Re hinking he Role o English Language Teaching in Eu ope
Lili Ca alhei o*
* ULICES/CEAUL / Faculdade de Le as, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
1
In Inne ci cle coun ies, English is gene ally used as he p ima y language, such as in Canada,
he Uni ed Kingdom and he Uni ed S a es. Coun ies si ua ed in he Ou e ci cle a e cha ac -
e ized as being mul ilingual and use English as a second language, as is he case in India and
Singapo e. Las ly, in he Expanding ci cle coun ies, English is lea ned as a o eign language,
such as in Po ugal, China and F ance.
English has assumed a place and a ole in he wo ld ha no o he language has e e
had be o e. I is isible in a wide numbe o domains playing an impo an pa ,
such as in science and ou ism, in u ban and you h popula cul u e and ad e ising;
in addi ion, i is he o icial language o coun less in e na ional o ganiza ions. Wha
is no ewo hy, hough, is ha , apa om being spoken by app oxima ely 350
million na i e speake s, English is now mainly used o communica ion among non-
na i e speake s who do no sha e any o he language. In ac , wha used o be a
na ional language in inne ci cle coun ies (B aj Kach u, 1985 and his concen ic
ci cle model
1
) has g own o become he i s ue lingua anca wo ldwide.
Alongside he de elopmen o English in o a lingua anca, he ‘owne ship’ o
he language has also shi ed. I no longe is he pe sonal p ope y o na i e speake s
alone, bu belongs o e e yone who uses he language, na i e use s, L2 use s and
non-na i e use s. Thus, he desi e o ob ain na i e speake -likeness in spoken o
w i en English becomes ques ionable o he majo i y o i s lea ne s.
Wi h his changing ole o English, a e lec ion on he eaching o English as
a o eign language (TEFL) is called upon in o de o p o ide be e eal-li e
si ua ions s uden s a e likely o encoun e once ou side he class oom and in he
eal wo ld.
In his pape , I will conside he p esence o English in con inen al Eu ope and
i s unique linguis ic scena io; ollowing Be ns (1995), I will analyze he h ee cen al
ea u es conce ning i s speci ici y: he mul iple oles o English, he na i iza ion o
Eu opeaniza ion p ocess, and he sha ed pa e ns o acquisi ion and use. I is only
by i s unde s anding he a ious unc ions English has aken on in ou socie y and
how i s speake s a e adap ing i o hei needs ha we can a a second momen
e lec on he pedagogical implica ions associa ed wi h English Language Teaching
(ELT).
“A SCHOLAR FOR ALL SEASONS”
I will also ocus on he dicho omy ELF and EFL, emphasizing on he impo ance
o an ELF app oach whe e English as a language o sup ana ional communica ion
is emphasized, wi h s ess on in e cul u al communica ion and language awa eness,
in which communica ion s a egies and accommoda ion skills a e essen ial. By doing
so, he no ion o plu ilingualism h ough English will ein o ce and con ibu e o
he idea ha na ional and Eu opean iden i ies a e no monoli hic.
1. The ising p esence o English as a Lingua F anca in Eu ope
English has become a global language a all le els in oday’s socie y. Howe e ,
o wha ex en has i lou ished wi hin he Eu opean con inen ?
The English language is g adually conside ed as a lingua anca o e en L2 o
he Eu opean communi y a la ge. In many cases, i unc ions as he de aul language
o communica ion among Eu opeans in mul ilingual and mul icul u al se ings, and
i s p esence wi hin na ional bo de s is es ablished in a numbe o domains, such as
in e ia y educa ion, ad e ising, he media, and science and echnology. Bea ing
in mind his widesp ead use o English, Eu ope can be depic ed oday as a unique
linguis ic scena io, whe e English is employed as a lingua anca in bo h in e —
and in a-na ional communica ion.
