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Poli ical S udies
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Coup wi h Adjec i es:
Concep ual S e ching o
Inno a ion in Compa a i e
Resea ch?
Lei Ma s ein ede 1 and And és Malamud2
Abs ac
Was B azil’s P esiden Dilma Rousse ic im o a coup o emo ed h ough a legal p ocess o
impeachmen ? The hea ed deba e on he 2016 ous ing o B azil’s p esiden es i ies o he g owing
con o e sy a ound he de ini ion o coups. Focusing on La in Ame ica, we show ha he use o
coups wi h adjec i es ha e become mo e equen in public and schola ly deba es. Occu ing a
a ime when coups a e becoming a e , we a gue ha his de elopmen is linked o p e alence-
induced concep change, meaning ha when ins ances o a concep become less p e alen , he
unde s anding o he concep expands. The meaning o coups has expanded h ough a p oli e a ion
o adjec i es. Coups wi h adjec i es a e no new, bu ecen usage changes he concep om a
classic o a amily esemblance s uc u e. Al hough his s a egy can a oid s e ching and inc ease
di e en ia ion, we u ge cau ion and wa n agains ha m ul consequences, whe he concep ual,
heo e ical, o p ac ical.
Keywo ds
coup d’é a , impeachmen , concep o ma ion, concep ual s e ching, La in Ame ica
Accep ed: 25 Oc obe 2019
“In Eu ope, wi h i s mo e limi ed expe iences o such ma e s, he exp ession
coup d’é a is no speci ically dis inguished om say, a coup de o ce, and we use he
exp essions, ‘mili a y e ol ’, ‘mu iny’, ‘ ebellion’, ‘coup’, ‘ e olu ion’
in e changeably wi hou asking wha p ecisely has happened. La in Ame icans,
wi h hei close acquain anceship wi h he phenomenon, dis inguish.”
S.E. Fine (1962: 154)
1Uni e si y o Be gen, Be gen, No way
2Ins i u e o Social Sciences, Uni e si y o Lisbon, Po ugal
Co esponding au ho :
Lei Ma s ein ede , Uni e si y o Be gen, Ch is ies ga e 15, Be gen 5020, No way.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
888857PSX0010.1177/0032321719888857Poli ical S udiesMa s ein ede and Malamud
esea ch-a icle2019
A icle
2 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
In oduc ion
Coups d’é a —howe e de ined—ha e adi ionally been ega ded as he g ea es
h ea o he su i al o democ acy. The sudden, o en mili a y-backed emo al o he
go e nmen cus oma ily mean he end o a democ a ic egime. Today, howe e , despi e
a b oad consensus ha he e is a global democ a ic ecession and ha libe al demo-
c a ic alues a e h ea ened (Diamond, 2015a; Ingleha and No is, 2016; Lüh mann
and Lindbe g, 2019; Mechok a e al., 2017), he e a e ewe classical coups han e e ,
whe he globally o in La in Ame ica (Belkin and Scho e , 2005; De panopoulos e al.,
2016; Dju e e al., 2019; McGowan, 2003; Ma ino and Goemans, 2014; Powell and
Thyne, 2011; Singh, 2014). In ac , consolida ed democ acies ha e g own almos
immune o hem (S olik, 2015). Ye , we wi ness a puzzling inc ease in he use o he
e m (whe he coup d’é a o golpe de es ado, as in Spanish and Po uguese), equen ly
combined wi h a quali ying adjec i e, in bo h academic and non-academic ex s.1 In
his a icle, we analyze why coup wi h adjec i es a e on he ise a a ime ha coups
occu less equen ly, and wha he analy ical and concep ual consequences o his
de elopmen a e.
“Coups wi h adjec i es” a e no a new phenomenon. Te ms like “mili a y coup” o
“sel -coup” (au ogolpe) ha e been in egula use wi hin and ou side academia o decades
(Came on, 1998; Fi ch, 1977). Howe e , hei use has mush oomed in ecen decades,
pa icula ly in La in Ame ica. We ound e idence o he ecen in en ion o adap a ion o
quali ie s such as “so ” (Pi s e al., 2016), “pa liamen a y” (San os and Gua ne i, 2016),
“p esiden ial” o “democ a ic” (Va ol, 2017), “cons i u ional” (Helmke, 2017; Ya wood,
2016), “ma ke ” o “neo-libe al” (Mauce i, 1995), “elec o al” (Hellinge , 2005), “slow-
mo ion” (Polga Hecimo ich e al., 2017), “ci il socie y” (Enca nación, 2002), and “judi-
cial” (Ya uz and Koç, 2016). Many o hese e ms a e piled oge he in Gen ili’s (2016)
olume on he impeachmen o P esiden Dilma Rousse in B azil. Al hough Bello
(2016) and Kea ing (2012) egis e he use o coups wi h adjec i es ou side academia, he
lis abo e shows ha hei usage is no es ic ed o poli icians o ac i is s who ha e
incen i es o use eal o in en ed coup-plo s o implemen eme gency ule, a es opposi-
ion leade s, clean ou he bu eauc acy, o b and he opposi ion as undemoc a ic.
