con ac si ua ion in luence he po en ial posi-
i e change (B ewe & Mille , 1984). The main si ua ion
cha ac e is ics assumed o inc ease he posi i e a i ude
a e a simila social s a us o he pe sons in ol ed, a col-
lec i e goal o coope a i e in e dependence, he possi-
bili y o e u e exis ing s e eo ypes, di ec pe sonal con-
ac , as well as he p esence o egali a ian no ms (Allpo ,
1954; B ewe & Mille , 1984; Cook, 1978).
Exis ing esea ch suppo s he assump ions made
by he con ac heo y (Pe ig ew & T opp, 2006) and
has shown ha people who li e in mixed neighbou -
hoods as well as people who ha e immig an s in hei
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 282
social ne wo k ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds
immig a ion (Hayes & Dowds, 2006; Jolly & DiGius o,
2014; Quillian, 1995). Since many amilies wi h mig a-
ion backg ounds li e in e hnically di e se neighbou -
hoods (Mus e d, 2005; Semyono & Glikman, 2009),
and gene ally mig an s end o ha e o he mig an s in
hei di ec social ne wo k (Lubbe s, Molina, & McCa y,
2007), i can be expec ed ha people wi h a mig a ion
backg ound ha e mo e egula con ac wi h new immi-
g an s. Indi iduals wi hou a mig a ion backg ound, on
he o he hand, end o li e in neighbou hoods p edom-
inan ly inhabi ed by na i es (Mus e d, 2005; Semyono
& Glikman, 2009) and o ha e ewe in e -e hnic iend-
ships and con ac s wi h immig an s (Lancee & Ha ung,
2012; Ma ino ić, 2013). This is especially ele an be-
cause con ac wi h immig an s in he neighbou hood
and wi hin one’s di ec social ne wo k p obably mee s
he equi emen s o a posi i e a i ude change. Fo
ha eason, he con ac heo y suppo s he ea lie p e-
sen ed no ion ha hose wi h a mig a ion backg ound
a e likely o ha e a mo e posi i e a i ude owa ds immi-
g a ion han hose wi hou (Hypo hesis 1).
One can also assume ha no all gene a ions o mi-
g an s will ha e he same amoun o con ac wi h new
immig an s. While i s -gene a ion mig an s migh ha e
di icul ies ge ing in con ac wi h non-mig an s because
o language ba ie s, second-gene a ion mig an s, e en
hough aised in he neighbou hoods hei pa en s li e
in, should ha e ela i ely mo e con ac o na i es be-
cause hey ha e li ed hei en i e li es in he hos coun-
y and ha e g own up lea ning he na i e language.
Exis ing esea ch suppo s his assump ion, showing ha
second-gene a ion mig an s end o ha e mo e na i e
iends han i s -gene a ion mig an s (Ma ino ić, 2013)
and a e mo e likely o li e in less seg ega ed neigh-
bou hoods (Den on & Massey, 1988; F eeman, 2000).
Because o hei ela i ely inc eased con ac wi h na-
i es, hey p obably ha e less con ac wi h new immi-
g an s. This could be especially ue o hi d-gene a ion
mig an s. The e o e, he con ac heo y suppo s he
idea ha la e gene a ions o mig an s will ha e less pos-
i i e a i udes owa ds immig a ion han ea lie gene a-
ions (Hypo hesis 2 and Hypo hesis 3). Hence, he con-
ac heo y endo ses he expec a ions held o he esul s
by he social dis ance concep , no only when i comes o
he e ec o a mig a ion backg ound in gene al, bu also
wi h espec o he e ec s o he di e en gene a ions.
Table 1 summa izes he hypo heses.
4. Da a and Va iables
The analyses p esen ed in his a icle u ilise pooled da a
om he 2008 o 2016 biennial ounds o he GSS, col-
lec ed mos ly ia pe sonal in e iews by he independen
esea ch o ganisa ion NORC a he Uni e si y o Chicago
(Smi h e al., 2018). The da a se , a na ionally ep esen a-
i e sample o 11,446 esponden s, was chosen as i con-
ains in o ma ion on he esponden s’ a i ude owa ds
immig a ion and all in o ma ion necessa y o iden i y
h ee di e en gene a ions o mig an s. Howe e , since
35% o esponden s did no answe he a i ude ques-
ion, he ollowing analyses will all use he subsample o
7,362 esponden s be ween he ages o 18 and 88 who
p o ided an answe o his ques ion. While he espon-
den s pa icipa ing in he 2010 ound we e sligh ly mo e
likely o answe he ques ion, he e a e no sys ema ic
di e ences in he socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics be-
ween hose who answe ed he ques ion and hose who
did no .
To measu e he a i ude owa ds immig a ion (de-
penden a iable), a well-es ablished ques ion used by
se e al o he esea che s in he pas (e.g., Mayda, 2006;
O’Rou ke & Sinno , 2006) was applied: Do you hink
he numbe o immig an s o Ame ica nowadays should
be: (1) inc eased a lo , (2) inc eased a li le, (3) e-
main he same, (4) educed a li le, o (5) educed a
lo . A highe esponse on his ques ion indica ed a less
posi i e a i ude owa ds immig a ion. Addi ionally, o-
bus ness checks wi h di e en g oupings o he i e ca -
ego ies we e un, all yielding e y simila esul s o he
ones p esen ed below.
The gene al mig a ion backg ound was de ined as
a bina y a iable, which had he alue 1 i he espon-
den had a mig a ion backg ound and he alue 0 o h-
e wise. Only esponden s classi ied as i s -, second- o
hi d-gene a ion mig an s acco ding o he de ini ions
below we e coded as ha ing a mig a ion backg ound.
Mig an s o la e gene a ions could no be iden i ied in
he da a se and we e he e o e coded as membe s o he
e e ence ca ego y “wi hou a mig a ion backg ound.”
Addi ionally, I c ea ed a bina y a iable o each o he
h ee mig an gene a ion. I sco ed he alue 1 i he e-
sponden belonged o he speci ic gene a ion and he
alue 0 o he wise.
A i s -gene a ion mig an was de ined by being bo n
ou side o he US and ha ing bo h pa en s also bo n
ab oad. This de ini ion is in line wi h classi ica ions used
Table 1. Summa y o he hypo heses.
Hypo hesis 1 Indi iduals wi h a mig a ion backg ound ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds immig a ion compa ed
o hose wi hou a mig a ion backg ound.
Hypo hesis 2 Indi iduals wi h a i s -gene a ion mig a ion backg ound ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds
immig a ion han indi iduals wi h a second- o hi d-gene a ion mig a ion backg ound.
Hypo hesis 3 Indi iduals wi h a second-gene a ion mig a ion backg ound ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds
immig a ion han hi d-gene a ion mig an s.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 283
by many o he esea che s (e.g., Algan, Dus mann, Gli z,
& Manning, 2010). The dema ca ion o he second gen-
e a ion, howe e , is no so unambiguous. While e-
sea che s ag ee ha being bo n in he hos coun y is
a necessa y equi emen (Algan e al., 2010; Baue &
Riphahn, 2007; Jensen & Chi ose, 1994), he e is a dis-
ag eemen as o whe he bo h pa en s (Algan e al.,
2010; Dus mann, F a ini, & Lanza a, 2012) o only
one pa en (Alba, Logan, Lu z, & S ul s, 2002; Baue &
Riphahn, 2007; Jensen & Chi ose, 1994) has o be bo n
ab oad in o de o be classi ied as a second-gene a ion
mig an . The la e , sligh ly mo e common app oach is
he one applied he e. Only hose who we e bo n wi hin
he US and ha e a leas one pa en who was bo n ou -
side he US we e ca ego ised as second-gene a ion mi-
g an s. As he e has only been limi ed esea ch on hi d-
gene a ion mig an s, a common de ini ion emains o be
de e mined. Bu esea che s ag ee ha in o de o be
a hi d-gene a ion mig an , bo h pa en s as well as he
esponden him- o he sel need o be bo n in he hos
coun y (so in his case wi hin he US), and he g and-
pa en s need o be bo n ab oad (e.g., Alba e al., 2002;
Hamma s ed , 2009). The numbe o g andpa en s bo n
ou side he hos coun y necessa y is again deba able.
Alba e al. (2002) as well as Hamma s ed (2009) decla ed
one o eign-bo n g andpa en o be su icien o his
classi ica ion. This de ini ion is also used he e, as i gua -
an ees ha , by he de ini ion p esen ed abo e, a leas
one pa en is a second-gene a ion mig an .
Besides he mig a ion backg ound, ano he
mig a ion- ela ed aspec was ope a ionalised: he o i-
gin. I is possible ha mig an s wi h di e en oo s ha e
di e en opinions on immig a ion. He e No h Ame ican,
Eu opean,A ican,Asian, and Spanish-speaking Sou h
and Middle Ame ican oo s we e dis inguished and in e-
g a ed as bina y a iables (de ails epo ed in Table A1
in he Appendix). Responden s wi h a mig a ion back-
g ound which could no be a ibu ed o any o hese
g oups o med he “O he O igin” ca ego y. Responden s
wi hou a mig a ion backg ound, as desc ibed abo e,
we e coded 0 on all o igin a iables e en hough hey
migh ha e o eign oo s when looking mo e han h ee
gene a ions back. Because some o he o igin ca ego ies
a e unde ep esen ed he e will be analyses wi h and
wi hou hem.
In addi ion o he a iables linked o he mig a ion
backg ound, u he a iables, such as pe sonal cha ac-
e is ics and socio-economic backg ound, we e included.
One ac o which has epea edly been associa ed wi h
a i udes owa ds immig a ion is age, wi h olde peo-
ple showing mo e nega i e a i udes (B idges & Ma eu ,
2014; Hainmuelle & Hiscox, 2007; O’Rou ke & Sinno ,
2006). The e o e, age in yea s was included in o he
analyses as well as gende , whose e ec s a e dispu ed
(Mayda, 2006; O’Rou ke & Sinno , 2006). He e, he bi-
na y a iable male, equalling 1 o males and 0 o e-
males, was used. Also, a bina y a iable desc ibing he
esponden s’ ace was included, since p e ious esea ch
indica ed ha ace migh in luence he a i ude owa ds
immig a ion (Diamond, 1998). This e ec was cap u ed
by he a iable non-whi e, which equalled 1 o espon-
den s iden i ying as a ace o he han whi e and 0 o
esponden s iden i ying as whi e. Ano he impo an as-
pec o include was he esponden s’ educa ion, since a
posi i e e ec o educa ion on p o-immig an a i udes
has been ound by a ious esea che s (e.g., B idges
& Ma eu , 2014; Hainmuelle & Hiscox, 2007; Hind iks
e al., 2014). Educa ion was measu ed by he highes
yea o school comple ed. This included comple ed yea s
o college and uni e si y. Also ela ed o he concep o
income and wo k, labou o ce s a us was conside ed.
E en hough unemploymen did no ha e a signi ican
e ec in o he s udies (O’Rou ke & Sinno , 2006), bi-
na y a iables measu ing he pa icipa ion in he labou
o ce we e included. Responden s who we e empo a -
ily no wo king o unemployed we e de ined as unem-
ployed (1) while all o he s we e assigned he alue 0.
Simila ly, bina y a iables o inac i e (in educa ion, e-
i ed, and homemake s) esponden s and o espon-
den s coded as “o he labou o ce s a us” in he GSS
we e included. The e e ence ca ego y pe sis ed o hose
who epo ed a pa - o ull- ime employmen s a us.
Class could no be included in o he analyses due o he
ac ha hose inac i e in he labou ma ke la gely dis-
played missings on he class a iables. Howe e , addi-
ional analyses on a subsample o he employed and un-
employed esponden s showed simila esul s o hose
p esen ed below when including class in he o m o
ISCO-08 coding. De ailed in o ma ion on hese analyses
can be ob ained om he au ho upon eques .
Las ly, ou bina y a iables indica ing he yea o
da a collec ion (2010,2012,2014, and 2016) we e added
o he analyses. In each case, he esponden s who pa ic-
ipa ed in he espec i e yea ecei ed a sco e o 1, while
all o he esponden s we e assigned he alue 0. The
e e ence ca ego y will be all esponden s who pa ici-
pa ed in 2008. Including hese a iables will ensu e ha
ime ends as well as po en ial poli ical changes a e ac-
coun ed o .
De ailed in o ma ion on all a iables, hei ope a-
ionalisa ion as well as some desc ip i e s a is ics can be
ound in Table A2 in he Appendix.
5. Resul s
The a e age esponden was 47.94 yea s old and com-
ple ed 13.60 yea s o educa ion. Wi h 55%, he sligh
majo i y was emale. Th ee-qua e s o he esponden s
iden i ied as whi e. Besides ha , mos esponden s
(n =4,358) we e wo king pa - o ull- ime. A mig a-
ion backg ound was epo ed by 38% o esponden s o
which he majo i y was classi ied as hi d-gene a ion mi-
g an s. Almos hal o hose wi h a mig a ion backg ound
named a Eu opean coun y as hei place o o igin (48%).
Analyses e ealed ha 24% o esponden s indica ed
suppo o he no ion ha immig a ion o he US should
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 284
be educed “a lo ,” 23% hough i should be educed “a
li le” and he ca ego y endo sed mos o en (38%) was
he “ emain he same” ca ego y. Only 10% o espon-
den s hough ha immig a ion should be inc eased “a
li le” and e en ewe (5%) ha i should be inc eased
“a lo .”
Figu e 1 indica es ha he e a e subs an ial di e -
ences in he a i udes owa ds immig a ion be ween e-
sponden s wi h and wi hou a mig a ion backg ound as
well as be ween he di e en mig an gene a ions. Ou
o he esponden s wi hou a mig a ion backg ound 27%
sha ed he no ion ha immig a ion should be “ educed
a lo .” This esponse was gi en by app oxima ely he
same numbe o hi d-gene a ion mig an s (25%), bu
only 6% o i s -gene a ion mig an s. Gene ally, i ap-
pea s ha wi h each successi e gene a ion, he a i ude
owa ds immig a ion became inc easingly less posi i e
(i.e., mo e nega i e), wi h he a i ude o he hi d gen-
e a ion app oaching ha o esponden s wi h no mig a-
ion backg ound.
In o de o es whe he and o wha ex en hese
di e ences a e signi ican and hold a e con olling
o aspec s o he mig a ion his o y as well as socio-
economic ac o s, I applied o de ed logi eg essions
ac oss ou models. De ailed in o ma ion ega ding each
models’ sample composi ion in ela ion o he espon-
den s’ mig a ion backg ound can be ound in Table A3
in he Appendix.
Model 1 desc ibes he in luence o he gene al mig a-
ion backg ound on he a i udes owa ds immig a ion
unde he conside a ion o all socio-demog aphic a i-
ables and yea dummies desc ibed abo e. The mig a ion
backg ound had a signi ican nega i e e ec , indica ing
ha hose wi h a mig a ion backg ound we e less likely
o hink ha immig a ion in o he US should be educed
“a lo ” and we e mo e likely o suppo he no ion ha
immig a ion should be inc eased “a lo .” Whe eas gen-
de and labou o ce s a us had no signi ican e ec s, he
likelihood o nega i e a i udes owa ds immig a ion in-
c eased wi h age and dec eased wi h educa ion and he
iden i ica ion as non-whi e. Addi ionally, a ime end o-
wa ds mo e posi i e a i udes was ound.
In Model 2, I subs i u ed he gene al mig a ion back-
g ound o he speci ic o igins o he mig an s, his al-
lowed o he di e en e hnic g oups o mig an s o be
compa ed o hose wi hou a mig a ion backg ound. The
esul s indica e ha mig an s, ega dless o o igin, we e
less likely o suppo he iew ha immig a ion should be
educed “a lo .” This being said, he e we e signi ican
di e ences among he iews o hose wi h a mig a ion
backg ound: Those o No h Ame ican and A ican o igin
showed he mos posi i e a i ude owa ds immig a ion
while hose o Eu opean o igin show he leas posi i e.
Conce ning he socio-demog aphic a iables as well as
he yea s o da a collec ion, he esul s appea o be sim-
ila o hose ound o Model 1.
O e all, hese esul s suppo Hypo hesis 1, indica -
ing ha indi iduals wi h a mig a ion backg ound ha e
mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds immig a ion compa ed
o hei coun e pa s wi hou a mig a ion backg ound.
When compa ing he wo models, bo h he Akaike
In o ma ion C i e ion (AIC) and Bayesian In o ma ion
C i e ion (BIC) suppo he model di e en ia ing be-
ween he mig an s’ e hnic g oups (Model 2) o e he
model wi hou he o igin aspec s (Model 1).
The nex s ep was o analyse and compa e he e -
ec s o he di e en mig a ion gene a ions on he a -
i ude owa ds immig a ion. He e, I es ima ed a model
simila o Model 1, exchanging he gene al mig a ion
backg ound o he h ee gene a ion a iables (Model 3).
Addi ionally, I an a model in which bo h he h ee gen-
e a ions as well as he a ious o igins we e conside ed
(Model 4).
In Model 3, all h ee mig an gene a ions exe ed a
signi ican e ec on he a i ude owa ds immig a ion,
showing ha all h ee gene a ions had mo e a ou able
a i udes owa ds immig a ion han hose wi hou a mi-
g a ion backg ound. Howe e , - es s compa ing he co-
50%
60%
… inc eased
a lo
… emain he
same
… educed
a lile
… educed
a lo
… inc eased
a lile
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Wi hou mig aon backg ound Fi s gene aon Second gene aon Thi d gene aon
Do you hink he numbe o immig an s o Ame ica nowadays should be…
Figu e 1. A i udes owa ds immig a ion by mig an gene a ion in pe cen age poin s.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 285
Table 2. O de ed logi models wi h gene al mig a ion backg ound and sepa a e mig a ion gene a ions.