By aking in o conside a ion his dis inc i e sociolinguis ic si ua ion whe e
bounda ies o e lap, o e e o English solely as a o eign language and as a pa o
Kach u’s expanding ci cle is cu en ly deemed as inadequa e. The Eu opean con ex
is so unique ha i canno be in eg a ed wi hin he h ee clea ly dema ca ed ci cles
model p oposed by Kach u (1985).
Le us conside he i s speci ic ea u e in his unique scena io. English plays
se e al oles wi hin a uni ied Eu ope — mo he ongue, o eign language and in e -
na ional language. In G ea B i ain and I eland, o ins ance, i unc ions la gely as
a na i e and second language, while in o he coun ies, such as in Po ugal and
Ge many, i is a o eign o in e na ional language. In he la e coun ies, knowledge
o English is gene ally deemed as widesp ead, especially in No dic coun ies. The
Ne he lands, o ins ance, ha e long in oduced a language policy whe e English is
a compulso y subjec in bo h p ima y and seconda y school. Gi en hese measu es,
he Du ch ha e p ac ically become bilingual, up o he poin whe e English p ac ically
akes on he ole o a second language in socie y. The eali y in Medi e anean
coun ies, howe e , is a he di e en because English was only implemen ed as a
compulso y language a a much la e da e and, o ha eason, English p o iciency
a a na ional le el is s ill a p ojec in p og ess.
The second speci ic ea u e o his scena io conce ns a na i iza ion p ocess.
English is unde going a na i iza ion, o e en Eu opeaniza ion, p ocess. In ac , speak -
e s o English a e ins inc i ely, o in en ionally, adap ing and in oducing inno a -
ions om hei mo he ongues ha , in e ec , de-Anglicize and de-Ame icanize
English. Among he se e al linguis ic p ocesses in ol ed in his na i iza ion p ocess,
he mos s iking ones include lexical bo owings, unc ional alloca ion and discou sal
542 “A SCHOLAR FOR ALL SEASONS”
na i iza ion. Al hough hese ea u es a e no exclusi e o he Eu opean si ua ion,
hey do e lec speci ic social con ex s o use and he ecogni ion o a “Eu opean-
using speech communi y” (Be ns 1995: 7), ha is, a communi y which includes
“ hose uses o English ha a e no B i ish (and Ame ican o Canadian o Aus alian
o any o he na i e a ie y), bu a e dis inc ly Eu opean and dis inguish Eu opean
English speake s om speake s o o he a ie ies” (Be ns 1995: 7).
Las ly, he hi d ea u e e e ed o in Be ns (1995) is associa ed wi h he sha ed
pa e ns o acquisi ion and use o English. Gi en ha in con inen al Eu ope con ac
wi h English is no solely es ic ed o he class oom, bu also p esen on a daily
basis, Eu opeans sha e simila oppo uni ies o he exposu e o English and in e -
ac ion wi h bo h L1 and non-L1 speake s. P eisle (1999) in a s udy ocusing on
he Danish popula ion e e s o wo ypes o English con ac : English om abo e
and English om below. In he o me case, language is ansmi ed om a op-down
lea ning p ocess whe e “ he p omo ion o English [is done] by he hegemonic cul u e
o pu poses o ‘in e na ional communica ion’” (P eisle 1999: 241). T adi ionally
associa ed wi h a o mal language lea ning en i onmen wi hin na ional bo de s,
and usually es ic ed o he class oom, ‘English om abo e’ consis s o h ee
essen ial unc ions (264):
1. Cons i u ing a o mal elemen o educa ion by way o p epa ing people o
he in e na ional aspec s o hei p o essional li es
2. P o iding a ounda ion o he indi idual’s o mal acquisi ion o ‘English
om below’ in any o i pa icula mani es a ions, including he abili y o
pa icipa e in ac i i ies ep esen ing subcul u al in e es s and sel -exp ession
3. Ensu ing ha nobody lea es schools wi hou a minimum o eading and
lis ening skills in English and a ealisa ion o he impo ance o main aining
such skills.