We link he ise o “coup wi h adjec i es” o he phenomenon o “p e alence-induced
concep change” (Le a i e al., 2018): when ins ances o a concep become less p e alen ,
he unde s anding o he concep expands o co e cases i p e iously excluded. Following
Collie and Le i sky (1997), we a gue ha while ea lie uses o coup wi h adjec i es wen
down he ladde o gene ali y o abs ac ion (inc easing di e en ia ion), new adjec i es
make up diminished o dismissi e sub ypes in which some cons i u i e elemen s o he
concep a e missing o only pa ially p esen . The examples o con empo a y coups wi h
adjec i es men ioned ea lie ha e in common ha hey do no sa is y all he c i e ia o
he commonly accep ed de ini ion o a coup: he illegal o e h ow o he go e nmen by
o he s a e ac o s. As a consequence, whe eas a coup was o me ly unde s ood as a clas-
sical concep , he new usage app oaches i as a amily esemblance concep (Collie and
Mahon, 1993; Goe z, 2006).
The choice o how o concep ualize a coup is no o be aken ligh ly since i ca ies
no ma i e, analy ical, and poli ical implica ions. In pa icula , in oday’s democ acies
he e is a concep ual pe il o con la ing a coup wi h legal ac ics o go e nmen eplace-
men . Iden i ying a phenomenon as an “impeachmen ” as opposed o a “coup” in ol es
widely di e en in e p e a ions, mo al judgmen s, and consequences, as he la e could
igge in e na ional sanc ions whe eas he o me should no . The e o e, academics as
Ma s ein ede and Malamud 3
well as poli icians and pundi s should p oceed wi h ca e when choosing concep s o
de ine as consequen ial an e en as he emo al o a p esiden .
The quali a i e ma e ial o his a icle is based on a e iew o he academic li e a u e
on coups in gene al and in La in Ame ica in pa icula , and on close eading o social
media and news ela ed o La in Ame ican poli ics, ou a ea o esea ch. To subs an ia e
ou claim o an inc eased use o coups wi h adjec i es, we use quan i a i e e idence om
Google Books’ English and Spanish co po a o he pe iod 1800–2008 wi h he Ng am
Viewe (2013) ool.2 Fu he mo e, we mapped he academic use o coups using he Social
Science Ci a ion Index o English e ms, and SciELO (Scien i ic Elec onic Lib a y
Online) ci a ion index o Spanish and Po uguese e ms.3 We compa e he use o he coup
concep wi h coup da a om Powell and Thyne (2011) and P zewo ski e al. (2013).
In he nex sec ion, we p esen empi ical e idence o sus ain ou a gumen abou he
p oli e a ion o he e m accompanied by a a ie y o adjec i es, and subs an ia e ou puz-
zle: why does his occu du ing a pe iod when ac ual coups in he wo ld decline? In o de
o disen angle he puzzle, we hen discuss he coup concep , i s cons i u i e elemen s and
s uc u e, be o e we discuss s a egies o a oid concep ual s e ching, and show h ough
examples ha he cu en usage o coups wi h adjec i es is shi ing he concep s uc u e
om a classical o a amily esemblance ype. We a gue ha his shi can be unde s ood
as special o m o p e alence-induced concep change. Finally, we discuss he implica-
ions and whe he concep ual inno a ion has esul ed in concep ual s e ching o imp o ed
he u ili y o he e m. Al hough we d aw ou examples mos ly om La in Ame ica, he
discussion is expec ed o hold gene al alidi y.
The Fall o Coups and Rise o “Coups Wi h Adjec i es”
Globally, coup a emp s ha e been declining since he la e hal o he 1960s, and ha e
been pa icula ly a e a e he Cold Wa . Based on da a om Powell and Thyne (2011),
Figu e 1 displays he end o coup a emp s since 1950. The downwa d end is uncon-
o e sial and suppo ed by se e al ecen s udies (Belkin and Scho e , 2003;
De panopoulos e al., 2016; Dju e e al., 2019; Ma ino and Goemans, 2014; Ma shall
and Ma shall, 2018; Singh, 2014). In La in Ame ica, wi h some excep ions such as in
Hondu as in 2009, coups ha e almos anished.
A he same ime, he use o he e m coup has seen a puzzling e i al wi h ecen
de elopmen s in La in Ame ica. Reading he news, egis e ing con e sa ions on social
media, and sea ching he li e a u e, we obse ed ha academics, poli icians, and he
media inc easingly use he Spanish e m golpe connec ed wi h an adjec i e o desc ibe
e en s ha would no all unde he classical concep ualiza ion. A non-exhaus i e lis o
he mos p ominen and p e alen new adjec i es includes “so ,” “pa liamen a y,” “con-
s i u ional,” “neo-libe al,” “ma ke ,” “elec o al,” “slow,” “ci il socie y,” and “judicial.”
While o en hese e ms a e used by p esiden s o ain hei opponen s, hey a e also used
in academic wo ks, and hus should be analyzed igo ously. Fi s , howe e , we need o
es ablish whe he ou hunch abou an inc eased use o coups wi h adjec i es holds when
con on ed wi h e idence. We do his by s udying he p e alence o he use o he e m
coup d’é a and coup wi h adjec i es in he English and Spanish co po a in Google Books
using he Ng am Viewe ool. The esul s a e displayed in Figu es 2 and 3.
The use o he e m “coup d’é a ” in English ollows a pa e n simila o ha o he
egis e ed coup a emp s (Figu e 2), a s eady inc ease un il he 1960s, and a e ha a
sha p decline un il he inal yea egis e ed (2008). The use o he e m in books is highly
4 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
Figu e 2. The Use o Coup d’é a and Golpe de es ado in Books.