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4
Mig a ion Backg ound −0.58***
(−12.84)
Fi s -gene a ion −1.28*** −0.72*
(−17.55) (−2.34)
Second-gene a ion −0.50*** −0.01
(−6.39) (−0.03)
Thi d-gene a ion −0.20*** 0.21
(−3.39) (0.73)
No h Ame ican −1.25*** −0.95**
(−13.81) (−3.07)
Eu opean −0.27*** −0.32
(−4.55) (−1.08)
A ican −1.32*** −0.86*
(−5.87) (−2.30)
Asian −0.88*** −0.42
(−6.78) (−1.29)
Spanish-speaking Sou h −0.97*** −0.52
and Middle Ame ican (−7.51) (−1.60)
O he O igin −0.55** −0.25
(−3.18) (−0.74)
Age 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01*** 0.01***
(8.32) (6.31) (7.51) (6.70)
Male −0.06 −0.06 −0.07 −0.07
(−1.42) (−1.38) (−1.51) (−1.48)
Non-Whi e −0.59*** −0.42*** −0.42*** −0.40***
(−11.29) (−7.24) (−7.76) (−6.78)
Educa ion −0.08*** −0.09*** −0.09*** −0.10***
(−10.27) (−11.38) (−11.77) (−12.11)
Unemployed 0.06 −0.01 0.02 −0.02
(0.68) (−0.08) (0.18) (−0.26)
Inac i e −0.09 −0.09 −0.10 −0.10
(−1.64) (−1.66) (−1.90) (−1.89)
O he Labou Fo ce S a us 0.20 0.10 0.13 0.05
(1.42) (0.74) (0.96) (0.38)
2010 −0.21** −0.21** −0.23** −0.22**
(−2.89) (−2.82) (−3.12) (−3.00)
2012 −0.28*** −0.27*** −0.29*** −0.28***
(−3.77) (−3.60) (−3.89) (−3.62)
2014 −0.35*** −0.32*** −0.35*** −0.33***
(−4.97) (−4.40) (−5.00) (−4.53)
2016 −0.51*** −0.48*** −0.52*** −0.49***
(−7.51) (−6.93) (−7.55) (−7.02)
Numbe o obse a ions 6949 6662 6921 6640
Log likelihood −9623.84 −9157.54 −9504.28 −9083.79
AIC 19279.68 18357.08 19044.56 18215.57
BIC 19389.22 18499.97 19167.72 18378.79
Chi alue: - es i s and 64.27*** 48.86***
second gene a ion
Chi alue: - es second and 10.85*** 4.90*
hi d gene a ion
Chi alue: - es i s and 154.59*** 80.57***
hi d gene a ion
No es: s a is ics in pa en heses; * p<0.05, ** p<0.01, *** p<0.001.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 286

e icien s e ealed ha he e ec s di e ed signi ican ly
in s eng h. The mo e gene a ions ago he amily came
o he US, he mo e likely he claim ha immig a ion o
he US should be educed “a lo ” is suppo ed. These ind-
ings suppo Hypo heses 2 and 3.
Howe e , when addi ionally in oducing he o i-
gin a iables in o he analyses (Model 4), he esul s
changed. Whe eas in compa ison o hose wi hou a mi-
g a ion backg ound, i s -gene a ion mig an s s ill had a
lowe p obabili y o exp essing ha immig a ion in o he
Uni ed S a es should be educed “a lo ,” he e ec o he
second and hi d gene a ion appea ed o be no longe
signi ican , indica ing ha second- and hi d-gene a ion
mig an s do no di e om he gene al popula ion in
hei a i udes owa ds immig a ion.
The coe icien compa ison o Model 4 again e-
ealed ha he e ec o he i s gene a ion was sig-
ni ican ly mo e nega i e han he e ec s o he second
and hi d gene a ion. Fu he , and only a he 5% le el, i
appea ed ha he coe icien o he second gene a ion
was mo e nega i e han he one o he hi d gene a ion.
The la e being he only mig a ion aspec h oughou
he analyses indica ing ha hose wi h a mig a ion back-
g ound could ha e mo e nega i e a i udes han he gen-
e al popula ion. While he di e ence be ween he wo
coe icien s appea ed o be signi ican , i has o be kep
in mind ha nei he o he wo gene a ions di e ed sig-
ni ican ly om hose wi hou a mig a ion backg ound.
In e es ingly, he esul s also e ealed ha hose
wi h a No h Ame ican o A ican mig a ion backg ound
we e signi ican ly less likely o suppo he s ong educ-
ion o immig a ion. All o he o igins did no ha e a sig-
ni ican e ec on he a i ude when simul aneously con-
olling o he mig an gene a ion. Conce ning all o he
con ol a iables, simila e ec s o hose in Model 1
and Model 2 we e ound in bo h models analysing mi-
g an gene a ions.
Bo h he AIC and he BIC endo se he usage o
he ull Model 4 o e he es ic ed Model 3. The e-
sul s suppo bo h Hypo hesis 2, pos ula ing ha i s -
gene a ion mig an s ha e mo e posi i e a i udes o-
wa ds immig an s han second- and hi d-gene a ion
mig an s, and Hypo hesis 3, which expec ed espon-
den s wi h a second-gene a ion mig a ion backg ound o
ha e mo e posi i e a i udes owa ds immig a ion han
hose wi h a hi d-gene a ion backg ound. Howe e ,
e en hough Hypo hesis 3 did ind empi ical suppo , i
is impo an o poin ou ha nei he second- no hi d-
gene a ion mig an s di e ed om he gene al popula-
ion in hei a i udes when con ol a iables o he mi-
g an s’ o igins we e included in he analyses.
6. Conclusion
The li e a u e e iew and he heo ies sugges ed ha mi-
g an s’ a i udes owa ds immig a ion can be expec ed
o be mo e posi i e han he a i udes owa d immig a-
ion o he gene al popula ion. Fu he , hey led o he
expec a ion ha la e gene a ions o mig an s will ha e
less posi i e a i udes owa ds immig a ion han ea lie
gene a ions. The analyses e ealed s ong suppo o
Hypo hesis 1, showing ha esponden s wi h a mig a-
ion backg ound, no ma e hei o igin, we e mo e likely
o a ou inc easing he numbe o mig an s in o he US.
Simila ly, Hypo hesis 2 ound co obo a ion. Indi iduals
belonging o he i s gene a ion showed mo e posi i e
a i udes owa ds immig a ion in compa ison o second-
and hi d-gene a ion mig an s. The esul s u he e-
ealed ha he a i udes o second-gene a ion mig an s
we e mo e posi i e han he a i udes o he hi d gene -
a ion. I should be no ed, howe e , ha unde he con-
side a ion o mig an s’ o igins, nei he o he wo gen-
e a ions di e ed signi ican ly om hose wi hou a mi-
g a ion backg ound. This migh be because second- and
hi d-gene a ion mig an s a e well in eg a ed in o he
socie y and, hence, ha e adop ed he na i es’ a i udes
and alues.
One aspec ha was no conside ed in he p esen
s udy bu could s ill be o g ea ele ance is whe he and
o wha ex en esponden s ha e con ac o pe sons wi h
mig a ion backg ounds. As he con ac heo y desc ibes,
in e ac ion wi h membe s o a ce ain g oup should, un-
de he igh si ua ional condi ions, posi i ely in luence
he a i ude owa ds his g oup (B ewe & Mille , 1984).
The e o e, he inclusion o a a iable measu ing he con-
ac o mig an s could show whe he he a i ude di e -
ences be ween indi iduals wi h and wi hou a mig a ion
backg ound and he di e en gene a ions could pa ly o
maybe e en ully be a ibu ed o he con ac . Due o con-
side able limi a ions o he p esen da a, howe e , such
an app oach was no possible he e.
Besides he con ac o mig an s, he de ini ion o he
mig a ion backg ound and speci ically o he di e en
gene a ions migh in luence he esul s as well. He e, he
mos common ope a ionalisa ions we e used, bu o he
de ini ions could be jus i ied as well. Especially o he
hi d gene a ion, li le esea ch exis s, and mul iple di -
e en de ini ions a e concei able. Fu u e s udies could
examine in wha way he di e en de ini ions in luence
he esul s, as i is possible ha mo e es ic i e de ini-
ions, o example, equi ing mo e han one pa en o
g andpa en o be bo n ab oad, lead o s onge e ec s.
Such an enqui y was beyond he scope o his a icle.
No only would i be in e es ing o es di e en op-
e a ionalisa ions o he mig an gene a ions, he choice
o he dependen a iable should also be discussed. The
analyses p esen ed he e measu ed a i udes owa ds im-
mig a ion by asking esponden s o hei iews on he
numbe o immig an s ha should be allowed o en e
he coun y. This ques ion is highly ela ed o immig a-
ion policy. A i udes owa ds immig a ion, howe e , a e
mul i- ace ed, co e ing much mo e han policy aspec s
alone. Hence, o he ques ions and measu emen s, such
as whe he immig an s make coun ies mo e li eable
(Eu opean Social Su ey, 2018) o whe he he espon-
den s eel hei cul u e o socie y is h ea ened by immi-
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 287
g a ion (de G aa , Kalmijn, K aaykamp, & Monden, 2010;
ISSP Resea ch G oup, 2015), could be used as well.
In conclusion, he e a e s ill many un esol ed di icul-
ies in esea ching immig an s’ a i udes owa ds immi-
g a ion which equi e u he a en ion. Ye despi e he
many aspec s u u e esea ch needs o conside , he mi-
g a ion backg ound seems o be a ele an cha ac e is ic
when explaining immig a ion a i udes: Ha ing a mig a-
ion backg ound in luences he o ma ion o posi i e a -
i udes owa ds o he immig an s. The e o e, mig an s’
opinions on immig a ion should no be dis ega ded bu
a he aken in o accoun , pa icula ly in coun ies wi h
a high sha e o people wi h mig a ion backg ounds.
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho decla es no con lic o in e es s.
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Abou he Au ho
Cha lo e Cla a Becke is a PhD candida e a he Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology and a
schola ship ecipien o he Cologne G adua e School in Managemen , Economics and Social Sciences
a he Uni e si y o Cologne in Ge many. In he disse a ion she discusses a i udes owa ds immig a-
ion and immig an s. She is especially in e es ed in he a i udes o cu en ly unde - esea ched social
g oups, such as pe sons wi h mig a ion backg ounds and child en.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 279–292 290
2. Do you o en ha e nega i e eelings such as ha ing
he blues, being despe a e, su e ing om anxie y
o dep ession, i 0 means “ne e ” and 10 “always”?
(𝛼=.74; M =2.93, SD =1.64).
The same i ems we e used o es ima e mo he s’ (𝛼=.78;
M=3.21, SD =1.80) and a he s’ (𝛼=.77; M =2.63,
SD =1.65) subjec i e well-being.
3.4. Analy ical S a egy
Mul ile el pa h models accoun ing o adolescen s and
young adul s being nes ed wi hin households we e pe -
o med wi h Mplus 8.3. Indeed, a signi ican po ion
o he a iance o esponden s’ subjec i e well-being
(31.9%; 𝜎2
household =0.86, SE =0.15, p<.001) was due
o he household s uc u e o he da a, which calls o
mul ile el analyses. Because a ound a qua e o he e-
sponden s li ed wi h one pa en only, sepa a e models
we e pe o med o mo he s and a he s. Responden s’
ci izenship s a us (Swiss s. dual ci izen; Swiss s. o -
eigne ) was used as p oxy o “household wi h an immi-
g an backg ound.” Howe e , a sha e o esponden s did
no epo he same ci izenship s a us (e.g., hey a e dual
ci izens and hei pa en is a o eigne ) as hei mo he
(18.61%) o a he (30.58%). To ensu e ha mixed house-
holds did no s and ou , whe he young people sha ed
o no a ci izenship s a us wi h hei pa en was en e ed
as a con ol a iable in he model (along wi h i s in e -
ac ion wi h esponden s’ ci izenship s a us). Also no e
ha , while p e ious esea ch on immig an s’ well-being
has ypically compa ed indi iduals ha ing mig a ed o
he ecei ing coun y ( i s gene a ion) o hose bo n
he e (second gene a ion; e.g., A pino & de Valk, 2018;
Le ecque & an Rossem, 2015; Missinne & B acke, 2012),
he e y low p opo ion o esponden s bo n ab oad did
no allow o use such a dis inc ion in he cu en s udy.
Howe e , in a coun y whe e na u aliza ion is a long and
complica ed p ocess, dual ci izenship can be conside ed
an indica o o s onge ies wi h he hos coun y.
Based on he FSM, low sa is ac ion wi h he house-
hold income was used as a measu e o economic p es-
su es and se as a p edic o o pa en al well-being. Being
below he po e y line, a measu e o economic ha d-
ships, was ea ed as a con ol a iable. O he con ol
a iables included: esponden s’ age, gende (1 = e-
male), and occupa ion (1 =in educa ion); pa en al occu-
pa ion (mo he : wo king ull- ime s. pa - ime and wo k-
ing ull- ime s. o he ; a he : wo king ull- ime s. o he ),
educa ional a ainmen (bo h pa en s: 1 =high school
diploma o highe ), and p esence o he o he pa en in
he household. Bo h indi ec and di ec pa hs om na-
ionali y s a us o young people’s subjec i e well-being
we e es ima ed (see Figu e 1).
4. Resul s
Resul s a e p esen ed in Table 2 (mo he s) and Table 3 ( a-
he s). P elimina y (and unp esen ed) analyses showed
ha in e ac ions be ween esponden s’ and pa en s’ ci -
izenship s a us, o ci izenship s a us and economic p es-
su es, had no signi ican impac . Fo his eason, hese
in e ac ion e ms we e no included in he inal mod-
els. Bo h inal models we e ound o i he da a ade-
qua ely (mo he s: 𝜒2(6) =14.86, p=.02, CFI =.977,
RMSEA =.03; a he s. 𝜒2(6) =8.09, p=.23, CFI =.993,
RMSEA =.02; Hu & Ben le , 1999). Mos esul s a e sim-
ila when conside ing ma e nal and pa e nal a iables.
In line wi h p e ious esea ch, young immig an s e-
po ed lowe well-being han Swiss na i es o he same
age g oup (see i s sec ion, o he i s column o bo h
Table 2 and Table 3). The na i e-immig an gap eme ged
Table 2. Resul s o pa h model ( esponden s and hei mo he s).
SWB Pa en al SWB Economic p essu es
b SE b SE b SE
Swiss s.
Fo eigne s 0.45*** 0.12 0.44** 0.16 0.77*** 0.18
Dual ci izens 0.54* 0.24 0.28 0.27 1.04** 0.31
Same ci izenship as pa en −0.09 0.14 −0.17 0.21 −0.30 0.22
Age 0.03* 0.01
Female 0.86*** 0.09
In educa ion 0.31** 0.12
Economic p essu es 0.06* 0.02 0.21*** 0.04
Below po e y 0.12 0.17 0.25 0.26 1.65*** 0.31
Pa en al SWB 0.16*** 0.03
O he pa en in HH −0.13 0.13 −0.08 0.17 −0.10*** 0.19
Full ime s.
Pa ime 0.10 0.16 −0.18 0.21 −0.05 0.21
O he occupa ion 0.17 0.18 −0.06 0.25 0.74** 0.26
Pa en al educa ion 0.01 0.10 −0.03 0.13 −0.49*** 0.15
No es: *** p<.001, ** p<.01, * p<.05; SWB s ands o subjec i e well-being, HH o household.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 293–303 297

Table 3. Resul s o pa h model ( esponden s and hei a he s).
SWB Pa en al SWB Economic p essu es
b SE b SE b SE
Swiss s.
Fo eigne s 0.37*** 0.13 0.48* 0.20 0.68** 0.24
Dual ci izens 0.29 0.24 1.04*** 0.24 0.86* 0.35
Same ci izenship as pa en −0.16 0.14 −0.10 0.21 −0.42 0.27
Age 0.04** 0.01
Female 0.87*** 0.09
In educa ion 0.33** 0.12
Economic p essu es 0.07 0.03 0.16*** 0.04
Below po e y 0.08 0.18 0.31 0.27 1.82*** 0.36
Pa en al SWB 0.19*** 0.04
O he pa en in HH −0.27 0.23 0.09 0.27 −0.28 0.36
Full ime s. o he −0.08 0.12 0.07 0.17 −0.09 0.18
Pa en al educa ion 0.02 0.10 −0.17 0.14 −0.67*** 0.17
No es: *** p<.001, ** p<.01, * p<.05; SWB s ands o subjec i e well-being, HH o household.
e en when pa en al well-being, economic p essu es and
con ol a iables we e conside ed, which sugges s ha
in a amily dynamics and economics did no ully explain
he lowe well-being exp essed by immig an s. The di e -
ence be ween Swiss na i es and dual ci izens was signi i-
can only in he model including a iables om he mo h-
e s’ side. In bo h cases howe e , emales, olde espon-
den s and hose s ill in educa ion epo ed a lowe well-
being. In addi ion, despi e no di ec ly hypo hesizing he
in e ac ion be ween gende and o igins, addi ional anal-
yses e ealed ha he gende gap in subjec i e well-
being was wide among dual ci izens and immig an s (al-
hough p esen in all g oups), bu his only in he model
including mo he s ( esul s a ailable upon eques ).
Tu ning o pa en al well-being (see second column
o bo h Table 1 and Table 2), pa en s o young immi-
g an s we e ound o epo mo e nega i e a ec han
pa en s o young na i es. As explained abo e, his esul
eme ged no ma e whe he he pa en s sha ed hei
child en’s ci izenship s a us o no . The di e ence be-
ween dual ci izens and Swiss na i es was signi ican only
when a he s we e conside ed. No o he a iable (wi h
he excep ion o economic p essu es) had any signi i-
can e ec on pa en al well-being. Impo an ly and as hy-
po hesized in he p esen s udy, he lowe he pa en al
well-being (mo he s and a he s alike), he lowe chil-
d en’s well-being (see Tables 2 and 3, hi d sec ion o
i s column).