‘English om below’ (P eisle 1999), on he o he hand, e e s o language
lea ning by way o a bo om-up p ocess o e en indi idually. This ype o p ocess
is equen in popula music o spo s, and wi h o he you h subcul u es (e.g. com -
pu e s and hip hop). In subcul u es, like wi h science and echnology, ocabula y
deno ing hese pa icula p ac ices end o be in English and, om ea ly on, he e
is a ype o i ual in which English and code-swi ching a e a pa o hese unde -
g ound en i onmen s whe e youngs e s communica e, no only wi h hei iends,
bu also in cybe -space. As a esul , con a y o he eali y o no oo long ago, when
wha was lea ned in he class oom was la e applied in he ou side wo ld, oday,
ou side expe iences a e b ough in o he class oom, con ibu ing o a new eali y
and es ablishing a poin o depa u e o bo h eache s and s uden s o de elop and
wo k on hei language skills.
Bea ing in mind hese h ee ea u es, i is sa e o say ha , in Eu ope, English
no longe akes on he ole o a o eign language in he adi ional sense o he wo d
— a language and a cul u e o be lea ned so as o communica e wi h na i e speake s.
543
LILI CAVALHEIRO
On he con a y, i has de eloped in o a language essen ially spoken among o he
non-na i e speake s, gi en ha i is his g oup ha makes up he majo i y o English
speake s in he wo ld. The emphasis bes owed on he knowledge o English has
been he esul o i being an ad an ageous asse o ci izens o he Eu opean Union
o mo e eely ac oss bo de s o li e, wo k and ge an educa ion bo h wi hin and
ou side hei home coun y.
Due o his e e g owing mul ilingual and mul icul u al socie y, he ole o
ELT is also called upon o e lec and econside he educa ional policies adop ed
by go e nmen s in p epa ing u u e language eache s and s uden s o he eali y
o he language ou side he class oom.
2. Consequences and changes in English Language Teaching
Se e al a e he models which ha e been adop ed o ELT in Eu ope, depending
on he si ua ion and he lea ne ’s needs and aims. Acco ding o Melche s and Shaw
(2003), when conside ing wha ype o English should be augh in schools, a ious
ac o s need o be aken in o conside a ion, such as he exposu e gi en o he s uden s,
he model ha should be imi a ed and he a ge o aim o . To de ine hese h ee
concep s he objec i e in educa ion has o be classi ied acco dingly, whe he i is o
na ional use, o o eign language lea ning (in oducing lea ne s o a di e en
cul u e) o o in e na ional language lea ning (allowing lea ne s o communica e
ac oss cul u al and linguis ic bounda ies).
In he pa icula con ex o globaliza ion, ELT should conside aking on an
app oach which e lec s he global di e si y o he language, p epa ing i s lea ne s
wi h he necessa y skills in hei li es. As G addol (2006:82) poin s ou , he e a e
di e se me hods o lea n English, being nowadays s a egies especially cen e ed on
a global eali y:
These new app oaches, howe e , ha e no always caugh on wi hou g ea
deba e and, in some cases, hey a e s ill owned upon. The eason may be because,
adi ionally, ELT has always ocused on English as a o eign language which mainly
(…) ends o highligh he impo ance o lea ning abou he cul u e and socie y
o na i e speake s; i s esses he cen ali y o he me hodology in discussions
o e ec i e lea ning; and emphasizes he impo ance o emula ing na i e
speake language beha iou . (G addol 2006: 82)
Acco ding o his poin o iew, he lea ne is deemed as someone who is posi -
ioned as an ou side , cons an ly s uggling o gain access o he a ge communi y,
bu who will ne e en i ely be a pa o i ; he language will ul ima ely always be
conside ed as someone else’s mo he ongue. As G addol (83) u he claims, “The
lea ne is cons uc ed as a linguis ic ou is — allowed o isi , bu wi hou igh s o
esidence and equi ed always o espec he supe io au ho i y o na i e speake s”.