The ba and line p esen he sha e o each big am (coup d’é a and golpe de es ado) o all big ams in
he da abase pe yea . Resul s come om case insensi i e sea ch o “coup d’é a ” in he English co pus
(googlebooks-eng-all-20120701), and om case insensi i e sea ch o “golpe de es ado” in he Spanish co pus
(googlebooks-spa-all-20120701). Yea s co e ed 1800–2008.
Sou ce: Ng am Viewe (2013).
Figu e 1. Coup A emp s Wo ldwide and in La in Ame ica.
Sou ce: Powell and Thyne (2011).
Ma s ein ede and Malamud 5
co ela ed wi h ac ual coup a emp s (Table 1). No ably, a simila decline is no p esen in
he use o “golpe de es ado,” which inc eases s eadily om he 1950s and, wi h excep ion
o a dip in he yea s p io o 2000, ends wi h he highes egis e ed sco e in 2008. Al hough
he Google books da abase co e s academic li e a u e, i also includes ic ion and hus
ells us li le o he popula i y and con en o academic s udies o coups. Looking only a
academic a icles in he Social Science Ci a ion Index and SciELO (Figu e 3), we ind
signs ha s udies o coups ha e become mo e equen (solid and do ed lines), especially
since he ea ly 2000s. As academic p oduc ion has inc eased o e all, we con ol by
Figu e 3. The Use o Coup d’é a and Golpe de es ado in Academic A icles.
Uni o obse a ion is yea s. Resul s om sea ch o “coup d’é a ” as opic in Social Science Ci a ion Index
(N-258), and “golpe de es ado” as opic in he SciELO ci a ion index (N-187). Bo h a ailable h ough Cla i-
a e Analy ics’ Web o Science ( . 5.30). Sha e calcula ed as numbe o a icles pe yea wi h “coup d’é a ”
as opic di ided by numbe o a icles pe yea wi h “poli ical science” as opic (N-3592). The Social Science
Ci a ion Index goes back o 1956. SciELO has eco ds om 1997.
Table 1. Co ela ions ac ual coups and a emp s and men ions in Google Books.
Coups and Coup a emp s
since 1949
(Powell and Thyne, 2011)
Coups since
1949 (P zewo ski
e al., 2013)
Coups
(P zewo ski
e al., 2013)
Coup d’é a .69 (.00) .61 (.00) .47 (.00)
Coup wi h adjec i es .01 (.92) –.08 (.53) .37 (.00)
Golpe de es ado –.19 (.14) –.12 (.34) .35 (.00)
Golpe con adje i os –.41 (.00) –.39 (.00) .13 (.05)
Cells show co ela ion coe icien s, signi icance le el in pa en hesis. “Coup d’é a ,” “Coup wi h adjec i es,”
“Golpe de Es ado,” and “Golpe con adje i os” om Google Books, obse a ions wi h 1 yea lag.

6 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
mapping English language a icles wi h “coup d’é a ” as opic as sha e o a icles wi h
“poli ical science” as opic (dashed line).4 The esul s show ha he s udy o coups has
also inc eased om he ea ly 2000s as a sha e o all a icles in he discipline, e en hough
i peaked in he 1990s. Recen popula i y may be connec ed o he g ow h o a ailable
da ase s on coups (ci ed ea lie ), and he ecen su ge o s udies o au ho i a ian egimes
and leade ship succession.
Ou main in e es , howe e , is wi h coups wi h adjec i es. We sea ched Google Books
o he abo e-men ioned coups wi h adjec i es in English and Spanish, and ound he ol-
lowing: in English he e is no decline o hei use as he numbe o coups declined, and in
Spanish hei use has expanded emendously a he same ime as he numbe o coups
declined (Figu e 4).
Figu e 4 displays he English and Spanish usage o coups wi h adjec i es. Compa ing
Figu es 2 and 4, we see ha while he use o coup d’é a has dec eased wi h he numbe s
o coups, he e is no dip in he use o coups wi h adjec i es.5 Fu he mo e, while he men-
ion o coup d’é a is posi i ely and signi ican ly co ela ed wi h ac ual coup a emp s, he
use o coup wi h adjec i es is no a e 1949 (Table 1). In Spanish, howe e , coups wi h
adjec i es we e an ex emely a e phenomenon un il he 1960, bu ha e consis en ly been
men ioned in books since he 1970s con i ming ha i is indeed a mo e ecen phenome-
non. Figu e 5 isualizes he associa ion be ween he usage o coup d’é a , coups wi h
adjec i es in English and Spanish, and ac ual coups since he ea ly 1800s. Wi h excep ion
Figu e 4. Coup Wi h Adjec i es in English and Spanish in Books.
Uni o obse a ion is yea s. The lines p esen he sha e o he sum o big ams (sum o coup wi h adjec-
i es and sum o Golpe con adje i os) o all big ams in he da abase pe yea . Resul s om case insensi i e
sea ches o “elec o al coup,” “judicial coup,” “slow-mo ion coup,” “so coup,” “pa liamen a y coup,” and
“cons i u ional coup.” Resul s o each o he coups wi h adjec i es a e added oge he in o he a iable
“Coup wi h Adjec i es.” In Spanish, esul s om case insensi i e sea ches o “golpe elec o al,” “golpe
blando,” “golpe cons i ucional,” and “golpe ins i ucional.” No hi s on “golpe pa lamen a io.”