The ole o economic p essu es is now examined.
Economic p essu es we e highe in households below
he po e y line, when he a he was no p esen , when
he mo he did no wo k (‘o he occupa ion’ ca ego y),
and when mo he s and a he s had no high school
diploma. Compa ed o na i e amilies, households in
which young people wi h an immig an backg ound li ed
(bo h immig an s and dual ci izens) we e cha ac e ized
by highe economic p essu es. In line wi h indings om
he FSM, economic p essu es impac ed he well-being o
bo h pa en s and hei child en.
Finally, indi ec pa hs o he model (see Figu e 1)
om esponden s’ ci izenship s a us o hei epo ed
well-being we e examined. Conside ing ei he pa en s’
well-being, he ull FSM (i.e., immig an backg ound →
economic p essu es →pa en al well-being →young
people’s well-being) was ound o be signi ican (im-
mig an s s. Swiss na i es: bmo he s =0.03, SE =0.01,
p=.003; b a he s =0.02, SE =0.01, p=.03; dual ci izens
s. Swiss na i es: bmo he s =0.04, SE =0.01, p=.009;
b a he s =0.03, SE =0.01, p=.05). I is hus (a leas pa -
ially) h ough economic p essu es and low pa en al well-
being ha young people wi h an immig an backg ound
expe ienced mo e nega i e a ec han na i e you h.
Howe e , economic p essu es also impac ed di ec ly (i.e.,
no h ough a low pa en al well-being) he well-being o
young people wi h an immig an backg ound mo e han
na i es (immig an s s. Swiss na i es: bmo he s =0.05,
SE =0.02, p=.02; b a he s =0.05, SE =0.03, p=.06;
dual ci izens s. Swiss na i es: bmo he s =0.06, SE =0.03,
p=.04; b a he s =0.06, SE =0.03, p=.06; no e ha
he e ec s we e only ma ginally signi ican in he model
including pa e nal a iables, which had a sligh ly lowe
sample size). Finally, he gap be ween young immig an s
and Swiss na i es was also di ec ly (i.e., no h ough
economic p essu es) explained by a low pa en al well-
being (bmo he s =0.07, SE =0.03, p=.02; b a he s =0.09,
SE =0.04, p=.03), while he gap be ween dual ci -
izens and Swiss na i es was signi ican in he case o
he a he s only (bmo he s =0.05, SE =0.05, p=.30;
b a he s =0.19, SE =0.06, p=.002).
5. Conclusion
Taking ad an age o a panel su ey ha con ained sel -
epo ed measu es o well-being o wo gene a ions,
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 293–303 298
he p esen s udy examined he ex en o which im-
mig an backg ound and economic p essu es a ec ed
he well-being o adolescen s and young adul s in
Swi ze land h ough he nega i e a ec s expe ienced by
hei pa en s. Con i ming p e ious esea ch on he opic
(e.g., Le ecque & an Rossem, 2015; Missinne & B acke,
2012), in he Swiss con ex oo adolescen s and young
adul s wi h an immig an backg ound—bo h o eigne s
and dual ci izens— epo ed being mo e anxious, sad and
dep essed han na i es. Pa h models showed ha young
people wi h o eign oo s we e mo e likely o li e in a
household ha expe ienced economic p essu es, which,
in a u n, impac ed hei pa en s’ (mo he s and a he s
alike) well-being and hei own. Ha ing an immig an
backg ound, expe iencing economic p essu es, and pa -
en s’ well-being we e also ound o independen ly a ec
young people’s nega i e a ec s.
5.1. The Two Rou es o Immig an s’ Lowe Well-Being
Adolescen s and young people who ha e an immig an
backg ound su e om a double bu den: On he one
hand, as indi iduals wi h o eign oo s, hey a e likely
o ha e i s -hand expe iences o disc imina ion ( ha im-
pac indi iduals’ well-being o a g ea e ex en ha sim-
ply knowing ha one’s g oup is disc imina ed agains ;
see Schmi , B anscombe, Pos mes, & Ga cia, 2014); on
he o he hand, e y likely hei own pa en s ha e also
pe sonally su e ed om disc imina ion. While un o u-
na ely he su ey used did no con ain measu es o pe -
cei ed disc imina ion, he esul s o he p esen s udy
sugges his double disad an age. Fi s , e en when eco-
nomic a iables, pa en al well-being, and o he ac o s
known o impac indi iduals’ well-being we e aken in o
accoun , a gap in anxie y, sadness and dep ession be-
ween immig an and na i e young people emained.
This hin s o possible pe sonal expe iences o disc imi-
na ion and issues wi h in eg a ion. The ac ha we did
no ind a signi ican in e ac ion wi h he pa en s’ ci i-
zenship s a us u he sugges s ha young people’s own
ci izenship s a us explains pa o hei well-being ( o
ins ance, na i es wi h an immig an o dual ci izen pa -
en did no appea o di e in well-being om a na i e
wi h na i e pa en s). This pa e n appea ed in a su ey
whe e mos esponden s wi h an immig an backg ound
came om coun ies neighbo ing Swi ze land: They, o
hei (g and)pa en s, mos likely immig a ed olun a -
ily (unlike e ugees o ins ance). We can hus assume
ha he gap should be e en g ea e i immig an g oups
ha usually ace s onge disc imina ion (such as hose
om mo e geog aphically dis an and cul u ally di e en
coun ies, e.g., Rapp, 2015; S olz, 2005) we e su eyed.
Findings ega ding pa en s’ well-being also suppo
he assump ion ha he wo se psychological heal h o -
en epo ed by immig an s and dual ci izens is no en-
i ely due o poo e economic ci cums ances (e.g., on he
ole played by disc imina ion see Schunck e al., 2015),
e en hough a lowe sa is ac ion wi h he household i-
nancial si ua ion (and o he ulne abili y ela ed ac o s
on he mo he ’s side) did p edic a lowe pa en al well-
being. S ill ou esul s indica e ha economic condi ions
a e an in eg al pa o he s o y, and ha any s udy on
he na i e-immig an gap should include measu es o
economic ha dships and p essu es. While second gene -
a ion immig an s a e less likely o be poo han na i es
(SFSO, 2019 ), a low sa is ac ion wi h he household in-
come was ound in he p esen s udy o pa ly explain, be-
yond being abo e s. below he po e y line, why young
people wi h an immig an backg ound ( he g ea majo -
i y o hem being bo n in Swi ze land) epo a lowe well-
being han na i es. Bo h immig an s and dual ci izens
appea ed o be a ec ed. Wi hin amilies wi h o eign
oo s, economic p essu es had a double impac : di ec ly
on he well-being o he young people, bu also h ough
hei pa en s. This esul highligh s he ole played by
economic p essu es (day- o-day hassles), which, acco d-
ing o he FSM, ha e o be dis inguished om economic
ha dships (i.e., being poo ). All in all, hese indings high-
ligh he complexi y o he ac o s unde lying he well-
known immig an –na i e gap in well-being and psycho-
logical heal h.
5.2. Ma e nal and Pa e nal In luences
Ma e nal psychological heal h issues a e gene ally ound
o ha e a sligh ly g ea e impac on young child en’s in-
e nalizing symp oms (e.g., anxie y, dep ession), which
is explained by mo he s spending on a e age mo e ime
wi h babies and oddle s ( o a me a-analysis see Connell
& Goodman, 2002). This should be e en mo e ma ked in
coun ies such as Swi ze land whe e he e is no pa e -
ni y lea e, and whe e mos women swi ch o pa - ime
wo k a e he bi h o he i s child (le Go & Le y, 2016).
The esul s o he p esen s udy, howe e , showed ha
ma e nal and pa e nal (low le els o ) well-being had an
equally s ong impac on adolescen s and young adul s
(independen ly o hei o igins). The nex s ep in u u e
esea ch should be o in es iga e how he well-being o
pa en s o young people wi h an immig an backg ound
in e ac , since esea ch on wi hin- amily ansmission
o psychological heal h issues ha e shown ha ha ing
bo h pa en s wi h poo men al heal h is an agg a a ing
ac o (e.g., Kahn, B and , & Whi ake , 2004; Meadows,
McLanahan, & B ooks-Gunn, 2007).
Di e ences be ween mo he s and a he s did
eme ge in he ac o s unde lying economic p essu es,
hough. While in bo h cases lowe educa ional achie e-
men s we e ela ed o a lowe sa is ac ion wi h house-
hold income, o he ac o s appea ed o make mo he s
mo e ulne able: no being in employmen (which was
he case o ha dly any a he ) and when he a he did
no li e in he household. In Swi ze land he e a e ew
wo k- amily econcilia ion policies and mo he s gene -
ally wo k pa ime, which makes lone mo he s wi h no o
low employmen pa icula ly ulne able. Also using da a
om he Swiss Household da a, S u olino, Be na di,
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 293–303 299
and Voo pos el (2016) showed ha lone mo he s su -
e om poo e heal h han pa ne ed mo he s, a en-
dency which is agg a a ed in he case o low employ-
men . Al oge he , his sugges s ha lone mo he s wi h
an immig an backg ound cumula e disad an ages ha
a e likely o a ec he well-being o hei child en.
Con i ming p e ious esea ch conduc ed in Eu ope,
he p esen s udy showed ha adolescen s and young
adul s wi h an immig an backg ound epo lowe well-
being han na i e young people o he same age. A lowe
well-being a ea ly s ages o li e can ha e li e-long
consequences, o example h ough lowe educa ional
achie emen . Low well-being in middle school has o in-
s ance been ela ed o lowe a endance and low g ades
o e ime (Suldo, Thalji, & Fe on, 2011). Policies ha
p e en child en wi h an immig an backg ound om cu-
mula ing spi aling disad an ages om ea ly in li e should
hus be implemen ed.
Acknowledgmen s
A pa o his wo k was suppo ed by he Swiss Na-
ional Science Founda ion (NCCR—On he Mo e G an
No. 51NF40–142020).
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
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Abou he Au ho s
O iane Sa asin (PhD) is Lec u e in Social Psychology a he Uni e si y o Lausanne, Swi ze land. In
he esea ch she examines how bo h indi idual and con ex ual ac o s shape how people eac owa d
social and poli ical objec s such as clima e change, immig a ion and gende equali y. She does so by
elying on su ey da a combined wi h con ex ual in o ma ion. She also uses expe imen s o e alua e
social in luence mechanisms in campaigns o poli ical pos e s.
E a G. T. G een (PhD) is Associa e P o esso in Social Psychology a Uni e si y o Lausanne, Swi ze land.
A he c oss oads o social, c oss-cul u al and poli ical psychology, he esea ch in e es s ocus on
in e g oup ela ions (e.g., p ejudice, powe ela ions, poli ical iden i ies) in mul icul u al socie ies.
He esea ch is mainly in o med by su ey, expe imen al and mixed me hods app oaches. She is cu -
en ly leading a p ojec wi hin ncc —On he mo e (Na ional Cen e o Compe ence in Resea ch—The
Mig a ion-Mobili y Nexus) unded by he Swiss Na ional Science Founda ion.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 293–303 302

Gina Po a ca (PhD) is an Ambizione esea ch ellow a he Uni e si y o Gene a, Swi ze land. She ob-
ained he PhD deg ee a he Uni e si y o G oningen ( he Ne he lands) in 2014. He esea ch in e es s
e ol e a ound he applica ion o mul ile el and longi udinal me hods o he s udy o asso a i e ma -
ing, he social e ec s o he digi al e olu ion, c oss-na ional compa isons, and men al heal h.
Claudio Bolzman (PhD) is P o esso in Sociology a Uni e si y o Applied Sciences and A s Wes e n
Swi ze land (HES–SO Gene a). His esea ch in e es s ocus on mig a ions, li e cou se and in e gen-
e a ional ela ions. He is cu en ly membe o he ncc LIVES (Na ional Cen e o Compe ence in
Resea ch—O e coming Vulne abili y. Li e Cou se Pe spec i es) unded by he Swiss Na ional Science
Founda ion.
U sina Kuhn (PhD) is Senio Resea che a he Swiss Cen e o Expe ise in he Social Sciences (FORS),
whe e she wo ks o he Swiss Household Panel (SHP). She holds a mas e and a PhD in Poli ical
Science om he Uni e si y o Zu ich. Cu en esea ch in e es s comp ise subjec i e well-being,
quali y o su ey da a, income and weal h dis ibu ion and consequences o nega i e li e e en s on
pa y p e e ences.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 293–303 303
Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803)
2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319
DOI: 10.17645/si. 7i4.2330
A icle
In Sea ch o he Heal hy Immig an E ec in Fou Wes
Eu opean Coun ies
Dina Maskileyson 1,*, Moshe Semyono 2and Eldad Da ido 1,3
1Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology, Uni e si y o Cologne, 50923 Cologne, Ge many;
E-Mail: [email protected] (D.M.), e.da ido @uni-koeln.de (E.D.)
2Depa men o Sociology and An h opology, Tel A i Uni e si y, 6997801 Tel-A i , Is ael; E-Mail: moshes@pos . au.ac.il
3Uni e si y Resea ch P io i y P og am “Social Ne wo ks,” Uni e si y o Zu ich, Zu ich, Swi ze land
* Co esponding au ho
Submi ed: 30 June 2019 | Accep ed: 27 No embe | Published: 27 Decembe 2019
Abs ac
The p esen esea ch examines whe he he ‘heal hy immig an e ec ’ hesis obse ed in he Ame ican con ex p e ails
also in he Wes Eu opean con ex . Acco ding o his hesis, immig an s a e likely o be heal hie han compa able na i e-
bo n. Da a o he analysis a e ob ained om he Gene a ions and Gende Su ey o he ollowing coun ies: Aus ia,
F ance, Ge many, and he Ne he lands. O de ed logi eg ession models a e es ima ed o compa e he heal h o immi-
g an s wi h he na i e-bo n popula ion. The indings e eal ha in all coun ies, immig an s end o epo poo e heal h
han compa able hi d gene a ion na i e-bo n Eu opeans, and ha heal h dispa i ies be ween second and hi d gene a-
ion a e smalle han heal h dispa i ies be ween i s -gene a ion membe s and na i e-bo n ega dless o second- o hi d-
gene a ion membe ship. The indings in he Wes -Eu opean coun ies do no lend suppo o he heal hy immig an e ec .
We a ibu e he di e ences be ween he Uni ed S a es and he Wes Eu opean coun ies o di e en ial selec ion p o-
cesses and di e ences in heal hca e policies.
Keywo ds
compa a i e heal h; gene a ion s udies; heal hy immig an e ec ; immig an s; Uni ed S a es; Wes e n Eu ope
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Immig a ion om he Mig an s’ Pe spec i e” edi ed by Alice Ramos (Ins i u e o Social
Sciences, Po ugal), Eldad Da ido (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many/Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land), Pe e Schmid
(Uni e si y o Giessen, Ge many), Ma a Vila Rosales (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal) and Dina Maskileyson
(Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many).
© 2019 by he au ho s; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu-
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
Schola s ha e long obse ed ha immig an s in he
Uni ed S a es and in o he adi ional immig an soci-
e ies (i.e., Canada and Aus alia) end o be heal hie
han compa able na i e-bo n popula ions (Cunningham,
Ruben, & Na ayan, 2008; Goldman e al., 2014;
McDonald & Kennedy, 2004). Immig an s’ heal h ad an-
age is mos e iden sho ly a e a i al, bu he heal h
o immig an s ends o con e ge wi h ha o he na i e-
bo n wi h he passage o ime (McDonald & Kennedy,
2004; Ronellen i sch & Razum, 2004). The heal h o chil-
d en o immig an s (i.e., second gene a ion) is likely o
be poo e han ha o he i s -gene a ion and o con-
e ge wi h ha o he hi d gene a ion (and beyond)
he na i e-bo n (Singh & Siahpush, 2002). The pa e ns
o heal h dispa i ies ha we e obse ed in he Uni ed
S a es (and o he immig an socie ies such as Aus alia
and Canada) a e e e ed o in he li e a u e as ‘ he
heal hy immig an e ec ’ (o ‘ he Hispanic pa adox’ in
he case o Mexican immig an s; Kennedy, McDonald,
& Biddle, 2006). Su p isingly, howe e , whe eas he li -
e a u e on he heal hy immig an e ec in he Uni ed
S a es has become subs an ial, ela i ely li le is known
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 304
on heal h dispa i ies be ween immig an s and na i es
in Eu ope ( o no able excep ions see Da mon & Khla ,
2001; Razum, Zeeb, Akgün, & Yilmaz, 1998). Indeed, i
is no clea om p e ious s udies whe he he di e -
ences ac oss na ions a e a esul o na ion-speci ic cha -
ac e is ics (o he hos coun y o he coun y o o i-
gin). Fo example, i is no clea whe he and o wha
ex en di e ences be ween he con ex o coun y o
o igin and he con ex o coun y o des ina ion (e.g.,
le el o economic esou ces and accessibili y o quali y
heal hca e se ices) a ec s he size o he dispa i ies be-
ween immig an s and he na i e-bo n. Using da a om
ou na ional samples, we aim o e alua e whe he he
heal hy immig an e ec ha has been obse ed in he
Uni ed S a es p e ails in ou Wes e n Eu opean coun-
ies, Aus ia, F ance, Ge many, and he Ne he lands, o
whe he i is dependen on he unique condi ions asso-
cia ed wi h di e ences be ween coun y o o igin and
coun y o des ina ion.