Howe e , as al eady a gued, he ole o English has assumed a ‘global’ domain
in he las decades and, unde hese ci cums ances, English should be lea ned so as
544 “A SCHOLAR FOR ALL SEASONS”
o mee he communica i e needs o s uden s; a he han aiming a a nea -na i e
p o iciency o a p es igious a ie y; in addi ion, impo ance should also be gi en o
he unc ions o cla i y in c oss-cul u al communica i e scena ios (Modiano 2000).
The c oss-cul u al ole o an in e na ional language like English should ocus
on no ions, such as in e cul u al communica ion and language awa eness, whe e
communica ion s a egies and accommoda ion skills a e essen ial (Seidlho e 2002:
22). Such s a egies/ skills comp ise: eso ing o ex alinguis ic cues, suppo i e
lis ening, signaling non-comp ehension, epe i ion and pa aph asing, among o he s.
Ye ano he aspec which makes he acquisi ion o communica i e abili ies possible
when communica ing in lingua anca si ua ions is he exposu e o a wide ange o
a ie ies, so as o become linguis ically awa e o he di e se possibili ies in he
English language.
Wi h ega d o communica ion in lingua anca si ua ions, G addol (2006)
e e s o an o iginal ELT model in Eu ope known as he English as a Lingua F anca
(ELF) app oach
2
which he belie es e lec s p esen day aims and he depa u e om
an EFL app oach. The concep o ELF is hus cha ac e ized in G addol (2006: 87)
as “p obably he mos adical and con o e sial app oach o eme ge in ecen yea s”,
being widely deba ed by schola s in Applied Linguis ics. Ine i ably, he implica ions
o his ai ly ecen phenomenon and inno a i e ou look, which ega ds English as
he possession o he whole wo ld and he p ope y o all who use i (Widdowson
1993), ha e b ough se e al new sugges ions and changes in c oss-cul u al English
eaching.
Keeping in mind he deba e on ELF eaching s anda ds in he expanding ci cle,
wha can be expec ed and wha changes a e he e in ol ed?
Many opinions ha e suppo ed he a gumen ha , i expanding ci cle speake s
use English essen ially o lingua anca communica ion, hen English eaching
should p epa e lea ne s mo e o his ype o con ac , a he han o communica ion
wi h na i e speake s ( he p ecise aim o EFL eaching). Al hough language eache s
and de elope s o eaching ma e ials should make ELT as ele an as possible, he
pe spec i e ha ELF is no a s able a ie y would make i an inco ec eaching
s anda d. Howe e , ha does no impede he eaching o lingua anca communica -
ion s a egies, so as o e ec i ely accommoda e one’s discou se acco ding o he
si ua ion in ques ion.
To be e unde s and he dicho omy be ween EFL and ELF, le us conside
Gnu zmann’s app oach (1999), ega ding how he aims in eaching EFL and ELF
a y, in e ms o English language usage and no ms. Some o he di e ences can be
illus a ed as ollows (1999: 162-163):
545
LILI CAVALHEIRO
2
G addol (2006) makes e e ence o wo o he ELT models which include English o Young
Lea ne s and Con en and Language In eg a ed Lea ning.

ELF p epa es lea ne s o communica e wi h non-na i e speake s o
English om all o e he wo ld.
EFL p epa es lea ne s o communica e wi h na i e speake s o English
in English-speaking coun ies.
ELF is neu al wi h ega d o he di e en cul u al backg ounds o he
in e locu o s. Depending on how long he communica ion las s, he
in e locu o s will ‘nego ia e’ and es ablish some kind o common
in e cul u al basis.
EFL is based on he linguis ic and sociocul u al no ms o na i e speake s
o English and hei espec i e cul u es.