Ma s ein ede and Malamud 7
o he usage o he oo e m in English, he co ela ion be ween ac ual coups and usage
o he e m wi h o wi hou adjec i es seem o b eak down exac ly when he numbe o
coups decline (see also Table 1).
Table 1 shows co ela ions be ween men ions o coups wi h o wi hou adjec i es in
English and Spanish in Google Books and ac ual coups and coup a emp s as measu ed by
Powell and Thyne (2011) and P zewo ski e al. (2013). When looking a he ull pe iod
om 1804, all a ian s o coups in Google Books a e posi i ely co ela ed wi h ac ual
coups, and men ions o “coup d’é a ” is s ongly and signi ican ly so. Since 1949, when
Powell and Thyne’s da a s a , howe e , we obse e ha coups wi h adjec i es in Spanish
show a nega i e and signi ican co ela ion wi h coups and a emp s, while o coups wi h
adjec i es in English o coups in Spanish, he co ela ion is ei he nega i e o ze o and
non-signi ican . Table 1 also con i ms ha he decoupling o nega i e co ela ion be ween
coups wi h adjec i es in English and Spanish and eal coups and a emp s, a e ecen
phenomena. In sum, we ind suppo o ou ini ial obse a ion ha he e is an inc ease in
he use o coups wi h adjec i es, especially in Spanish, and ha se e al o he adjec i es
a e o new da e.
Wha accoun s o he inc ease in he use o coups wi h adjec i es a a ime when
coups a e declining? Fi s , o La in Ame ica we belie e i is ela ed o wo key de elop-
men s. Second, and mos impo an ly, we a gue ha i is ela ed o a change in he concep
s uc u e o he e m coup, which cons i u es a special ype o p e alence-induced concep
change (Le a i e al., 2018).
Two de elopmen s in La in Ame ica help explain he ise o coups wi h adjec i es in
pa icula in he Spanish language. One is he new poli ical ins abili y, which e e s o he
many cases o ea ly p esiden ial e mina ion by impeachmen (Pé ez-Liñán, 2007), o
Figu e 5. Ac ual Coups s Men ions o Coups wi h o wi hou Adjec i es in Books.
Uni o obse a ion is yea s. Va iables based on Google Books a e s anda dized wi h a mean o 0 and s an-
da d de ia ion o 1. Lowess smoo he used wi h bandwid h o 0.5.
8 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
h ough esigna ion a e massi e p o es s (Hochs e le , 2006). No only was he use o
impeachmen , o impeachmen -like p ocedu es, new o he egion, i was also new ha
democ acy ended o su i e he all o p esiden s. Second, he e i al seems linked, bu
is no exclusi e, o he wa e o le is egimes in he egion and he all o p esiden s o
he le . While he phenomenon Pé ez-Liñán and Hochs e le analyzed mainly occu ed
wi h neolibe al p esiden s, a ecen de elopmen is ha le -leaning p esiden s ha e begun
o all (P esiden s Rousse in B azil 2016, Lugo in Pa aguay 2012, and Zelaya in
Hondu as 2009) o o be ques ioned o hei democ a ic me i s (P esiden s Madu o in
Venezuela and O ega in Nica agua). In a egion whe e Uni ed S a es meddling and coups
di ec ed agains he le we e adema k, he all o p esiden s o he le has e i ed bad
memo ies.6 Ye , his explana ion is incomple e, unless we can explain how e en s o -
me ly no ecognized as coups a e now labeled as coups wi h adjec i es.
Ou key hypo hesis is linked o p e alence-induced concep change, o concep c eep-
ing, which is a heo y om psychology ha holds ha “when ins ances o a concep
becomes less p e alen , he concep may expand o include ins ances i p e iously
excluded” (Le a i e al., 2018: 1465). O e a se ies o expe imen s, Le a i e al. showed
how he educed p e alence o a phenomenon made he unde s anding o he phenome-
non expand so ha he pa icipan s o e - epo ed i s occu ence. This explains why e en
hough mode n socie ies ha e made p og ess in igh ing po e y, hunge , and in ec ious
diseases, people s ill belie e he wo ld is going in he w ong di ec ion (Le a i e al.,
2018: 1465). We con end ha he same akes place wi h coups; as hey become less e-
quen and less dange ous o democ acy, obse e s expand hei unde s anding o wha a
coup is. To be su e, ou indings a e no s ic ly consis en wi h his heo y, since i is he
use o coups wi h adjec i es, and no he use o he e m coup alone, which has inc eased.
This inding is e en mo e puzzling since adding adjec i es o a classical concep , such
as a coup, educes i s ex ension (co e age) by inc easing i s in ension (meaning) (Collie
and Mahon, 1993; Sa o i, 1970). To make sense o why he use o coups wi h adjec i es
inc eases in a pe iod when ac ual coups a e a his o ical lows, we a gue in he emainde
ha he p e alence-induced concep change has no al e ed he cons i u i e elemen s o
a coup, o wha a coup is, bu a he changed he concep s uc u e o coups om classi-
cal o a amily esemblance ype, he eby educing he h eshold o an ins ance o qual-
i y as a coup.
Wha is a Coup?