2. P e ious Resea ch
2.1. Explaining he Heal hy Immig an E ec
Two al e na i e—bu by no means con adic o y—
explana ions ha e been ad anced in he li e a u e o un-
de s anding why i s -gene a ion immig an s end o be
heal hie han he na i e-bo n popula ion. The i s o-
cuses on posi i e sel -selec ion o immig an s. Acco ding
o he ‘selec ion hypo hesis,’ he heal h ad an age
o i s -gene a ion immig an s is a ibu ed o posi i e
heal h selec ion whe eby heal hie ( s. unheal hy) chose
o mig a e. The e o e, immig an s a e likely o be, on a -
e age, heal hie han he popula ion o he coun y o o i-
gin and o en heal hie han he popula ion o he hos
coun y (e.g., Jasso, Massey, Rosenzweig, & Smi h, 2004;
Ma inez, Aguayo-Tellez, & Rangel-Gonzalez, 2015).
The posi i e heal h selec ion hypo hesis was epea -
edly suppo ed in he con ex o Ame ican socie y by
a la ge numbe o s udies o a ious g oups o immi-
g an s. Fo example, posi i e heal h selec ion (acco d-
ing o which immig an s a e heal hie han compa able
na i e-bo n) was obse ed o Hispanics (e.g., Ma inez
e al., 2015), o Asians and Paci ic Islande s (e.g., F isbie,
Cho, & Humme , 2001), and o immig an s om he o -
me So ie Union (Meh a & Elo, 2012). Likewise, Singh
and Siahpush (2002) ound ha isk o all causes o mo -
ali y and speci ic causes o mo ali y, mo bidi y, and
heal h p oblems is lowe among immig an s (belonging
o a ious e hnic g oups) han among compa able na i e-
bo n ci izens. Ak esh and F ank (2008) ound ha sel -
epo ed heal h is highe among immig an s han among
he na i e-bo n bo h in he Uni ed S a es and in coun y
o o igin (excep o he case o e ugees).
The second explana ion o he be e heal h o immi-
g an s ha was ad anced in he li e a u e is known as he
‘salmon bias’ e ec (e.g., Ab aído-Lanza, Doh enwend,
Ng-Mak, & Tu ne , 1999; Lu & Qin, 2014; Ma inez e al.,
2015). This explana ion should no be iewed as con-
adic o y o he ‘posi i e heal h selec ion hypo hesis’
bu a he as complemen a y. The logic embodied in he
salmon bias hesis con ends ha immig an s wi h poo e
heal h a e mo e likely han heal hy immig an s o e-
u n o coun y o o igin. I should be no ed, howe e ,
ha he body o esea ch ha examined he salmon
bias e ec is much smalle han he esea ch on he
posi i e selec ion e ec . In addi ion, he body o e-
sea ch on salmon bias e ec has ocused almos exclu-
si ely on La ino immig an s in he Uni ed S a es (Palloni
& A ias, 2004) mos ly due o di icul ies in acking e-
u ning immig an s and in ob aining high quali y eliable
da a in a wide- anging numbe o coun ies. I should
be no ed, howe e , ha mos s udies on he issue ha e
p o ided, in one way o ano he , some suppo o he
salmon e ec (Riosmena, Wong, & Palloni, 2013; Tu a
& Elo, 2008).
Recen ly, in a sys ema ic and de ailed analysis o da a
on Mexican e u nee mig an s be ween 2005 and 2012,
A enas, Goldman, Pebley, and Te uel (2015) ound ha
heal h o e u nee immig an s is signi ican ly poo e han
ha o s aye s e en a e con olling o a a ie y o
po en ial co a ia es including demog aphic cha ac e is-
ics, economic s a us, amily ies, and cha ac e is ics o
o igin and des ina ion. Ye despi e he gene al suppo
o he salmon-bias hypo hesis, se e al esea che s ha e
ques ioned i s impac on he o e all be e heal h o im-
mig an s. Fo example, i was a gued ha he salmon
bias canno accoun o he lowe mo ali y a es among
Cubans and Pue o Ricans in he Uni ed S a es (Ab aído-
Lanza e al., 1999) o Tu ks and o he in e na ional im-
mig an s in Ge many (Razum e al., 1998; Wallace &
Kulu, 2014).
The e idence o he impac o gene a ional s a-
us on heal h among immig an s and hei o sp ing
is qui e limi ed, mos ly due o he small numbe o
s udies on he opic (Ace edo-Ga cia, Ba es, Osypuk, &
McA dle, 2010). The ew exis ing s udies, howe e , e-
eal meaning ul di e ences be ween i s - and second-
gene a ion immig an s (Guendelman & Ab ams, 1995;
Guendelman, Gould, Hudes, & Eskenazi, 1990). These
s udies show ha i s -gene a ion ( o eign-bo n) immi-
g an s, despi e he de e io a ion in hei gene al heal h
p ospec s o e ime, s ill enjoy be e heal h han na i e-
bo n popula ions (Ace edo-Ga cia e al., 2010). The sec-
ond gene a ion (na i e-bo n o sp ing o immig an s)
and he 1.5-gene a ion ( o eign-bo n immig an s who
mig a ed o he hos coun y a a young age) a e mo e
likely o na ow he heal h-gap wi h he na i e pop-
ula ion (i.e., hi d gene a ion na i e-bo n child en o
na i e-bo n pa en s; see Ace edo-Ga cia e al., 2010).
Fo example, Guendelman e al., (1990) obse ed gen-
e a ional di e ences in low bi hweigh among women
o Mexican o igin wi h i s -gene a ion ha ing a much
smalle a e o low bi hweigh han second-gene a ion
immig an s. In ano he s udy, Guendelman and Ab ams
(1995) poin ed ou ha as compa ed o he second
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 305
gene a ion, i s -gene a ion Mexican women s and a
ma kedly lowe isk o ea ing poo die a y ood. The
nu ien in ake o second-gene a ion women esembles
ha o whi e non-Hispanic women. Appa en ly, he ew
s udies, pa icula ly in he Uni ed S a es, ha compa ed
he i s and second gene a ion sugges ha heal h o
i s -gene a ion immig an s ends o be be e han ha
o second-gene a ion immig an s and o ha o o he
na i e-bo n popula ions.
2.2. Immig a ion and Heal h Ou side he Uni ed S a es
The o e whelming majo i y o esea ch on he heal hy
immig an e ec has ocused on Ame ican socie y. Ye
he ew s udies ha ocused heal h dispa i ies be-
ween immig an s and na i e-bo n popula ion in adi-
ional immig an socie ies o he han he Uni ed S a es
(i.e., Canada and Aus alia) lend gene al suppo o
he heal hy immig an e ec hesis. Fo example, e-
sea che s obse ed ha ecen ly a i ed immig an s in
Canada and Aus alia a e less likely o be diagnosed
wi h ch onic condi ions han compa able na i e-bo n ci -
izens (Biddle, Kennedy, & McDonald, 2007; McDonald &
Kennedy, 2004). They also obse ed ha heal h dispa i-
ies be ween he immig an and he na i e-bo n popula-
ions end o decline wi h he passage o ime in he hos
coun y (Biddle e al., 2007; McDonald & Kennedy, 2004).
Indeed, pa e ns o heal h dispa i ies ha we e de ec ed
in Canada and Aus alia a e highly simila o hose ob-
se ed in he Uni ed S a es and in line wi h he heal hy
immig an e ec hesis.
Addi ional suppo o he posi i e heal h selec ion
o immig an s was ecen ly p o ided by Kennedy, Kidd,
McDonald, and Biddle (2015) who u ilized da a om
ou majo immig an ecipien coun ies: he Uni ed
S a es, Canada, he Uni ed Kingdom, and Aus alia. The
esea che s compa ed he heal h o immig an s wi h ha
o hei compa io s who ha e no in en ion o immig a e.
The indings e ealed ha he heal h o immig an s was
be e han ha o hose who s ayed in he home coun-
y. Indeed, he body o esea ch on he opic lends i m
suppo o he posi i e heal h selec ion hesis e eal-
ing ha when compa ed o na i e-bo n ci izens, i s -
gene a ion immig an s no only ha e subs an ially lowe
isks o smoking, d inking, obesi y, hype ension, and
ch onic diseases bu also a lowe isk o mo ali y om
almos all causes o dea h (Kennedy e al., 2015).
In Is ael, howe e , whe e immig a ion (o Jewish peo-
ple) is no es ic ed and whe e he c i e ion o admis-
sion is based on ances y (and no on o he c i e ia such
as age, p o essional skills, o heal h), he indings di -
e sha ply om hose epo ed in he Uni ed S a es,
Canada, o Aus alia. Resea ch on ecen immig an s
in Is ael e e o he ‘sick immig an e ec ’ and e eal
ha illnesses, such as ischemic hea disease, diabe es,
hype ension, ch onic diseases, limi ing symp oms, and
sel - epo ed (poo ) heal h a e signi ican ly mo e abun-
dan among immig an s han among compa able na i e-
bo n Is aelis (e.g., Cons an , Ga cía-Muñoz, Neuman, &
Neuman, 2015). Indeed, hese indings sugges ha im-
mig a ion policies as well as es ic ions and egula ions
associa ed wi h immig a ion policies migh a ec selec-
ion o immig an s in o hos socie ies and hei heal h.
2.3. Immig a ion and Heal h in Eu opean Coun ies
The body o esea ch on heal h dispa i ies be ween im-
mig an s and he na i e-bo n popula ion in Eu opean so-
cie ies has also g own in ecen yea s. The indings e-
po ed by s udies in a ious Eu opean socie ies, howe e ,
a e nei he uni o m no conclusi e and a imes e en con-
adic o y (e.g., Boulogne, Jougla, B eem, Kuns , & Rey,
2012; Da mon & Khla , 2001; Guendelman e al., 1990;
Razum & Roh mann, 2002). In some Eu opean coun ies,
immig an s we e ound o be heal hie han he na i e-
bo n bu in o he s he na i e-bo n we e ound o be
heal hie han immig an s. Mo e speci ically, in F ance,
o example, esea che s de ec ed he heal hy immig an
e ec (e.g., Boulogne e al., 2012; Da mon & Khla , 2001;
Guendelman e al., 1990) while obse ing lowe mo -
ali y a es and a highe li e expec ancy among g oups
o o eign-bo n as compa ed o he na i e-bo n popu-
la ion. In Ge many, a longi udinal s udy by Elkeles and
Sei e (1996) e ealed ha he o eign-bo n popula ion
epo ed lowe a es o ch onic illness and long- e m
heal h p oblems han he wo king-age Ge man popula-
ion. Likewise, Razum and Roh mann (2002) and Razum
e al. (1998) epo ed a lowe mo ali y isk and be -
e heal h among immig an s o Medi e anean o igins
and among Tu ks as compa ed o na i e-bo n Ge mans.
Howe e , Ronellen i sch and Razum (2004), who elied
on heal h sa is ac ion as an indica o o heal h, ound
ha young immig an s om Eas e n Eu ope, despi e
hei ini ial heal h ad an age (compa ed o olde immi-
g an s and na i e-bo n Ge mans), ha e a high isk o de-
e io a ing heal h (despi e he imp o emen in socioe-
conomic s a us o e he yea s). The esul s obse ed in
Aus ia (Sa dad a , 2015) indica e ha he heal h o im-
mig an s om Tu key and Yugosla ia (and o a lesse ex-
en om new membe s a es o he EU o o he pa s
o he wo ld) is poo e han he heal h o na i e-bo n
Aus ians e en a e con olling o di e ences in socioe-
conomic s a us.
The e a e se e al plausible explana ions as o why
he indings o Eu opean coun ies may di e om
he indings o he Uni ed S a es o om o he adi-
ional immig an socie ies such as Canada and Aus alia.
Fi s , he heal hca e sys em in he Uni ed S a es is much
mo e expensi e and less accessible han he heal h sys-
ems o mos Wes Eu opean coun ies (O ganiza ion
o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen [OECD],
2016). Consequen ly, he a e age heal h o Eu opeans
is conside ably highe han he a e age heal h o
US-Ame icans (Maskileyson, 2014; Semyono , Lewin-
Eps ein, & Maskileyson, 2013), and immig an s o
Eu opean coun ies a e less likely o be conce ned wi h
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 306
The epo ed heal h o SG does no di e signi i-
can ly om ha epo ed by TG in all coun ies, wi h
he excep ion o Ge many. Fo his coun y, he nega-
i e and signi ican coe icien o second gene a ion (in
all equa ions) implies ha , o he hings being equal, sel -
epo ed heal h o SG ( hose bo n and aised in Ge many)
is subs an ially lowe han he sel - epo ed heal h o TG.
Appa en ly, when aking sociodemog aphic di e ences
be ween sub-popula ions in o conside a ion, he heal h
epo ed by immig an s is signi ican ly lowe han he
heal h epo ed by compa able na i es.
Consis en wi h p e ious s udies, he da a show ha
heal h ends o decline wi h age and o ise wi h educa-
ion and o be highe among ma ied pe sons and lowe
among he unemployed and among hose who a e no
economically ac i e. In e es ingly, he e ec o gende
on heal h is no consis en ac oss coun ies. Whe eas in
Ge many males a e less likely o epo good heal h, in
F ance and in Aus ia males epo be e heal h han e-
males, and in he Ne he lands he e a e no heal h di e -
ences be ween he gende s.
The GNI o immig an ’s coun y o o igin was in o-
duced in o model 3 as an indica o o economic con-
di ions o which immig an s we e exposed when g ow-
ing up. I was included in he equa ion as an in e ac-
ion e m o es ima e he impac o coun y o o igin on
heal h dispa i ies be ween FG and he na i e-bo n pop-
ula ion (bo h SG and TG). In Aus ia, GNI does no exe
any ne e ec on heal h dispa i ies. In he Ne he lands,
immig an s’ heal h is likely o inc ease (o heal h dis-
pa i ies o dec ease) wi h GNI o coun y o o igin, bu
in Ge many and F ance, heal h o FG (as compa ed o
na i e-bo n) ends o dec ease wi h GNI o coun y o
o igin (as e idenced by he nega i e coe icien s). The
di e en ial e ec s o GNI o coun y o o igin on heal h
dispa i ies be ween immig an s and na i e-bo n migh
be a ibu ed o quali a i e di e ences be ween coun-
ies ha a e no cap u ed by GNI, especially di e en-
ial composi ions o he immig an popula ions ac oss
coun ies (e.g., Russians and Tu ks in Ge many, No h
A icans in F ance, Su inamese in he Ne he lands, and
Balkans and Tu ks in Aus ia). The di e en ial e ec s o
GNI ac oss coun ies could also e lec a ia ions in in
coun y heal hca e sys ems.
To p o ide u he e i ica ion o he coun y-speci ic
indings, we conduc ed an addi ional analysis wi h all
ou coun ies pooled in o one da a se . The pooled da a
analysis ( esul s displayed in Table 3) co obo a es he
indings ob ained in he coun y-speci ic analysis. The
da a sugges , a he clea ly, ha ac oss he ou coun-
ies, FG immig an s a e less likely o epo good heal h
han TG na i es. This is clea ly e iden by he nega i e
coe icien o FG (b =−0.349). The da a also show ha
epo ed good heal h among sons and daugh e s o im-
mig an s (SG) is lowe han TG e en a e aking sociode-
mog aphic di e ences (as indica ed by he nega i e co-
e icien b o SG) in o conside a ion. The da a u he
e eal ha heal h o all esiden s ends o ise wi h eco-
nomic condi ions o he hos coun y. The posi i e and
signi ican e ec o GNI o he hos coun y (b =0.006
in models 3 and 4) indica es ha , o he hings being
equal, heal h o all esiden s (bo h na i es and immi-
g an s) ends o ise wi h economic esou ces o he hos
coun y (which migh be an indica o o quali y o heal h-
ca e se ices and acili ies).
5. Discussion and Conclusion
We emba ked on his esea ch in o de o examine
whe he he posi i e heal hy immig an e ec ha has
been epea edly obse ed in he Ame ican con ex
(as well as in adi ional immig an socie ies such as
Canada and Aus alia) p e ails in he con ex o Wes e n
Eu opean coun ies. Speci ically, we we e in e es ed in
de e mining i immig an s o Wes e n Eu ope a e heal h-
ie han he compa able na i e-bo n popula ions o , in
o he wo ds, i hey a e posi i ely selec ed on he ba-
sis o heal h. We ocused in ou s udy on subjec i e
a he han objec i e heal h. Analysis o da a om ou
Wes Eu opean coun ies (i.e., Ge many, F ance, he
Ne he lands, and Aus ia) unequi ocally e ealed ha in
all coun ies he subjec i e heal h epo ed by FG immi-
g an s is signi ican ly lowe han he subjec i e heal h
o he compa able na i e-bo n popula ions. Indeed, his
inding con adic s he pa e n obse ed in he Uni ed
S a es and is an an i hesis o he heal hy immig an e -
ec hypo hesis.
The mul i a ia e analysis u he e eals, in h ee o
he ou coun ies, ha he heal h o sons and daugh-
e s o immig an s (i.e., SG who we e bo n and aised
in Eu ope) is be e han he heal h o he compa able
FG immig an s. Howe e , heal h o he SG is s ill no as
good as ha o compa able TG na i e-bo n ( hose na-
i es hose na i es wi h e y dis an o no immig a ion
backg ound). In o he wo ds, he subjec i e heal h o
he o sp ing o immig an s is highe han ha o hei
pa en s bu s ill lowe han TG na i es. Appa en ly, Wes
Eu opean hos socie ies a e likely o p o ide condi ions
ha suppo a ainmen o good heal h o all esiden s
(including he immig an popula ion bu especially ha
o he na i e-bo n popula ions). The impac o economic
esou ces o he coun y on heal h is mani es ed h ough
he posi i e impac o GNI o he hos coun y on heal h
o all esiden s (bo h immig an s and na i es). This ind-
ing is consis en wi h a la ge numbe o s udies ha e-
pea edly obse ed ha heal h o he popula ion ends o
inc ease wi h coun y’s economic esou ces (Semyono
e al., 2013; Wilkinson & Picke , 2008). Tha is, ich coun-
ies a e mo e likely o p o ide hei popula ions wi h
heal h se ices, medical acili ies, and ad anced ea -
men ha imp o e he heal h o he popula ion.
Cu iously, whe eas economic condi ions in he hos
coun y a ec he heal h o all pe sons esiding in he
coun y, whe he immig an s o na i e-bo n, he eco-
nomic condi ions in an immig an ’s coun y o o igin (as
cap u ed by GNI o coun y o o igin) do no exe any
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 313

Table 3. O de ed eg ession p edic ing good gene al subjec i e heal h s a us, pooled model (dependen a iable is sel -
pe cei ed heal h, 1–3, 3 =‘ e y good heal h’).
VARIABLES (1) (1a) (2) (2a) (3) (4)
Gene a ion a:
Fi s gene a ion ( =1) −0.349** −0.419** −0.235** −0.310** −0.226** −0.227**
(0.039) (0.039) (0.040) (0.040) (0.040) (0.040)
Second gene a ion ( =1) −0.156** −0.124** −0.133** −0.107* −0.118** −0.118**
(0.045) (0.045) (0.045) (0.046) (0.046) (0.046)
Age −0.055** −0.050** −0.044** −0.039** −0.043** −0.043**
(0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001) (0.001)
Male b(=1) − − 0.121** 0.129** 0.120** 0.120**
− − (0.024) (0.024) (0.024) (0.024)
Educa ion c:
Lowe educa ion ( =1) − − −0.284** −0.320** −0.276** −0.275**
− − (0.030) (0.032) (0.030) (0.030)
Academic educa ion ( =1) − − 0.234** 0.292** 0.234** 0.234**
− − (0.030) (0.030) (0.030) (0.030)
Labo o ce s a us d:
Unemployed ( =1) − − −0.393** −0.289∗∗ −0.388** −0.387**
− − (0.057) (0.058) (0.057) (0.057)
P o essionals, echnicians, − − 0.609** 0.521** 0.610** 0.609**
and manage s ( =1) − − (0.038) (0.039) (0.038) (0.038)
Cle ks ( =1) − − 0.378** 0.422** 0.375** 0.375**
− − (0.038) (0.039) (0.038) (0.038)
Blue colla ( =1) − − 0.290** 0.302** 0.299** 0.298**
− − (0.041) (0.041) (0.041) (0.041)
Household size − − 0.028** 0.018 0.030** 0.031**
− − (0.011) (0.011) (0.011) (0.011)
Ma ied e(=1) − − 0.096** 0.137** 0.092** 0.092**
− − (0.028) (0.028) (0.028) (0.028)
Li es in u ban a ea (=1) − − 0.032 0.010 0.047* 0.048*
− − (0.023) (0.024) (0.024) (0.024)
GNI ank: coun y o des ina ion − − − − 0.006** 0.006**
− − − − (0.002) (0.002)
GNI ank: coun y o bi h − − − − − 0.001
(cen e ed) * Gene a ion 1 − − − − − (0.001)
Coun y o des ina ion g:
F ance ( =1) −0.104** −0.157** − −
− (0.030) − (0.032) − −
Ne he lands ( =1) −0.331** −0.353** − −
− (0.031) − (0.034) − −
Aus ia ( =1) −0.813** −0.829** − −
− (0.040) − (0.041) − −
Cons an h:
Bad Heal h −3.987** −3.548** −3.038** −2.594** −1.901** −1.884**
(0.048) (0.053) (0.080) (0.083) (0.375) (0.375)
Good Heal h −1.579** −1.109** −0.554** −0.081 0.583 0.600
(0.041) (0.048) (0.078) (0.082) (0.374) (0.375)
Obse a ions (non-weigh ed) 27,818 27,672 27,818 27,672 27,672 27,672
Pseudo R-squa ed 0.0972 0.131 0.103 0.137 0.132 0.132
No es: S anda d e o s in pa en heses; ** p<0.01, * p<0.05; wo- ailed es ; cases a e weigh ed acco ding o coun y-speci ic popula-
ion weigh ; compa ison ca ego ies: aThi d gene a ion and abo e =0; bFemale =0; cMiddle educa ion =0; dNo in he labo o ce =0;
eNo ma ied =0; Li es in u al a ea =0; gGe many =0; hVe y good heal h =3.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 314
sys ema ic impac on he size o he heal h dispa i ies
be ween immig an s and na i es. In he Ne he lands, im-
mig an s’ subjec i e heal h ends o inc ease wi h GNI
o coun y o o igin bu he heal h o immig an s om
ad anced economies o F ance and Ge many ends o
be lowe . Ye in Aus ia, he GNI o coun y o o igin
has no impac on heal h o immig an s. This is p oba-
bly due o di e en ial selec ion sys ems ha ope a e in
he so ing p ocess o immig an s om a speci ic coun-
y o o igin in o a speci ic coun y o des ina ion. Indeed,
he selec ion p ocess is in luenced by he unique condi-
ions associa ed wi h bo h coun y o o igin and coun-
y o des ina ion. Fu he mo e, he insigni ican e ec
o he GNI o he coun y o o igin on he subjec i e
heal h o FG immig an s may also be a ibu ed o he
ac ha mos immig an s o igina ed om poo coun-
ies, whe e be e GNI alues do no necessa ily co e-
spond in a sys ema ic way wi h be e heal h se ices.
In addi ion, many o FG immig an s ha e li ed o qui e
a long pe iod o ime in he coun ies o des ina ion,
and he cu en GNI o coun y o o igin may no nec-
essa ily co espond wi h he GNI le el a he ime hey
had immig a ed. Indeed, i is possible ha in addi ion o
‘heal hy immig an s,’ some immig an s a e a ac ed o
he good and accessible heal hca e sys em in Wes e n
Eu ope, while some may a i e as e ugees and asylum
seeke s. The e o e, no only di e ences in pa e ns o
posi i e heal h selec ion bu also pa e ns o nega i e mi-
g a ion o e u n mig a ion (i.e., salmon-bias e ec ) may
di e conside ably be ween he Uni ed S a es and Wes
Eu opean coun ies.
In sum, he indings epo ed he e e eal ha he
pa e ns o heal h dispa i ies be ween immig an s and
na i e-bo n in he ou Wes Eu opean coun ies di e
d ama ically om hose obse ed in he Uni ed S a es.
Con a y o heo e ical expec a ions (as de i ed om
he heal hy immig an hesis), in all ou coun ies im-
mig an s a e no heal hie han he na i e-bo n popu-
la ions. In ac , o he hings being equal, immig an s e-
po lowe subjec i e heal h han he na i e-bo n popu-
la ion in all ou Eu opean coun ies. The di e ence can
be a ibu ed, i s and o emos , o di e ences in im-
mig an s’ admission policies and di e ences in heal h-
ca e policies be ween he Uni ed S a es and Wes e n
Eu ope. The Uni ed S a es (and o he adi ional immi-
g an socie ies such as Canada and Aus alia) u ilizes
heal h s a us as one o he majo c i e ia o (legal)
admission o immig an s o he coun y (much mo e
so han in Wes e n Eu ope). In addi ion, in he Uni ed
S a es, heal hca e se ices a e much mo e expensi e
and less accessible han he ca e acili ies in mos Wes
Eu opean coun ies. The e o e, heal h conside a ions
and heal h c i e ia play a much g ea e ole in posi i e
sel -selec ion and in admission o immig an s in o he
Uni ed S a es han in Eu ope. The accessible heal h se -
ices in Eu ope may also esul in heal hie domes ic pop-
ula ions (conside ably heal hie han he Ame ican pop-
ula ion; Maskileyson, 2014). As a esul , whe eas an a -
e age immig an in Eu ope is no heal hie han he com-
pa able a e age na i e-bo n Eu opean, he a e age im-
mig an o he Uni ed S a es is heal hie han he a e -
age na i e-bo n Ame ican. I is possible, o cou se, ha
heal h dispa i ies be ween immig an s and na i e-bo n
Eu opeans would u he inc ease due o he ecen in-
lux o e ugees o Eu ope and he associa ed change in
he composi ion o he o eign-bo n popula ion; a pos-
sibili y wi h implica ions ha should be aken in o con-
side a ion no only in u u e s udies bu also by pol-
icy make s.
Al hough his esea ch has succeeded in achie ing
i s aims, se e al limi a ions need o be bo ne in mind
when in e p e ing ou indings. Fi s , whe eas subjec-
i e heal h measu es a e good p edic o s o li e ex-
pec ancy and co ela e wi h objec i e heal h measu es,
i emains o be answe ed whe he and o wha ex-
en indings in hese coun ies emain simila when
objec i e heal h measu es a e used. Second, i is un-
clea whe he he obse ed di e ences in sel -pe cei ed
heal h wi hin and ac oss coun ies eflec ue di e -
ences o whe he hey me ely eflec cul u al bias in
he measu es (Snowden, 2003). Indeed, mos measu es
o heal h assessmen ha e been ini ially de eloped and
es ed on samples comp ised la gely o cul u ally homo-
geneous g oups (e.g., Eu opean-Ame ican popula ions
wi h na i e English-speaking abili ies). Consequen ly,
subjec i e heal h ques ions ansla ed in o a ious lan-
guages may no be unde s ood in he same way when
applied o di e en cul u es (Te esi, 2006). Speci ically,
measu emen nonequi alence migh lead o biased con-
clusions abou simila i ies and di e ences in heal h mea-
su es o di e en g oups wi hin and ac oss coun ies.
Se e al ecen s udies demons a ed ha e idence o
he cul u al equi alence o heal h- ela ed measu es is
spa se (G ol-P okopczyk, Ve des-Tennan , McEni y, &
Ispány, 2015; Ha dy, Acciai, & Reyes, 2014). Al hough sub-
jec i e measu es may gene a e a p oblem o compa a-
bili y ac oss coun ies (see Da ido , Meuleman, Cieciuch,
Schmid , & Billie , 2014), using h ee b oad ca ego ies o
subjec i e heal h as done in he cu en s udy was likely
o educe his p oblem. In addi ion, since we ha e only
a single measu ed indica o o heal h, we could no es
i s compa abili y ac oss g oups and coun ies. Thi d, he
eason o mig a ion can be ano he ac o ha has a
di e en ial impac o immig an s’ heal h. Se e al s udies
con i m ha o ced mig an s ep esen a disad an aged
g oup, no only in compa ison o he na i e-bo n popula-
ion, bu also in compa ison o o he economic and non-
economic immig an s (Hugo, Abbasi-Sha azi, & K aly,
2017). Indeed, e ugees end o ha e less command o
he local language, less educa ional expe ience, less ac-
cess o amily suppo , and poo e men al and physi-
cal heal h (Hugo e al., 2017). Un o una ely, indi idual-
le el indica o s on e ugee s a us we e no a ailable in
he p esen da a o examine he issue. Ne e heless, i
should be no ed ha only abou 1% o he FG and SG im-
mig an s in he sample unde s udy we e om coun ies
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 315
wi h highly opp essi e egimes (e.g., o me Yugosla ia,
I an, I aq, and A ghanis an). In u u e esea ch we would
like o see he u he examina ion o he eason o
mig a ion and he impac o e ugee s a us on heal h.
Likewise, we do hope ha u u e in es iga ions would
bene i om he use o longi udinal and panel da a analy-
sis, and o mul iple measu es o subjec i e and objec-
i e heal h, in s udying heal h dispa i ies be ween na i e-
bo n and immig an s in a compa able way. Despi e he
limi a ions o he da a, howe e , he indings o he
p esen esea ch do unde sco e he impo ance o he
hos coun y and i s unique con ex in he s udy o heal h
dispa i ies be ween immig an s and he na i e-bo n pop-
ula ion ac oss coun ies.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s would like o hank P o esso Yi chak
Habe eld and P o esso Pe e Schmid o hei use ul
commen s and sugges ions and Lisa T ie weile o he
English p oo eading o he manusc ip .
Con lic o In e es s
The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es s.
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Abou he Au ho s
Dina Maskileyson is Pos doc o al Resea che a he Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology a he
Uni e si y o Cologne. He esea ch in e es s lie in he a eas o immig a ion, heal h, and labo ma ke
and weal h inequali y. He ecen publica ions ocus on immig an s’ labo ma ke in eg a ion as well
as heal h ajec o ies o immig an s a e he a i al o he hos coun y.
Moshe Semyono is P o esso Eme i us o Sociology and Labo S udies a Tel A i Uni e si y and
P o esso Eme i us o Sociology a he Uni e si y o Illinois a Chicago. Semyono ’s esea ch in e es s
lie in he a eas o compa a i e s a i ica ion and inequali y and causes and consequences o global
mig a ion. His ecen publica ions deal wi h inequali y in a compa a i e pe spec i e, in eg a ion o
immig an s in he labo ma ke and a i udes owa d immig an s ac oss space and ime.
Eldad Da ido is P o esso a he Ins i u e o Sociology and Social Psychology a he Uni e si y o
Cologne, Ge many, and he Depa men o Sociology a he Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land, and co-
di ec o o he Uni e si y o Zu ich Resea ch P io i y P og am “Social Ne wo ks.” He was p esiden o
he Eu opean Su ey Resea ch Associa ion (ESRA) be ween 2015 and 2017. His esea ch in e es s a e
applica ions o s uc u al equa ion modeling o su ey da a, especially in c oss-cul u al and longi udi-
nal esea ch. Applica ions include human alues, na ional iden i y, and a i udes owa d immig an s
and o he mino i ies.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 318

Annex
Table A1. Measu emen and esponse ca ego ies o a iables.
Responses Range
Va iable Measu emen Min Max
Gene al heal h s a us Fai , bad, e y bad =1; Good =2; Ve y good =3 1 3
Gene a ion Fi s gene a ion =1; Second gene a ion =1; 0 1
Thi d gene a ion and abo e =0
Gende Male =1; Female =0 0 1
Age o esponden In yea s 26 82
Educa ion Lowe educa ion =1; Academic educa ion =1; 0 1
Middle educa ion =0
Labo o ce s a us Unemployed =1; P o essionals, echnicians, 0 1
and manage s =1; Cle ks =1; Blue colla occupa ions =1;
No in he labo o ce =0
Household size including Numbe o pe sons 1 13
esponden
Ma i al s a us Ma ied =1; No ma ied =0 0 1
A ea o li ing Li es in u ban a ea =1; Li es in u al a ea =0 0 1
G oss na ional income pe capi a, In ank poin s, highe alue indica es highe ank 1 200
PPP, anking o coun y o bi h
(Wo ld Bank G oup, 2014)
G oss na ional income pe capi a, In ank poin s, highe alue indica es highe ank 172 186
PPP, anking o coun y o des ina ion
(Wo ld Bank G oup, 2014)
Re e ence
Wo ld Bank G oup. (Ed.). (2014). Wo ld de elopmen indica o s da abase, 2014. Washing on, DC: Wo ld Bank Publica ions.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 304–319 319
Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803)
2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 320–331
DOI: 10.17645/si. 7i4.2429
A icle
Con ac s be ween Na i es and Mig an s in Ge many: Pe cep ions o he
Na i e Popula ion since 1980 and an Examina ion o he
Con ac Hypo heses
B yan Boh e 1,*, Ma ia-The ese F iehs 2, Pe e Schmid 3and S e an Weick 1
1GESIS—Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences, 68159 Mannheim, Ge many; E-Mails: b y[email p o ec ed]g (B.B.),
s e an.[email p o ec ed]g (S.W.)
2Ins i u e o Psychology, Osnab ück Uni e si y, 49074 Osnab ück, Ge many;
E-Mail: ma ia he ese.[email p o ec ed]
3Ins i u e o Poli ical Science, Jus us Liebig Uni e si y Gießen, 35394 Gießen, Ge many;
E-Mail: pe e [email p o ec ed]
* Co esponding au ho
Submi ed: 26 Augus 2019 | Accep ed: 29 No embe 2019 | Published: 27 Decembe 2019
Abs ac
Fo decades, mig a ion o Ge many has been a ele an social phenomenon esul ing in an inc easing sha e o o eigne s
and Ge mans wi h mig a ion backg ound in he Ge man populace. Addi ionally, since 2015, Ge many has expe ienced a
subs an ial inc ease in he immig a ion o people seeking e uge and asylum om ci il wa , economic and en i onmen al
ca as ophes, and o he ad e se li ing condi ions. These de elopmen s can be assumed o ha e led o an inc ease in in e -
g oup con ac be ween Ge mans and o eigne s. We in es iga e his phenomenon in a mul i ace ed ashion by combining
a social indica o and moni o ing app oach using epea ed c oss-sec ions o e ime wi h a new panel app oach using a
sho - ime panel o s udy causal ela ions. As a i s s ep, we desc ip i ely analyze he de elopmen o in e g oup con ac
expe iences o he Ge man popula ion wi h o eigne s in a ious a eas o li e using da a om he ALLBUS su ey collec ed
o e 36 yea s be ween 1980 and 2016. Speci ically, we de ail he di e ging con ac expe iences o pa icipan s wi h and
wi hou mig a ion backg ound as well as pa icipan s in he o me Eas e n and Wes e n pa o Ge many. In a second s ep,
based on Allpo ’s in e g oup con ac heo y ha con ac wi h ou g oup membe s may imp o e a i udes owa ds hese
ou g oups and o he ela ed indings, we examine he longi udinal p ocesses be ween posi i e in e g oup con ac wi h
o eigne s and a i udes owa ds o eigne s using ou wa es o he GESIS Panel collec ed o e app oxima ely one and a
hal yea s. We apply special igo o hese analyses by di e en ia ing s able di e ences in in e g oup con ac expe iences
and a i udes be ween pa icipan s om wi hin-pe son p ocesses and discussing he implica ions o his di e en ia ion.