A coup is no an essen ially con es ed concep like democ acy o populism (Gallie, 1956;
Mudde, 2004). E en hough disag eemen exis s, he e is a ela i ely b oad academic
consensus on wha cons i u es a coup. The e m, howe e , is much used ou side academia,
and con o e sial because i is poli ically loaded and holds no ma i e and p ac ical impli-
ca ions. The Uni ed S a es, o ins ance, is bound o suspend o eign aid i a ecipien
expe iences a coup, and he Eu opean Union upholds simila clauses (Ma ino and
Goemans, 2014: 805). In La in Ame ica, he In e -Ame ican Democ a ic Cha e o he
O ganiza ion o Ame ican S a es calls o immedia e ac ion in case o a coup (“uncons i-
u ional in e up ion”), and o esees he po en ial suspension o he membe s a e in ques-
ion (see, OAS, 2001: a s. 19–21). In addi ion, a dis essed p esiden has incen i es o
b and his bellige en opposi ion as coup-monge s, while he opposi ion would like o
cloak hemsel es in innocence as igh e s o eedom and democ acy agains an au ho -
i a ian-minded p esiden . Likewise, coup-make s o en a emp o legi imize hei own
Ma s ein ede and Malamud 9
coups by calling hei ac ions “ e olu ions,” and hemsel es a “mo emen .” Jus as “one
pe son’s e o is is ano he pe son’s eedom igh e ” (Wa dlaw, 1989), one pe son’s
coup-make can be ano he pe son’s democ a ize .
In he se en een h cen u y, a coup was he excep ional and illegal ac o a p ince
agains o he pa s o socie y in o de o deal wi h an ex ao dina y si ua ion. I s goal was
o es o e o de , and he p ince’s illegal ac was conside ed legi ima e since i s aim was o
bene i he gene al in e es s (Ba elson, 1997; Ma ínez, 2014).7 Wi h he end o absolu -
ism and he es ablishmen o he p inciple o popula so e eign y, which sepa a ed he
ule (s) om he S a e, he coup concep changed in o how we know i oday (Ba elson,
1997). One classic de ini ion comes om Lu wak who de ined a coup as “ he in il a ion
o a small bu c i ical segmen o he s a e’s appa a us which is used o displace he go -
e nmen om he con ol o he emainde ” (Lu wak, 1969: 12). Coup-make s use he
s a e machine y o ake con ol o e he poli ical le e s. Acco ding o Lu wak, a coup
sha es cha ac e is ics wi h e olu ion, pu sch, ebellion, p onunciamien o, ci il wa , and
na ional libe a ion. Occupied wi h di e en ia ing he coup om hese phenomena,
Lu wak ocused on he s a e u ned agains he s a e, and dis inguished a coup om o he
ake-o e s a egies in i s being pe o med by a small g oup. Ano he classic de ini ion
ha seeks o dis inguish a coup om a ba ack e ol (o cua elazo) is Fine ’s (1962:
154),8 “ he seizu e and elimina ion o he pe son o he head o s a e.” Fine (1962: 155)
also poin ed ou ha a coup is “speedy and immedia e,” bu did no include hese cha ac-
e is ics as pa o he de ini ion. In ac , he e m coup in F ench o golpe in Spanish
means a quick mo emen , a s oke, a blow, o a sudden a ack. We s ick, howe e , o
Fine ’s pa simonious s a egy, and exclude speediness and o he common ai s such as
sec ecy and small g oup size o coup-make s om ou de ini ion. Had we added hese
c i e ia he dis inc ion be ween he old and new concep ualiza ions o coups would
become e en s a ke .
Based on he iple c i e ia o a ge , pe pe a o , and ac ics, Powell and Thyne sum-
ma ized he li e a u e and a i ed a he ollowing p ecise de ini ion: “[a coup a emp
includes] illegal and o e a emp s by he mili a y o o he eli es wi hin he s a e appa-
a us o unsea he si ing execu i e” (Powell and Thyne, 2011: 252). Neglec ed in classic
de ini ions, bu emphasized by Powell and Thyne and McGowan (2003), is ha he ac ics
used mus be illegal. Powell and Thyne (2011: 251) w i e, “ his is impo an because [i ]
dis inguishes coups om poli ical p essu e, which is common whene e people ha e ee-
dom o o ganize.” This illegal ac also no mally in ol es a suspension o he cons i u-
ional o de , whe he democ a ic o au oc a ic, hus connec ing his c i e ion o he
o iginal oo o he concep in he se en een h cen u y. The ea lie omission o illegali y
was due o h ee ac o s which a e as ollows: (1) he de ini ions aimed o di e en ia e
be ween illegal powe g abs— hus he c i e ion was supe luous; (2) he au ho s we e
occupied wi h mili a y coups—again, he c i e ion was supe luous; (3) many coups
occu ed in egimes ha ailed o mee he c i e ia o ule o law and democ acy, which
made he legali y/illegali y dis inc ion less impo an .