Keywo ds
ALLBUS; o eigne s; Ge many; in e g oup con ac heo y; mig an backg ound; mig a ion
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Immig a ion om he Mig an s’ Pe spec i e” edi ed by Alice Ramos (Ins i u e o Social
Sciences, Po ugal), Eldad Da ido (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many/Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land), Pe e Schmid
(Uni e si y o Giessen, Ge many), Ma a Vila Rosales (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal) and Dina Maskileyson
(Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many).
© 2019 by he au ho s; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu-
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
Mig a ion has been a cons an opic o impo ance in
he Fede al Republic o Ge many. Wi h he onse o he
1950s, he in lux o membe s o he Ge man mino i y
in o he coun ies mig a ing back o Ge many p edomi-
nan ly om Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies be-
gan. This in lux was comp ised o descendan s o emi-
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 320–331 320
g a ed Ge mans ha had p ese ed he Ge man cul u e
and language a e he Second Wo ld Wa and had deal
wi h hind ances and displacemen . F om 1950 o 2017,
mo e han 4.5 million o hese e hnic Ge mans mig a ed
back o Ge many, he majo i y doing so be ween 1985
and 2004 (Gö sche, 2018).
Since 1955, immig an s labelled as gues wo ke s
came o Wes e n Ge many in inc easing numbe s and
om di e en coun ies (Alba, Schmid , & Wasme ,
2003). Fo a long ime, he o icial posi ion o Ge man
go e nmen s had been ha hese gues wo ke s would
no s ay in Ge many pe manen ly, as Ge many was no
ega ded as an immig a ion coun y. Finally, in 2000, he
law was changed and child en bo n om non-Ge man ci -
izens became Ge man by bi h, bu hey had o decide a
he age o 21 whe he hey wan ed o hold he Ge man
ci izenship o o hold he ci izenship o he coun y o o i-
gin o hei pa en s.
Due o he u bulen na u e o coun ies wi h ci il
wa , di icul economic si ua ions, and i iolic poli i-
cal ci cums ances, he numbe o displaced indi iduals
heading o Eu ope in seek o e uge and asylum has
isen d ama ically since 2015. Wi h millions o e ugees
ha ing sough e uge in coun ies like Tu key, Pakis an,
Lebanon, I an, E hiopia, and Jo dan (Uni ed Na ions High
Commissione o Re ugees, 2016)—and wi h no clea
consensus being ound among EU coun ies as o how
o dis ibu e he e ugees ai ly h oughou Eu ope—
he Ge man go e nmen decided on a sho - e m s a -
egy o deal wi h his c isis by opening hei bo de s in
2015. Acco ding o he Bundesam ü Mig a ion und
Flüch linge (Fede al O ice o Mig a ion and Re ugees;
2019a), as a consequence, well o e a million e ugees
came o Ge many in he ollowing yea s a e his land-
ma k decision, mos ly being g ee ed wi h a posi i e e-
cep ion om he Ge man populace. Howe e , poli ical
pa ies such as he Al e na i e o Ge many and he
Ch is ian Social Union in Ba a ia came o wa d wi h
wa nings ha such an in lux o e ugees h ea ened he
sa e y o he Wes e n li es yle, pa icula ly due o he in-
c ease in Muslims. This s ance was u he ed due o inci-
den s such as he s ing o sexual assaul s on New Yea ’s
E e 2015–2016 in Cologne and e o is a acks ca ied
ou by Islamic S a e e o is s disguised as e ugees.
To make ma e s mo e complex, he in eg a ion o
mig an s in Ge many has been a pe sis en socie al chal-
lenge (Alba e al., 2003; Coende s & Scheepe s, 2008;
Hea h e al., 2019), being cha ac e ized h ough le-
gal amewo ks, he social clima e (G een, Visin in, &
Sa asin, 2018; Hadle & Flesken, 2018), and he expe i-
ence o he majo i y popula ion wi h mig an s and ice
e sa (Kühnel & Leibold, 2000). Howe e , one should
no o ge he ole indi idual ac o s (e.g., demog aphic
cha ac e is ics, p ejudice, au ho i a ianism, social ne -
wo ks, acism) play in his p ocess as well (P enning, 2019;
Schmid & Weick, 2017; Sola, 2018). None heless, in e-
g a ion emains a p ocess ha happens la gely h ough
he in e ac ions o membe s o di e en g oups, o he
simple ac ha Ge mans ge in o con ac wi h mig an s.
Examining he e ec o in e g oup con ac on a i udes
owa ds he ou g oup, as well as a i udes on con ac , has
a long adi ion in he social sciences; howe e , he s udy
in o his could be imp o ed wi h mode n me hodologies
and a ocus on how indi iduals wi h mig an backg ounds
expe ience in e g oup con ac (i a all) wi h said g oups.
Consequen ly, his a icle seeks o expand upon pas e-
sea ch, which had used only c oss-sec ional da a o sho -
ime panels wi h small samples, by i s examining whe e
pe sons wi h Ge man ci izenship wi h a ying mig an
backg ounds migh expe ience in e g oup con ac wi h
o eigne s li ing in Ge many, and by examining how much
con ac hese indi iduals ha e had o e a ime pe iod o 20
yea s wi h mig an s in a ious a eas o li e. Fu he mo e,
his a icle will also shed ligh on he disposi ions o he
Ge man majo i y owa ds o eigne s as a mino i y g oup
and he pe cep ion o in e g oup con ac be ween hem.
Fo his analysis, ime-se ies da a om 1980–2016 exis s
ha allows o he examina ion o long- e m social change.
Addi ionally, we will use la ge-scale sho - ime panel
da a o examine he in e ela ions o in e g oup con-
ac expe iences and ou g oup a i udes. This in es i-
ga ion will be ad anced h ough he use o a newly
p oposed andom-in e cep -c oss-lagged panel model
(RI-CLPM; Hamake , Kuipe , & G asman, 2015), which al-
lows o examining bo h he wi hin-pe son e ec s and
he be ween-pe son e ec s o in e g oup con ac and a -
i udes. Fu he mo e, i g an s he oppo uni y o a com-
pa ison wi h he con en ional CLPM o ind di e ences
be ween he models and hei esul s.
In he ollowing sec ion, we i s gi e a sho o e iew
o he heo e ical s a e o he a and empi ical esea ch
in his a ea. Then, in S udy 1 (Sec ion 3), we use da a om
he Ge man Gene al Social Su ey (ALLBUS) om 1980 o
2016 o examine he majo di e en ia ions be ween Eas
and Wes Ge many, he Ge man and immig an popula-
ion, ime poin s, and domains o con ac s (GESIS, 2019a).
Subsequen ly, we p esen he me hods and he design
o S udy 2 (Sec ion 4) employing da a om he GESIS
Panel and he compa ison o classical au o eg essi e
c oss-lagged models wi h he newly p oposed andom-
in e cep CLPM di e en ia ing be ween—and wi hin—
pe son e ec s. Finally, we summa ize he esul s and
p esen some conclusions.
2. Theo y and Empi ical Resea ch
Acco ding o he con ac hypo hesis, associa ion wi h in-
di iduals om o he social g oups ends o imp o e po-
si ions on, and espec o , said g oups (Williams, 1947).
Since i s incep ion, he meaning o his hypo hesis has
been cla i ied by a numbe o wo ks; in pa icula , Allpo
(1954) pos ula es ha p ejudice, when no deeply in-
g ained in he cha ac e s uc u e, could be dec eased
h ough posi i e con ac s be ween majo i y and mino -
i y g oups. This hypo hesis has been ex ensi ely sup-
po ed by au ho s such as Pe ig ew and T opp (2006)
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 320–331 321
h ough me a-analysis; howe e , p e ious s udies ha e
also ound ha posi i e a i udes can acili a e posi i e
expe iences (Malle , Wilson, & Gilbe , 2008; Wagne ,
Schmid , & Kau , 2019).
As an ex ension o hese hypo heses, he p ejudice
hypo hesis holds ha indi iduals wi h s ong p ejudice o-
wa ds o he g oups a emp o a oid con ac wi h said mi-
no i y g oups (Pe ig ew, T opp, Wagne , & Ch is , 2011).
Such an ou come, howe e , does no accoun o ex-
eme cases o p ejudice ha po en ially lead o agg es-
si e ac ions agains mino i ies and mig an s. As p e ious
esea ch has ound, indi iduals wi h s ong p ejudices ex-
pe ience con ac wi h mino i ies and mig an s as nega-
i e and a e he e o e p one o pe cei e u he expe i-
ences as nega i e in u n (Schmid , Weick, & Glo is, 2019).
Wi h his ocus on p ejudice and con ac , unde s and-
ing he opinion o majo i y g oups on mino i ies being
p esen in hei socie y becomes pa amoun . As p e i-
ously s udied in Ge many, he pe cep ion o Ge mans
owa ds he h ea o mig an s and mino i ies a ec -
ing cul u e and economy is pa icula ly impo an when
conside ing he e alua ions ha membe s o he ma-
jo i y g oup gi e o eigne s (Schmid & Weick, 2017).
This is u he ed by he majo i y’s conside a ions o how
Ge many should handle he in lux o speci ic immig an
g oups (Schmid & Weick, 2017). Howe e , his ocus
examines he majo i y’s con ac wi h o eigne s esid-
ing in Ge many, bu does no conside he in icacies o
con ac s wi h said o eigne s among indi iduals wi h mi-
g an backg ounds hemsel es. Since e o s ha e been
made in p e ious esea ch o examine he di e ences
be ween Eas e n and Wes e n Ge many wi h ocus be-
ing placed on con ac wi h mig an s (see Jäckle & König,
2018; Wagne , an Dick, Pe ig ew, & Ch is , 2003), his
a icle will examine his as well o include an ex ensi e
pic u e o mig an con ac h oughou Ge many.
3. S udy 1
3.1. Da a and Me hods
In ou i s s udy examining he desc ip i e s a is ics o
he Ge man popula ion, da a om he ALLBUS was used
(GESIS, 2019a). ALLBUS is a epea ed c oss-sec ional su -
ey ha is gene ally pe o med e e y wo yea s (Koch &
Wasme , 2004). Fo he pu poses o his s udy, cumula-
i e da a om 1980–2016 was used o ocus on ques-
ions ega ding pe sonal con ac wi h speci ic mig an
g oups among hose wi h bo h no mig an backg ound
and hose ha ei he we e bo n ou side o Ge many
o ha e di ec ela i es (e.g., pa en s o g andpa en s)
ha mig a ed o Ge many. Compa isons o Eas and Wes
Ge many we e also made.
3.2. Va iables
In o de o examine he expe iences o esponden s,
ques ions we e aken om he ALLBUS da a ha asked
esponden s abou hei pe sonal con ac wi h o eign-
e s li ing in Ge many, speci ically wi h ega d o which
a ea o li e hese con ac s occu ed ( amily, wo kplace,
neighbo hood, and ci cle o iends/acquain ances). The
ques ions asked “Do you ha e any pe sonal con ac wi h
o eigne s li ing in Ge many? Speci ically…” wi h he
ollow-up being “…in you own amily o close amily
ci cle?,” “…a wo k?,” “…in you neighbo hood?,” and
“…among you o he iends and acquain ances?” espec-
i ely. Fu he ques ions ega ding he coun y o o igin
o he esponden , hei pa en s, and hei g andpa en s
we e used o c ea e speci ic mig an backg ound coho s.
Due o he “coun y o o igin” ques ions ha ing i s been
asked in 1996 and only e e y en yea s he ea e , only
he da a om 1996, 2006, and 2016 was used when ana-
lyzing hem. Fo he analysis o Eas and Wes di e ences,
da a was used s a ing om 1980 o Wes Ge many and
1994 o Eas Ge many.
The composi ion o he Ge man popula ion wi h e-
ga d o i s immig a ion s a us can only be es ic edly cap-
u ed wi h he a ailable su eys, e en hough such su -
eys allow o a meaning ul look in o con ac be ween
Ge mans and mig an s. The ALLBUS da a consis en ly
asked esponden s whe he o no hey held a Ge man
ci izenship. O he na ionali ies a e sadly no ep esen ed
well enough in he da a o allow o sepa a e analy-
sis. Ha ing said his, he e a e h ee ALLBUS su eys—
namely hose a o emen ioned su eys om 1996, 2006,
and 2016— ha included coun y o o igin ques ions o
he esponden , hei pa en s, and hei g andpa en s.
Wi h hese ques ions i is hen possible o analyze how
he numbe o indi iduals wi h mig a ion backg ounds
has changed o e his 20-yea imespan and, in pa ic-
ula , how con ac equencies be ween Ge mans wi h-
ou mig an backg ounds and o eigne s ha e de eloped
as well.
3.3. Resul s
Table 1 highligh s he p opo ion o esponden s in he
ALLBUS da a wi h mig an backg ounds, whe he being
mig an s hemsel es o being he child en/g andchild en
o mig an s. In e es ingly, he pe cen age o esponden s
wi h no mig an backg ound, while highe o hose
wi h a Ge man ci izenship, dec eased slowly be ween
1996 and 2006, bu s a kly d opped heading in o he
nex decade (62.1% o 55.3% o all esponden s and
66.8% o 58.8% o Ge man ci izens be ween 2006 and
2016). This dec ease was accompanied wi h a mode -
a e d op in hose wi h a mig an backg ound hemsel es;
howe e , his was also complemen ed wi h an inc ease
in hose wi h ei he pa en al o g andpa en al mig an
backg ounds. In o he wo ds, oughly 45% o all espon-
den s had some le el o mig an backg ound in 2016,
while he same was ue o only 41.2% o hose wi h
Ge man ci izenship. In bo h cases, he amoun o indi-
iduals wi h some le el o mig an backg ound has in-
c eased by app oxima ely 10% o e he wo decades.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 320–331 322
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Uni ed Na ions High Commissione o Re ugees.
(2016). Global ends: Fo ced displacemen in 2015.
Gene a: Uni ed Na ions High Commissione o
Re ugees. Re ie ed om h ps://www.unhc .o g/
s a is ics/unhc s a s/576408cd7/unhc -global-
ends-2015.h ml
Wagne , U., an Dick, R., Pe ig ew, T. F., & Ch is , O.
(2003). E hnic p ejudice in Eas and Wes Ge many:
The explana o y powe o in e g oup con ac . G oup
P ocesses & In e g oup Rela ions,6(1), 22–36.
Wagne , U., Schmid , P., & Kau , M. (2019). A i-
udes owa ds e hnic mino i y g oups. In GESIS
(Ed.), GESIS panel s udy desc ip ion (pp. 111-116).
Mannheim: GESIS. Re ie ed om h ps://dbk.gesis.
o g/dbksea ch/download.asp?db=E&id=52782
Williams, R. M., J . (1947). Reduc ion o in e g oup en-
sions. New Yo k, NY: Social Science Resea ch Council.
Abou he Au ho s
B yan Boh e is he Edi o ial Assis an o he His o ical Social Resea ch Jou nal and a Doc o al
Resea che a GESIS—Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences. His esea ch in e es s include immig a-
ion s udies, in e g oup con ac , poli ical sociology, eligious undamen alism, and he sociology o
eligion. He plans o w i e his disse a ion on he dimension o u h belie wi hin eligious undamen-
alism and i s ela ion o poli ical o ing beha io and au ho i a ianism in Eu ope.
Ma ia-The ese F iehs is pu suing he PhD on he opic o in e g oup con ac a Osnab ück Uni e si y.
He ein, she ocuses on aspec s o he measu emen o in e g oup con ac as well as on he iden i ica-
ion o wi hin-pe son and be ween-pe son e ec s in longi udinal in e g oup con ac da a. He main
esea ch in e es s include he s udy o in e g oup ela ions, wi h a ocus on in e g oup con ac and
s e eo ypes, and ad anced da a analysis.
Pe e Schmid is P o esso Eme i us a he Depa men o Poli ical Science and he Cen e o En i on-
men and De elopmen (ZEU) a he Uni e si y o Giessen. His main opics a e applica ions o gene al-
ized la en a iable models including s uc u al equa ion models, easoned ac ion and a ional choice
models, alues and explana ion o na ional iden i y, and p ejudice agains mino i ies.
S e an Weick s udied Sociology a he Uni e si y o Mannheim (Ge many) and ecei ed his PhD om
he Uni e si y o Gießen. He is Senio Resea che a GESIS—Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences. His
esea ch opics a e quali y o li e esea ch, income inequali y, consump ion, po e y, and mig a ion
s udies.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 320–331 330
Annex
Model Speci ica ions o he Baseline CLPM
• La en cons uc s o posi i e in e g oup con ac and a i udes we e modelled o all ou wa es sepa a ely using he
wo indica o s desc ibed in Table 4 o he main ex . Fo ac o iden i ica ion, ac o loadings o he i s i ems we e
ixed o 1.
• Two indica o -speci ic ac o s (one o posi i e in e g oup con ac , one o a i udes) we e in oduced o he i ems
wi h he eely-es ima ed ac o -loading in o de o model he me hods-speci ic a iance c ea ed by he epea ed
applica ion o he same i ems. These indica o -speci ic ac o s loaded only on he second i em pe cons uc in all
ou wa es wi h a ac o loading ixed o 1. These ac o s we e no allowed o co a y wi h he subs an ial cons uc
ac o s o wi h each o he .
Table A1. Model i indices o he (RI-)CLPM epo ed in 4.2.