The legal-illegal dis inc ion is especially ele an in a democ a ic con ex , and he e o e
in oday’s La in Ame ica om whe e we d aw many o ou examples. In con as o p e i-
ous pe iods, mos coun ies in La in Ame ica since he Thi d Wa e a e democ acies wi h
a leas a enee o ule o law. The e o e, i is impe a i e o dis inguish coups om legal
emo als o he heads o s a e such as impeachmen s o popula ecalls, which ha e
become inc easingly common (Helmke, 2017). Be o e he Thi d Wa e, he pi all o coup
de ini ions was con la ing coups wi h o he illegal a acks on he go e nmen , o example,
16 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
u ned agains he go e nmen , bu unless he pa liamen illegally emo ed he p esi-
den (by o ins ance no ha ing he equi ed numbe o o es o depose he p esiden ),
his e m does no sa is y he ac ic o a coup since i was deemed legal by he ele an
domes ic and in e na ional au ho i ies. Again, cases a e he impeachmen s o P esiden s
Rousse and Lugo.12
The cons i u ional coup desc ibes he use o cons i u ional measu es o emo e a p esi-
den , o p olong his s ay in powe . The la e case is used pa icula ly in he A ican con ex
(Cama a, 2016; Ko ze, 2017),13 and is simila o he judicial coup men ioned ea lie . In
La in Ame ica, he e m has mos ly been used by poli ical ac o s and he p ess, bu appea s
equen ly in Spanish in Google Books since he 1980s. The e m cons i u ional coup does
no indica e an ac o , and i admi s o he (con o e sial) cons i u ionali y o he ac ion;
hence, he e m only sa is ies he c i e ion ha he chie execu i e is he a ge , and whe e
i is used o desc ibe a p esiden ’s expansion o e m limi s, he e m ac ually does no
sa is y any o he c i e ia o a coup e en hough he ac ions a e iden i ied by ha e m.
Adding Adjec i es, Sub ac ing Meaning: Discussing Coup
Wi h Adjec i es
The cases p esen ed ea lie lack ei he one o mo e o wha ha e been conside ed he
necessa y and join ly su icien a ibu es o he oo concep . The e o e, hey cons i u e
diminished sub ypes. The inc eased use o coups wi h adjec i es has changed he concep
s uc u e o coups om a classical o a amily esemblance ca ego y and d i en i s p e a-
lence upwa d in a ime when coups a e diminishing globally, consis en wi h p e alence-
induced concep change. In some cases, he e ms desc ibe ac ions by masses ins ead o a
small g oup (e.g. elec o al coup), slow ins ead o quick p ocesses (e.g. slow-mo ion
coup), o ac ions ha a e no sh edded in sec ecy (e.g. cons i u ional o pa liamen a y
coup). The e o e, se e al o hese examples also ail o sa is y logical bu omi ed c i e ia
om mode n de ini ions (sec ecy, speediness, and small g oup size).
Diminished sub ypes may inc ease di e en ia ion and a oid s e ching (Collie and
Le i sky, 1997). The oo concep is le in ac , bu i is applied wi h quali ica ions o
cases ha a e no conside ed “ ull and comple e.” This s a egy allows o lexibili y, so
ha new o ms and shapes o manda e in e up ions can be cap u ed by a well-known
concep . Fo example, he coup concep i sel has changed conside ably since Naudé’s
de ini ion (Ma ínez, 2014), and he Thi d Wa e democ a iza ion and he new poli ical
ins abili y in La in Ame ica con ibu ed o concep ual changes ha e lec ed empi ical
de elopmen s, o ins ance by insis ing ha coups should consis o illegal ac ions
(Powell and Thyne, 2011). Fo e ms such as democ acy (Collie and Le i sky, 1997) o
populism (Weyland, 2001), changing he concep s uc u e om classical o amily
esemblance has been a success ul s a egy o cap u e empi ical de elopmen s. And
al hough Sa o i (1984) was skep ical owa d amily esemblance concep s, hese a e
now well es ablished in he social sciences and hei use does no inhibi posi i is ,
causal analysis (Goe z, 2006).
Ne e heless, we iden i y h ee p oblems wi h he use o diminished sub ypes and he
coup concep wi h a amily esemblance s uc u e. The i s is ha i inhibi s he ecogni-
ion o poli ical e olu ion. Second, i c ea es he dange o causal and concep ual con u-
sion. Thi d, ge ing a coup w ong may en ail se ious poli ical consequences.

Ma s ein ede and Malamud 17
Fi s , con a y o o he concep s such as populism—which expanded o accoun o he
inc easing p esence o populis s (Rooduijn, 2018)—we link he changing s uc u e o he
coup concep o i s dec easing empi ical p esence. The ela i e sca ci y o coups, we
a gue, has led o p e alence-induced concep change. By adding adjec i es, obse e s
ha e inc eased he ex ension while educing he in ension o he oo concep , he e o e
o e epo ing coups a he same ime as hei occu ence ebbed. Fo La in Ame ica in
pa icula , changing he concep s uc u e inhibi s obse ing he eal p og ess made in
educing coups as h ea s o democ acy. E en hough schola s and he media men ion
coups (wi h adjec i es) mo e o en han be o e, he phenomenon is minimal in he egion.
Second, applying a amily esemblance s uc u e has c ea ed causal and concep ual
con usion. By con la ing coups wi h o he concep s, he ple ho a o e en ha coups wi h
adjec i es e e o a e also assumed o sha e he same o simila causes and consequences.
Figu e 6 shows ha o e e y sub ype o coup wi h adjec i es unde he amily esem-
blance s uc u e, he e exis s es ablished concep s such as e olu ion and impeachmen .
The s a egy o applying diminished sub ypes allows o di e en ia ing he key concep
while a eling, bu i also c ea es con usion be ween, o example, a ci il socie y coup
and a e olu ion, and be ween a pa liamen a y coup and an impeachmen . I u he c e-
a es pseudo-equi alences be ween phenomena as di e en as an impeachmen and a e -
olu ion by placing bo h unde he concep ual umb ella o a coup, which inhibi s a he
han imp o es ou unde s anding and leads o aul y conclusions.
We a gue he e o e ha applying a amily esemblance s uc u e and diminished sub-
ypes ob usca e a he han cla i y he coup concep . E en hough adding adjec i es can
enhance he p ecision in o de o cap u e new de elopmen s, such as he new poli ical
ins abili y o new ways o democ a ic de e io a ion, one p oblem emains, he ecen
usage o diminished sub ypes has no led o an ag eemen o e a mo e p ecise concep .
The new sub ypes poin owa d di e en p ocesses which canno be cap u ed by a single
new c i e ion and se e al adjec i es such as “slow” o “cons i u ional” con adic he
o iginal meaning, cons i u ing dismissi e sub ypes. In some e sions, s a e ac o s a e no
in ol ed, in o he he ac ions a e legal, in some he p esiden is he a ge , in o he all
ins i u ions bu he p esidency a e he a ge . Unlike simila de elopmen s wi h he con-
cep o democ acy, which gene a ed a mo e p ecise de ini ion, coups wi h adjec i es ha
cons i u e diminished sub ypes ob usca e a he han p ecise he oo concep .
The con la ion o coups wi h adjec i es wi h o he es ablished concep s and phenom-
ena lead o causal con usion and lawed analyses. Schola s explaining democ a ic back-
sliding and ecession o en highligh he di e ences be ween oday’s dange s o democ acy
and classical coups. Causal p ocesses leading o democ a ic backsliding a e slow and
inc emen al a he han quick, led om he go e nmen a he han agains he go e n-
men , and weakening ins i u ions a he han abo ing hem (see o example, Be meo,
2016). As S olik (2015) poin s ou , democ acies g ew immune o coups, bu no o
incumben akeo e s. Con la ing hese p ocesses is likely o mislead causal analysis and
policy p esc ip ion since when he diagnosis change, so should he he apy.
Finally, classi ying a change in go e nmen as a coup may hold eal-li e consequences.
Du ing he Cold Wa , he mili a y in A gen ina, B azil, and Pa aguay classi ied hei coups
as e olu ions and hei o ganiza ions as mo emen s o legi imize hei ac ions. Today
schola s, obse e s, and p esiden s on he losing end o an impeachmen classi y such
e en s as coups (wi h adjec i es) o delegi imize hei opponen s. A c ispe de ini ion is in
o de since labeling an e en as a coup may gene a e poli ical ac ions o g a e conse-
quences such as he wi hholding o aid, he suspension om in e na ional o ganiza ions,
18 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
he igge ing o in e na ional sanc ions, and e en o eign mili a y in e en ion. To educe
he dange s o w ong ul ca ego iza ion o coups, and o dis inguish poli ically mo i a ed
accusa ions o whi ewashing, a clea de ini ion wi h a se o join ly necessa y and su i-
cien condi ions is mo e use ul han a amily esemblance s uc u e.
Conclusion
Whe eas he h ea o coups is lowe han e e be o e, he dange s o concep mis o ma-
ion o coups is ising. E en hough we can iden i y se e al ecen in e es ing and posi i e
concep ual de elopmen s in he li e a u e ha dis inguish be ween di e en ypes o
coups (Aksoy e al., 2015) o be ween coups and mu inies (Dwye , 2015; Johnson, 2018),
ou main conce n has been wi h he p oli e a ion o diminished sub ypes o coups. In
oday’s democ acies, we pa icula ly wa n agains con la ing coups wi h legal ac ics o
go e nmen eplacemen . We ha e shown how he use o coups wi h adjec i es, in pa -
icula in he Spanish language, has inc eased conside ably in bo h he schola ly and non-
schola ly li e a u e while he p e alence o coups has dec eased bo h globally and in
La in Ame ica. We a gue ha he eason o his puzzling de elopmen lies in p e alence-
induced concep change, which has come in he o m o changing he concep s uc u e o
coups om classic o amily esemblance.
O iginally sugges ed as a way o p e en ing concep ual s e ching and c ea ing ana-
ly ical di e en ia ion, we showed ha when applied o coups, his s a egy p e en s con-
cep s e ching only pa ially and a a high cos . The isk is ha p oli e a ing adjec i es
end up dilu ing he noun: a coup becomes an amoun o jus any manda e in e up ion
and, as such, is i ually meaningless wi hou adjec i es. This u he c ea es concep ual
and causal con usion, and inhibi s obse e s om iden i ying eal wo ld imp o emen s.
Poli ically, he sp eading o coups wi h adjec i es can also ha e damaging consequences.
Classi ying as coups phenomena ha belong o ano he class, such as impeachmen s,
aises a se o no ma i e and, mo e consequen ially, policy- ela ed ques ions, as powe ul
ac o s could se measu es in mo ion acco ding o he label ha bes i s hei in e es s.
We conclude wi h a humble eminde o schola s and a wa ning o p ac i ione s.
The eminde , howe e ob ious, is ha no e e y emo al is a coup, as a La in
Ame ican poli ical ac i is i onically quipped, “golpes e an los de an es” (“ eal coups
we e hose o yes e yea s”). The wa ning should ale poli ical leade s and ac i is s
ha s e ching he concep by accusing oday’s ad e sa ies o coup-monge ing may hi
hem back omo ow.