Model AIC 𝜒2d p RMSEA CFI SRMR Δ𝜒2
MLR d p
GESIS Panel, Subsample “Re ugees”
Baseline CLPM 18630.201 135.412 86 .0005 .029 .989 .037 / / /
Me ic MI 18621.471 139.224 92 .0011 .028 .989 .039 3.357 6 .763
S abili y S a iona i y 18632.851 155.794 96 .0001 .030 .987 .051 14.380 4 .006
RI-CLPM 18561.923 78.837 89 .7711 .000 1.000 .035 37.354 3 <.001
No es: The MLR 𝜒2— di e ence es accoun s o he impac o uni- and mul i a ia e non-no mali y. The compa isons o he 𝜒2—
di e ence es we e as ollowed: Me ic MI model s. Baseline CLPM, S abili y S a iona i y s. Baseline CLPM, and RI-CLPM s. Me ic
MI model.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 320–331 331
Social Inclusion (ISSN: 2183–2803)
2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342
DOI: 10.17645/si. 7i4.2265
A icle
Nos algic, Con e ed, o Cosmopoli an: Typology o Young
Spanish Mig an s
Rubén Rod íguez-Pue as * and Alexand a Ainz
Depa men o Geog aphy, His o y and Humani ies, Uni e si y o Alme ía, 04120 La Cañada, Spain; E-Mails: [email p o ec ed]
(R.R.-P.), [email p o ec ed] (A.A.)
* Co esponding au ho
Submi ed: 10 June 2019 | Accep ed: 4 Sep embe 2019 | Published: 27 Decembe 2019
Abs ac
The high unemploymen a e ha is a ec ing Spain in ecen yea s, along wi h he consolida ion o labou ma ke in-
secu i y, ha e gene a ed g ea changes in social beha iou , wi h a p ominen endency o young people o lea e he
coun y. Wi h he aim o unde s anding, om he poin o iew o hese new mig an s, how hei mig a ion p ocesses
and sociocul u al in eg a ion in hei hos coun ies a e, his a icle ollows he p ocedu es o he G ounded Theo y o
analyse he discou ses ob ained h ough a discussion g oup and 41 in-dep h in e iews wi h young Spanish mig an s while
hey we e li ing ab oad, du ing he pe iod 2010–2015. The s eng h o his esea ch lies in i s cons uc ion o an empi ical
model consis ing o h ee p ocedu al ca ego ies: nos algic adap a ion, con e ed adap a ion and cosmopoli an adap a ion.
These ca ego ies allow us o explain how he pe cep ion o young people abou hei home and hos socie ies changes,
as well as how hei sociocul u al adap a ion o he new con ex is a ec ed by he conduc s and beha iou s inhe en o
said pe cep ion.
Keywo ds
adap a ion; mig a ion p ocesses; sociocul u al in eg a ion; Spanish emig a ion; young mig an s
Issue
This a icle is pa o he issue “Immig a ion om he Mig an s’ Pe spec i e” edi ed by Alice Ramos (Ins i u e o Social
Sciences, Po ugal), Eldad Da ido (Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many/Uni e si y o Zu ich, Swi ze land), Pe e Schmid
(Uni e si y o Giessen, Ge many), Ma a Vila Rosales (Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Po ugal) and Dina Maskileyson
(Uni e si y o Cologne, Ge many).
© 2019 by he au ho s; licensee Cogi a io (Lisbon, Po ugal). This a icle is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu-
ion 4.0 In e na ional License (CC BY).
1. In oduc ion
The g ea , global, economic c isis ha a ose in he
sphe e o in e na ional inance in 2008 has damaged
se e al sphe es o he young Spania ds’ social eali y
(mainly hei wo king en i onmen ), hus agg a a ing
e en mo e hei al eady delica e condi ions and push-
ing hem o a si ua ion o ch onic insecu i y and unem-
ploymen . This decline in social condi ions and quali y o
li e o young people has g ea ly ans o med hei social
pa e ns, especially wi h he eme gence o a mig a ion
end a ec ing mos ly hose wi h a highe le el o edu-
ca ion (Domínguez-Mujica, Díaz-He nández, & Pa eño-
Cas ellano, 2016). This end is e lec ed in ecen yea s
in he sha p inc ease in Spanish you h (16–34 yea s old)
emig a ion, which eached signi ican numbe s du ing
he pe iod 2010–2015 (see Figu e 1).
As e lec ed in Figu e 1, his d ama ic con ex pushed
housands o young people o emig a e seeking o o e -
come he uns able en i onmen o which hey we e
doomed in Spain, whe e hey adap ed hei i al p ojec s
o insecu e jobs and ways o li e, unable o achie e a
consolida ed p o essional iden i y which allowed hem
o pu sue hei own li e p ojec s (Bessan , Fa hing,
& Wa s, 2017; S anding, 2013). This way, du ing he
mos c i ical yea s o he economic ecession, his new
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 332
0
5.000
10.000
15.000
20.000
25.000
30.000
35.000
40.000
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017
Figu e 1. Spanish you h (16–34 yea s old) emig a ion du ing he pe iod 2005–2017. Compiled by he au ho s based on
da a om he Residen ial Va ia ion S a is ics o he Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e o Spain (INE, 2017).
Spanish emig a ion—also known as neo-Hispanic mig a-
ion (Domingo, Saba e , & O ega, 2014)—was consoli-
da ed and eached e y high igu es. Al hough his mi-
g a ion end dec eased a bi om 2015 on, said de-
c ease was mo e appa en han eal and he end
eached again high igu es in 2017, as shown in he g aph.
Howe e , unlike wha occu ed in he pas , cu en
Spanish mig a ion is mainly composed o young people
wi h highe educa ion (San os, 2013). This could be ex-
plained by he obsole e Spanish p oduc i e amewo k,
wi h i s excessi e emphasis on sec o s such as ou ism
and cons uc ion, meag e in es men in esea ch, de el-
opmen , inno a ion and cu ing-edge echnology, ine -
ec i e indus y posi ioning, and a la ge inc ease in job
insecu i y—which was al eady c i ical in pas decades
bu igh now is la gely no malised as an inhe en com-
ponen o he Spanish labou ma ke (Pochmann, 2011).
Thus, all hese d ama ic aspec s a ec ing young people
ha e become essen ial explana o y ac o s in he new
Spanish emig a ion.
One o he aspec s o young mig a ion is he e ec
ha i causes in hei p o agonis s’ iden i y and pe cep-
ion. This way, gi en he g owing in e dependence and
how easy i is o communica e in global socie y, hese
‘new mig an s’ pa icipa e in a plu ali y o social spaces:
hey a e in con ac , ia In e ne , wi h amily, iends, el-
low compa io mig an s, young people om o he coun-
ies, na i es om he hos coun y, e c. All o ha a ec s
hei pe cep ions, ea s and hopes, since he e is a con-
on a ion be ween hei p e ious social expe ience and
he new eali y hey ace in he mul iple con ex s hey
access a e emig a ing. This makes hem de elop a i-
ous adap a ion p ocesses which a e cons uc ed, decon-
s uc ed o econs uc ed depending on hei in e ac ion
wi h hei new social spaces and he new obs acles hey
ace. These p ocesses a e e y ecen , hence he need
o new explana o y models allowing o ecognise and
explain hem, which is he p ima y goal o his esea ch.
2. Theo e ical F amewo k
In o de o explain how coming in o con ac wi h he
hos socie y ans o ms he pe cep ion and beha iou
o young mig an s, we ollowed he p inciples o he
bidimensional models o accul u a ion, especially Be y’s
(1997) model. This model explains he accul u a ion p o-
cess based on (1) whe he he immig an s conside o be
o alue main aining hei cul u al he i age in he new
socie y, and (2) whe he hey conside he new cul u al
pa e ns so impo an as o adop hem. Thus, he posi-
i e o nega i e answe o hose wo independen dimen-
sions gi es ou possible accul u a ion s a egies: in e-
g a ion (main ain and adop ), assimila ion (no main ain-
ing bu adop ing), sepa a ion (main aining bu no adop -
ing) and ma ginalisa ion (nei he main aining no adop -
ing). Besides, i is also wo h men ioning he Rela i e
Accul u a ion Ex ended Model (RAEM; Na as & Rojas,
2010; Rania, Rebo a, Miglio ini, & Na as, 2019; Za sa
& Sob ino, 2007), which imp o es he scope o Be y’s
by conside ing ha : (1) he accul u a ion p ocess a ec s
bo h he immig an s and he na i es o he hos socie y;
(2) i depends on he coun y o o igin; (3) i is in luenced
by psychosocial and sociodemog aphic a iables; (4) i
p esen s a eal and an ideal plane o accul u a ion; and,
mos impo an o all, (5) he e is no one single accul u -
a ion s a egy, bu hey depend on he a ious domains
in which he in e ac ion akes place ( amily ela ionships,
eligious belie s and cus oms, wo k ela ionships, e c.),
so di e en op ions can be p e e ed and adop ed a he
same ime.
Besides he a o emen ioned accul u a ion models,
ano he ex emely ele an concep o explaining he
changes ha young mig an s’ iden i ies and pe cep-
ions unde go du ing hei mig a ion p ocesses is ha o
ansna ional social spaces (P ies, 1998). Thus, based on
his concep , he unde s anding o he mig a ion p ocess
as a phenomenon leading mig an s o a comple e assim-
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 333
ila ion and/o accul u a ion, is o e come. Said concep
highligh s ha he mig an s de elop hei pe cep ions in
open, he e ogeneous, hyb id spaces in which indi idual
and g oup iden i ies a e composed o se e al segmen s
such as local iden i y, e hnic iden i y, na ional iden i y,
o cosmopoli an iden i y (P ies, 1998, p. 118).
3. Me hodology
3.1. Pa icipan s
Wi h he aim o unde s anding mig a ion p ocesses and
he adap a ion o young Spania ds ha emig a ed du -
ing he pe iod 2010–2015, we ca ied ou 41 in-dep h in-
e iews o young Spanish mig an s whose ages anged
om 18 o 35. They all had uni e si y deg ees and a i ed
hei hos coun ies du ing he pe iod abo e men ioned
(see Tables 1 and 2). Mo eo e , we es ablished a discus-
sion g oup. This way, we aimed a es ablishing a signi i-
can p o ile o young, quali ied Spania ds li ing ab oad,
ocusing mo e on he possession o a deg ee han on he
job ca ied ou , so we would no exclude such impo an
p o iles as he ones o he people ha ha e los social
and inancial s a us.
3.2. P ocedu e
The p og am Skype was used o he i s 31 in e iews,
since he in e iewees we e li ing ou side Spain (in
Uzbekis an, Uni ed Kingdom, Swi ze land, Japan, e c.).
These in e iews we e eco ded using Call G aph and
ansc ibed wo d by wo d o la e analysis. The 10 la -
e in e iews (along wi h he discussion g oup) we e
done in pe son a he Albe o Hu ado Uni e si y o Chile,
in a oom accommoda ed o ha pu pose, du ing a e-
sea ch s ay ca ied ou be ween Ma ch and June 2016.
We made con ac wi h he pa icipan s h ough some
pla o ms o young emig a ed Spania ds, such as Ma ea
G ana e. We used as well he so-called snowball sam-
pling app oach, in which we asked he in e iewees o
help us iden i ying o he possible pa icipan s wi h cha -
ac e is ics which could be ele an o ou esea ch (Noy,
2008; Valles, 2003).
3.3. Da a Analysis
We analysed he da a using he G ounded Theo y (Glase
& S auss, 1967), a me hod ha o e s se e al p oce-
du es e y use ul o o de ing in o ma ion and de elop-
ing analy ic ca ego ies which e eal he mos ele an
pa e ns in he da a. We used he p og am A las.Ti6 o
he c ea ion and managemen o se e al codes o which
we applied he cons an compa a i e me hod, which con-
sis s in sea ching simila i ies and di e ences be ween
he e en s wi hin he da a (Ca e o, So iano, & T inidad,
2012). This way, we es ablished h ee p ocedu al ca -
ego ies which, like he RAEM (Na as & Rojas, 2010)
and he concep o ansna ional social spaces de el-
oped by P ies (1998), allowed us o explain he changes
ha occu ed in he pe cep ion and subjec i i ies o
hose young mig an s: con e ed adap a ion (exal a ion
o he ‘he e and now’), nos algic adap a ion (exal a ion
o he ‘ he e and hen’) and cosmopoli an adap a ion
(in which he cul u al pa e ns om hei coun y o
o igin a e mixed oge he wi h hose o he new so-
cie y). Fo mo e de ails on he explana o y powe o
his h ee-dimensional model, see Tables A1 and A2 in
he Appendix.
4. Resul s
4.1. Cons uc ion o Young Mig an s’ Subjec i i ies
The i al spaces ha young mig an s pe cei e du ing he
p ocess o adap ing o he hos socie y a e no s a ic, bu
hey a e de ined and ede ined depending on he socio-
cul u al si ua ions he mig an s expe ience h oughou
he a ious s ages o he mig a ion cycle. This way, se -
e al ways o expe iencing he mig a ion p ocesses ake
place, and he subjec i i ies a e de eloped and modi-
ied depending on how he con lic s be ween he expec-
a ions he mig an s che ish a he beginning and wha
hey eally expe ience la e a e esol ed. O he ac o s
a e he socioeconomic s a us achie ed, he language ba -
ie , o how he hos socie y sees hem.
In his ega d, hei pe cep ion anges om empha-
sising he p esen (con e ed adap a ion) o emphasis-
ing he pas (nos algic adap a ion), wi h a possible ep-
esen a ion hal way be ween he pas hey li ed in and
he p esen hey a e li ing a he momen . The la e sce-
na io could esul ei he in he adop ion o accul u a ion
s a egies whe e assimila ion p e ails o in he use o
s a egies wi h a mix o assimila ion, in eg a ion, sepa-
a ion and ma ginalisa ion. This is due o he eme gence
o se e al spaces linked o he mig a ion p ocess (com-
munica ion wi h pee g oups om hei coun y o o i-
gin ia he ICTs, connec ion wi h pee g oups om hei
hos coun y, ela ionship wi h he amily, e c.), whe e
he young emig an may adop a ious s a egies and be-
ha iou s (and maybe each a cosmopoli an adap a ion).
4.2. F us a ion and Pessimism wi hin he Spanish
Con ex : Eme gence o Con e ed Subjec i i ies
Be o e se ing o he mig a ion p ocess, young peo-
ple we e in luenced in Spain by a con ex o pessimism
ma ked by unemploymen , poli ical co up ion and he
lack o a u u e. Thus, his ne a ious con ex os e ed he
de elopmen o con e ed subjec i i ies among hem, a
phobia o hei home en i onmen , cha ac e ised by a
ha ed o he Spanish socie y, which hey iden i y o co -
up ion, insecu i y, us a ion and unce ain y. This way,
hey see hei space o o igin as a ‘no-place’ o socially o
p o essionally de eloping hemsel es. This makes hem
o es ablish he discou se ha no se ing o he mig a-
ion p ocess o coming back home would be a ailu e, a
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 334

Table 1. P o iles o he in e iewees.
Gende Age Academic deg ee P o ession Hos coun y Mon hs ab oad
Male 35 Mining Enginee ing Sales manage Uzbekis an 73
Female 31 Mas e o Pha macy Pha macy manage Uni ed Kingdom 49
Male 25 Ci il Enginee ing Cons uc ion manage Swi ze land 15
Female 29 Mas e o A His o y Resea che Japan 25
Female 32 Mas e o Pedagogy Language eache Uni ed Kingdom 36
Female 30 Ma ke Resea ch and Techniques Business analys Uni ed Kingdom 32
Male 35 Mas e o Economic Sciences Coun y manage Uzbekis an 35
Female 26 Bachelo o Social Wo k Dishwashe Uni ed Kingdom 17
Male 31 Mas e o Pha macy S ockman Uni ed Kingdom 25
Female 31 Mas e o Laws Cook Finland 35
Male 32 Bachelo o Business Sciences T a el agen Hunga y 14
Female 28 Mas e o Sociology Cake Shop saleswoman Uni ed Kingdom 60
Female 25 Mas e o An h opology Cleane Ge many 27
Female 27 A chi ec u e A chi ec Aus ia 38
Male 28 Mas e o Philosophy Cook Finland 19
Male 27 Mas e o Economic Sciences Accoun an Uni ed Kingdom 37
Female 35 Building Enginee ing Building inspec o U.S.A. 24
Male 35 PhD in Biology Resea che Boli ia 14
Female 33 Indus ial Enginee ing Resea che Ge many 19
Female 25 Bachelo o Sociology Cleane F ance 21
Male 34 Mas e o Poli ical Sciences P o esso F ance 37
Female 26 Bachelo o Pedagogy P o esso Ge many 36
Female 33 Mas e o Psychology Human Resou ces manage Uni ed Kingdom 26
Female 29 Mas e o Laws Cleane Ge many 48
Female 30 Mas e o Psychology Resea che Uni ed Kingdom 36
Female 32 Mas e o Sociology Sociologis Uni ed Kingdom 49
Male 29 A chi ec u e P o esso Finland 60
Male 35 Building Enginee ing Cons uc ion manage Uni ed Kingdom 38
Male 27 Bachelo o Social Wo k Social wo ke Ge many 27
Male 35 Indus ial Enginee ing P ojec enginee Ge many 50
Male 31 Building Enginee ing A chi ec U.S.A. 38
Female 30 Mas e o Geology Hyd ogeologis Chile 49
Male 29 A chi ec u e P ojec echnician Chile 27
Male 31 Bachelo o Social Wo k Social wo ke Chile 25
Female 29 Mas e o Psychology Resea che Chile 12
Female 32 Mas e o Sociology Social wo ke Chile 14
Male 27 Mas e o Economic Sciences En ep eneu Chile 35
Female 29 Mas e o Geology Geologis Chile 40
Female 29 Mas e o Pedagogy P o esso Chile 16
Male 30 Mas e o Sociology Resea che Chile 14
Male 31 A chi ec u e P ojec manage Chile 22
Table 2. P o iles o he pa icipan s in he discussion g oup.
Gende Age Academic deg ee P o ession Hos coun y Mon hs ab oad
Female 25 Mas e o Laws Social assis ance wo ke Chile 14
Female 34 Mas e o Laws Lawye Chile 25
Male 33 Mas e o His o y Chie o social se ices Chile 59
Female 29 Mas e o Geog aphy Social wo ke Chile 34
Female 32 Mas e o Psychology P o esso Chile 31
Male 30 A chi ec u e Cons uc ion manage Chile 42
Male 28 A chi ec u e P o esso Chile 51
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 335
enuncia ion o he i al possibili ies ha , in hei opin-
ion, lea ing he Spanish en i onmen gi es hem, as ex-
plained by he emig an s hemsel es:
I made he decision o lea ing Spain because I was in
a e ible psychological s a e, I was dep essed, i was
impossible o me o ind a job and become indepen-
den . So, he idea o emig a ing g ew s onge , un il
I had no choice bu o lea e. (G adua e in Sociology,
Uni ed Kingdom)
The inancial si ua ion in Spain was aw ul o e e y-
body, i was impossible o ind a job, I ealised I had
no u u e, I was ed up, i was a e y us a ing en i-
onmen . (G adua e in Psychology, Uni ed Kingdom)
This subjec i i y o epulsion owa ds he coun y o o i-
gin is common among young people e en be o e hey
a e de e mined o emig a e, and i s eme gence and la e
consolida ion is due o he insecu i y en i onmen hey
in e ac wi h. As a esul , he sea ch o a s able i al
p ojec and becoming independen om he amily by
ge ing a s able job become he main ac o s o se ing
o he mig a ion p ocess:
E e y Spania d I mee has a uni e si y deg ee, oo,
and hey all ha e emig a ed o he same easons as
I did: because, back in Spain, hey we e unable o
ind a job ha ul illed some minimum equi emen s
o make a li ing. All o us wan ha , achie ing some
s abili y in ou li es. (G adua e in Business Sciences,
Hunga y)
These mig a ion ac o s a e also s eng hened by he
expec a ions he mig an s go in hei socie y o o igin,
usually ela ed o labou imp o emen s such as be e
wo king condi ions and highe sala ies han hose in
Spain. Said expec a ions eme ge in he collec i e imag-
ina ion o young people h ough hei in e ac ion wi h
o he emig an s and he dis o ed in o ma ion gi en by
he mass media (To es, 2014). Thus, he expe ience o
o he mig an s, some imes exagge a ed as a de ensi e
mechanism—in o de o hide he loss o social s a us
in he hos coun y—and he insu icien in o ma ion
on he ue condi ions o mig an s in hei hos coun-
ies shown by he media—wi h Ge many and Uni ed
Kingdom as a che ypes o ‘ha ens’ o quali ied young
people—make he expec a ions pu in he mig a ion
p ojec o be e y high:
A e eading he in o ma ion gi en in some o ums
and wa ching Spanish ele ision, I had a e y good im-
p ession o Ge many bu , when you li e he e, you e-
alise ha i ’s no as good as hey say. People hink ha
i ’s easy o ind a good job and make money as , bu
i ’s jus c azy coming he e emp y-handed jus because
o wha you hea om ou side. (Indus ial enginee ,
Ge many)
This way, he subjec i i y acqui ed in he Spanish con ex
makes young people o idealise he u u e e en wi hou
a i s -hand expe ience, making i a u opia and u ning
he p esen in o a dys opia hey mus lee om.
4.3. Longing o he ‘The e and Then’: F om Con e ed
o Nos algic Subjec i i ies
Once he a i al in he hos coun y akes place, he e-
cons uc ion p ocess o he mig an s’ pe cep ions and
subjec i i ies, as well as ha o he discou ses hey a e
based on, begins. This way, a con e ed subjec i i y may
e ol e o a nos algic one as a esul o young mig an s
coming in o con lic wi h he new cul u al and/o so-
cio-economic ci cums ances hey ind in he hos coun-
y. Thus, said ci cums ances, along wi h he mo e o less
shocking expe iences hey en ail, end o make young
people o pe cei e hemsel es as di ided be ween wo
wo lds: he o iginal and he new one, ull o obs acles
and oubles. This o en makes hem o long o he en-
i onmen o secu i y inhe en o he amily and p ima y
social ies ha hey los when hey le hei coun y. This
way, a nos algic pe cep ion, in which he nea pas ( he
‘ he e and hen’) is emphasised as a way o p o ec ing
onesel om he adap i e s ess p oduced by he a i al
a a new socie y, is de eloped:
Back in Spain, I had a e y la ge g oup o iends. I miss
my p e ious social li e. Jus a e a i ing he e I was
awa e o all ha I had le behind: iends, amily….I ’s
ha d o me o li e wi hou hem. Now, in e ospec ,
I see all ha I ha e los . (Ci il enginee , Swi ze land)
As explained by T igo (2000), wha happens he e is ha
mig an s, a e expe iencing he loss o he place le be-
hind, end o bond wi h he hos socie y ying no o as-
simila e o i , bu iden i ying hemsel es wi h he com-
muni y o o igin, which hey idealise and begin o miss.
This way, a p o ound al e a ion o he social and indi id-
ual a ini ies o he young emig an s akes place, aced as
hey a e wi h ba ie s such as social exclusion, he clash
wi h he new cul u e, o no speaking he language. This
usually means ha , despi e he dis ance, a he begin-
ning o he mig a ion p ocess, in hei minds hey emain
a ached o hei o igins, which is why hey y o c ea e
and ep oduce, in hei new en i onmen , an immedia e
con ex simila o he one hey el o ced o abandon:
He e in Uzbekis an we ha e c ea ed a g oup o
Spanish emig an s o doing cul u al ac i i ies, ha ing
Spanish meals, wa ching mo ies, celeb a ing ypical
Spanish es i i ies….I uly helps us o eel a home
and p ese e ou adi ions, so ha ou child en can
know hem. (Mining enginee , Uzbekis an)
As shown in ha speech ma ked by nos algic subjec i -
i y, he young mig an ends o iden i y wi h o he emi-
g a ed Spania ds who would con o m o he endog oup.
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 336
The accul u a ion s a egy is no o adop he cus oms o
he majo i y, hos socie y, bu o look o p o ec ion in
ha endog oup, in which hey y o p ese e Spanish a-
di ions ( hey op o he ‘sepa a ion’ accul u a ion s a -
egy). Acco ding o En ena-Du án (2012), i is a p ocess
wi hin he symbolic-cul u al dimension, in which young
mig an s end o ep oduce, in a new en i onmen , he
cus oms ypical o he Spanish way o li e, hus aking
place a e- e i o ialisa ion o said cus oms.
One o he easons ha a ou he de elopmen o
hese nos algic subjec i i ies in ol ing e uge among el-
low emig a ed Spania ds would be social ma ginalisa ion
by he na i es o he new socie y, which is equen ly due
o di icul ies lea ning he new language:
I ha e el ejec ed o being an immig an , o ex-
ample when I wan ed o p esen a complain in a
shop. When hey no ice you speak in a di e en di-
alec , he e’s always he one ha says, ‘mo e and
mo e Spania ds keep coming he e, mo e o eigne s,
his is no longe wha i used o be.’ These si ua ions
make you hink abou a lo o hings. (G adua ed in
An h opology, Ge many)
These obs acles a e equen a he beginning o he mi-
g a ion p ocess and du ing he i s s age o he adap-
a ion o he new socie y, whe e he majo i y cul u e,
h ough con inuous con ac , bo h di ec ly and indi ec ly,
causes changes in he o iginal cul u al pa e ns o young
mig an s (a he same ime ha he mig an s in lu-
ence he na i es), hus se ing o di e en accul u a ion
s a egies. The clash wi h hese ini ial ba ie s will be es-
sen ial in he econs uc ion o he young emig an s’ pe -
cep ions and, likewise, will condi ion he possible e u n
o Spain.
4.4. Rein o cemen o Nos algic Subjec i i ies and I s
E ec on he Possibili y o Re u ning Home
All emig an s ‘ ein en ’ hemsel es h oughou he mi-
g a ion cycle depending on he ci cums ances su ound-
ing hei a i al, on he con lic be ween wha hey ex-
pec ed be o e lea ing Spain and he con ex hey ac ually
ound in hei hos coun ies, as well as on how hey pe -
cei e said new con ex . This adap a ion p ocess is essen-
ial o he de elopmen o p e ious subjec i i ies and
he possibili y o e u ning home. The e is a ange o
con ex ual ac o s a ec ing young mig an s’ pe cep ions
and subjec i i ies ha , unless hey a e o e come du ing
he adap a ion s age, may esul in he de elopmen o
a g ea exal a ion o he pas (nos algic adap a ion) and
going back o Spain. Some ac o s wo h men ioning a e:
ge ing an unde -quali ied job, hus su e ing a dec ease
in social s a us; no succeeding in lea ning he language;
p oblems adap ing o he clima ic condi ions in he hos
coun y; o pe cei ing disc imina ion by he hos socie y.
Wo king o a long pe iod in an unde -quali ied, un-
de paid job means ha he decision o emig a e has led
o a deg ada ion o s a us. This causes an in e nal g ie
de i ed om he con lic be ween he hopes hey che -
ished be o e lea ing Spain and wha he mig an ac ually
expe iences in he hos coun y, which in u n ends o
inc ease nos algic subjec i i y and, he e o e, he ideali-
sa ion o he ‘ he e and hen’ as a de ensi e mechanism
agains he us a ion caused by he new en i onmen .
Likewise, he language ba ie , as we ha e p e iously
discussed, is a g ea obs acle o social inse ion due o
he exclusion i causes. The p ocess o adap ing o he
new socie y implies app op ia e language skills, which
help educing he inclina ion owa ds nos algic subjec i -
i y and exal a ion o he pas , ha is o say, i helps a oid-
ing he endency o cons uc a sa e en i onmen wi h
p ima y links wi h an endog oup consis ing basically o
o he emig a ed Spania ds. Con e sely, no o e coming
he language ba ie o en en ails a consolida ion o nos-
algic beha iou s and discou ses (nos algic adap a ion).
Ano he aspec hinde ing p ope adap a ion is cli-
ma e, an elemen which is p ima ily no ed by hose ha
ha e emig a ed o cold, cloudy en i onmen s such as
Finland. Such clima e may a ec hose mig an s’ emo-
ional and psychological s a e, gi en ha hey come om
he sunny en i onmen o Spain:
Win e he e is long and ha d, and lo s o people ge
dep essed. Win e no mally las s o eigh mon hs o
nea absolu e da kness; you may no see he sun o
weeks, which is e y ha d; i a ec s you psychologi-
cally so much. (G adua e in Laws, Finland)
Finally, ano he o he main elemen s a ec ing he sub-
jec i i y o young emig an s (along wi h he quali y o he
wo k ound and how i a ec s social s a us), is he image
ha he hos coun y has o Spain. Thus, i ha image
is nega i e, i causes young mig an s o ha e di icul ies
when i comes o pe cei ing and p esen ing hemsel es
in he new en i onmen (Go man, 1959). The sum o
hese ac o s may lead o an ex eme nos algic subjec i -
i y, which may in u n a ou e u ning home, since his
discou se my hicises he p e ious li e in Spain, hus ide-
alizing he possible e u n.
4.5. Maladjus men o he Socie y o O igin: Idealisa ion
o he ‘He e and Now’ o Mu a ion o Cosmopoli an
Subjec i i y
The p ocess o accep ance, con on a ion and o e com-
ing he obs acles ypical o he i s s ages implied ha
he young people we in e iewed expe ienced a malad-
jus men o hei socie y o o igin mo e easily. This en-
ails an al e a ion in he cul u al e e en s nu u ing he
subjec i i y i sel , which is es uc u ed and eloca ed
in he new mig a o y space. This p ocess may each i s
maximum le el a e he mig an has expe ienced a long
s age (6 o 7 yea s) in he hos coun y. This s age may
lead o a high deg ee o disconnec ion wi h Spanish way
o li e and cul u al pa e ns so much so ha , when emi-
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 337
g an s e u n occasionally, hey use o eel con used and
ou o place:
When I ha e e u ned o Spain, I ha e el s ange in
my own coun y, as an immig an , you know? I had a
s ange eeling and was all he ime saying hings like
‘ow, I wan o go home, people he e speak so loud,
why do I ha e o hea wha my neighbou s say?’ I el
e y Ge man, you know? (G adua e in An h opology,
Ge many)
In his p ocess, some hing we ha e called ‘cosmopoli an
adap a ion’ in he p esen a icle, may de elop. This is
cha ac e ised by p esen ing a subjec i i y ha is o med
no only by he o igin-hos belonging dicho omy, bu also
by he di e se spaces in which he emig an s’ ela ional
e e yday li e akes place ( ela ionship wi h amily and
iends li ing in Spain ia In e ne , wi h o he mig an s,
wi h compa io s, wi h na i es o he hos coun y, e c.).
In his case, we would be be o e wha he RAEM (Na as
& Rojas, 2010) explains as he use o di e en accul u a-
ion s a egies depending on he space in which he in e -
ac ion akes place. This causes ha , some imes, mig an s
don’ pe cei e hemsel es as belonging o jus one place,
bu o mul iple spaces:
When you li e in coun ies like Uni ed Kingdom, o
example, all he iends you make o e he yea s
a e om many o he coun ies, wi h a lo o cul u al
a ie y, and you end up adap ing o almos e e y-
one. Then you in luence hose people and hey in lu-
ence you; you iden i y ends up becoming some hing
global and cosmopoli an. (G adua e in Pedagogy,
Uni ed Kingdom)
This way, a new subjec i i y eme ges, cha ac e ised by a
de e i o ialisa ion no only geog aphical, bu also men-
al, and by he shaping o a new e e en ial imagina y.
Acco ding o ha imagina y, he mig an s see hem-
sel es as somewha ha simul aneously o ms pa o
wo eali ies: ha o hei coun y o o igin and ha o
he new li e scena io o he hos coun y, which is pe -
cei ed as mo e open and cosmopoli an, in ha i has
many di e en social spaces wi h which i is possible o
iden i y (Appadu ai, 1996; Tomlinson, 1999). This causes,
wi h some equency, a sense o pe plexi y and wha may
be conside ed an iden i y c isis:
Some imes you wonde whe e you eally a e om,
and you ealise ha you a e nei he om one place
no ano he , and also ha you don’ know whe e you
will be omo ow. (G adua e in Philosophy, Finland)
This ex ac o an in e iew shows a sense o loss o
oo s, o no being linked in iden i y o cul u e o any
speci ic place, o no ha ing a de ini e space- ime coo -
dina e. This a ou s a si ua ion e y ap o he de elop-
men o a sense o no ma i e diso ien a ion and/o a lack
o solid beha iou al e e ences. Howe e , when his eel-
ing is success ully o e come, cosmopoli an beha iou s
and subjec i i ies a e mo e ein o ced. Ano he aspec
o he mig an ’s subjec i i y is ‘sho - e m li ing,’ some-
hing ha is undoub edly closely ela ed o he ac ha
he mig an has abandoned he mo e o less s able and
p edic able daily social en i onmen con igu ed by his
amily and iends, as well as wi h he a o emen ioned
eeling o lack o solid e e ences ha said abandonmen
has in ensi ied:
Nowadays he e is no long- e m u u e, I ha e lea ned
o hink in he sho e m. I will ne e know i I’m go-
ing o be he e o wo yea s, i e yea s, en yea s….I do
no know. Wha I do know is ha I don’ wan o
s ay in London my whole li e, I know ha o su e.
(G adua e in Sociology, Uni ed Kingdom)
One canno a i m ha a long s age in he hos coun-
y ine i ably leads o his ‘mig an subjec i i y,’ since
ce ain aspec s may a ou a s a egy o adap a ion o
he hos socie y h ough an idealisa ion o he p esen ,
hus gene a ing a mo e con e se pe cep ion (phobia o-
wa ds he o igins). This may happen in hose—gene ally
sca ce—cases in which, a e ha ing emig a ed, he e is a
signi ican imp o emen in socioeconomic s a us, which
means ha some o he mig an s a ec ed by said im-
p o emen end o se hemsel es apa om hei si u-
a ion o o igin o ha o hei Spanish compa io s, upon
no icing he wo se socio-economic posi ion o many o
he la e in he hos socie y:
I’ e been he e so long and I’m so B i ish, I do no like o
ge along wi h Spania ds; hey’ e lazy, hey’ e con en
o be he e washing dishes; ha way i ’s ha d o ge
whe e I ha e managed o be. (G adua e in Pha macy,
Uni ed Kingdom)
In his discou se an a i ude simila o ha o he ‘syn-
d ome o he new ich’ (Ve edas, 1999) is obse ed. Tha
is, in hose cases in which he emig an s achie e in he
hos coun y a social s a us in line wi h hei le el o ed-
uca ion, a ans o ma ion in hei sys em o alues and
hei sel -pe cep ion may occu , so ha hey may end up
highligh ing he quali ies o he new social class o which
hey belong a e hei job ad ancemen .
Howe e , some hing bo h he con e se subjec i i y
and wha we ha e called cosmopoli an subjec i i y sha e
is ha hey ha e been con igu ed a e a long pe iod li -
ing in he hos socie y, which has a ou ed a p ocess o
maladjus men o he Spanish cul u e and has elimina ed
almos all possibili y o e u n om he discou ses con-
s uc ed by mig an s p esen ing one o hose iden i ies:
The e is a limi ; he Spania d who has consecu i ely
spen mo e han six o se en yea s ab oad, six yea s
in a ow, six o se en, o ha Spania d i ’s al eady
di icul , ha one Spania d s ays he e; ha ’s wha
Social Inclusion, 2019, Volume 7, Issue 4, Pages 332–342 338