Au ho s’ No e
A p e ious e sion o his a icle was p esen ed a he 9 h Cong ess o Asociación La inoame icana de Ciencia
Polí ica (ALACIP), Mon e ideo, U uguay, 26–29 July 2017, and a he Ame ican Poli ical Science Associa ion
Annual Mee ing, Washing on DC, 29 Augus –1 Sep embe 2019.
Acknowledgemen s
The au ho s hank Ca los Ge asoni, Ma iana Llanos, Miguel De Luca, Michael Al a ez, and wo anonymous
e iewe s o commen s, and Oc a io Amo im Ne o and Michaël Ta ham o concep ual and echnical inpu .
Decla a ion o con lic ing in e es s
The au ho (s) decla ed no po en ial con lic s o in e es wi h espec o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica-
ion o his a icle.
Ma s ein ede and Malamud 19
Funding
The au ho (s) disclosed eceip o he ollowing inancial suppo o he esea ch, au ho ship, and/o publica-
ion o his a icle: And és Malamud acknowledges he inancial suppo o FCT p ojec UID/SOC/50013/2013.
ORCID iD
Lei Ma s ein ede h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-5811-2641
No es
1. Unless speci ied, we use “coup” as sho hand o coup d’é a , and golpe as he Spanish sho hand o golpe
de es ado. This is no o say ha coups in o he ins i u ions o o ganiza ions do no exis , bu he e we only
deal wi h he coup d’é a .
2. We use he English 2012 (googlebooks-eng-all-20120701) and he Spanish 2012 co po a (googlebooks-
spa-all-20120701), which co e i les om 1800 o 2008. See h ps://books.google.com/ng ams/in o
3. Bo h a ailable h ough Cla i a e Analy ics’ Web o Science ( . 5.30).
4. Fo Spanish and Po uguese we only ha e da a om 1997. The i s obse a ion is om 2002 and we do
no con ol o a possible inc ease in p oduc ion a icles o e ime.
5. The Google books da abase ends in 2008, and we belie e, bu a e unable o con i m, ha he use o coups
wi h adjec i es has inc eased since hen.
6. See in e iew wi h poli ical scien is Fabiano San os likening he impeachmen o P esiden Rousse
wi h he coup in 1964 (“Impeachmen e ela que a base da democ acia b asilei a ainda é ágil,” El País,
edición B asil, 29 Ma ch 2016).
7. The i s e e ence o coup d’é a comes om Gab iel Naudé’s “Conside a ions Poli iques su les Coups
d’és a ” in 1667, who de ined a coup as “ hose bold and ex ao dina y ac s ha p inces a e o ced o
unde ake in di icul and hopeless ma e s, con a y o common law and ega dless o any jus ice, pu -
ing pa icula in e es a s ake o he bene i o he gene al one.” Quo e ansla ed and ci ed in Ba elson
(1997: 324).
8. A cua elazo is a ba ack e ol in ol ing a la ge mili a y g oup, and o en mo e iolence.
9. This dis inc ion s ill holds ele ance in he s udy o mili a y mu inies and how hey a e dis inc om (bu
may e ol e in o) coups (Dwye , 2015; Johnson, 2018).
10. Whe he coups may os e democ acy, and whe he coups a e he Cold wa mo e o en end in democ acy,
a e impo an issues in ecen esea ch (De panopoulos e al., 2016; Ma ino and Goemans, 2014; Thyne
and Powell, 2016; Va ol, 2017).
11. The Pe u ian case is so impo an o he e m ha he Spanish e sion au ogolpe has been accep ed in
English-w i en academic wo ks. The e m appea s in he Ox o d English Dic iona y since 2011. Al hough
i s popula i y ose wi h Fujimo i, au ogolpe i s appea ed in Mel ille and Mel ille (1971).
12. See San os and Gua ne i (2016) o B azil, and Ma s ein ede e al., (2013) o e e ences o he
Pa aguayan case.
13. The e m so -coup has also been used o desc ibe his phenomenon in A ica (Van Woudenbe g and
Sawye , 2015).
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Au ho Biog aphies
Lei Ma s ein ede holds a PhD in compa a i e poli ics and is an Associa e P o esso a he Depa men o
Compa a i e Poli ics, Uni e si y o Be gen. His esea ch ocuses on La in Ame ica, in pa icula opics ela ed
o poli ical ins i u ions, p esiden ial c ises, impeachmen s, and alls. Cu en ly, he is s udying he de elopmen

22 Poli ical S udies 00(0)
and his o y o succession ules and he ice p esidency in La in Ame ica. He has published in jou nals such as
Compa a i e Poli ics, In e na ional Poli ical Science Re iew, Jou nal o La in Ame ican S udies, Eu opean
Poli ical Science, and Jou nal o Democ acy.
And és Malamud (PhD Eu opean Uni e si y Ins i u e, 2003) is a senio esea ch ellow a he Ins i u e o Social
Sciences o he Uni e si y o Lisbon. His esea ch ocuses on compa a i e egional in eg a ion, o eign policy,
La in Ame ican poli ics, and EU S udies. His wo k has been published in jou nals such as he La in Ame ican
Resea ch Re iew, Camb idge Re iew o In e na ional A ai s, La in Ame ican Poli ics and Socie y, Jou nal o
Eu opean In eg a ion, La in Ame ican Pe spec i es, and Eu opean Poli ical Science.