ELF communica ion is no based on any pa icula na ional linguis ic
s anda d o English. Relying on na i e speake no ms (o nea -na i e
no ms) canno gua an ee ha he communica ion will be success ul.
On he con a y, using elabo a e linguis ic s uc u es o ocabula y
may e en be ha m ul o he success o he communica ion, i he
in e locu o does no sha e a simila linguis ic epe oi e.
EFL communica ion is based on S anda d English, gene ally B i ish o
Ame ican English. The be e he lea ne s a e able o handle he
g amma ical ules and lexis o he s anda d language, he mo e
success ul hey end o be in hei communica ion wi h na i e
speake s.
In sum, om his pe spec i e, ELF use s a e no only communica ing in
English, bu a e communica ing wi h indi iduals om di e en cul u es. As p e -
iously men ioned, wha cha ac e izes lingua anca in e ac ion is he mul iple and
a ying ela ions in cons an mu a ion and o ha eason he need o s imula e
communica ion in mul idimensional si ua ions. The e o e, he ocus in he class -
oom should become one o communica ion, a he han he acquisi ion o a s ic ly
idealized no m. In elligibili y is o p ima y impo ance, a he han na i e-like
accu acy, so consequen ly, emphasis should be placed on communica ion, ecep ion
and accommoda ion when eaching o al skills. Mo eo e , he ac o communica ing
should also be in ima ely linked wi h he nego ia ion o meaning, especially when
using English wo ldwide, whe e he lexibili y and capaci y o adjus men o i s
speake s is essen ial in o de o make hemsel es unde s ood (E ling 2004: 251).
Fu he mo e, i is also necessa y o conside he ole o na i e speake s in ELF,
since lingua anca communica i e si ua ions include in e ac ion no only be ween
non-na i e speake
—
non-na i e speake , as has al eady been discussed, bu also
be ween non-na i e speake
—
na i e speake , o e en na i e speake
—
na i e speake
3
.
546 “A SCHOLAR FOR ALL SEASONS”
3
Na i e speake in e ac ion in his sense ocuses on speake s om di e en inne ci cle
a ie ies, which despi e being s anda dized a ie ies ha e some lexical and g amma ical
di e ences (e.g. di e ences be ween Aus alian and I ish English may be mo e un amilia
when compa ed wi h B i ish and Ame ican English).
Fo ha eason, issues, such as p agma ic s a egies and co e phonology
4
(Jenkins
2000), as well as he a oidance o ce ain di icul s uc u es and in equen wo ds
cha ac e is ic o a na ional a ie y (Mollin 2006) a e essen ial o success ul commu -
nica ion.
Ha ing e lec ed on he no ion o EFL s. ELF and on wha i consis s o , he
ole o he language ins uc o , ei he na i e o non-na i e, is also undamen al o
ansmi ing and implemen ing such a pe spec i e. Acco ding o Tomlinson (2006:
141), he e is no p e e ence be ween na i e-speake and non-na i e speake , wha
ma e s is 1) he a i ude and s a egies adap ed, namely ocusing on e icien
communica ion, 2) being open minded in ela ion o any a ie y o English which
achie es e ec i e in e ac ion and 3) being able o use and ansmi o o he s com -
mu nica i e s a egies o ole ance owa ds a ia ion and pa icipan coope a ion.
As he idyllic aim in an ELF class oom is ha o a c oss-cul u al communica i e
compe ence
5
, he adi ional sup emacy associa ed wi h he na i e eache does no
seem necessa y, since non-na i e ins uc o s a e amilia wi h he linguis ic complex -
i ies o bo h he mo he ongue and he a ge language in con ac ; consequen ly,
hey a e be e sui ed o p o ide s uden s wi h a plu alis ic cul u al pe spec i e
(Modiano 2005: 26), gi en ha hey oo wen h ough he same lea ning p ocess as
hei s uden s. In o de o achie e such a plu alis ic pe spec i e, espec ough o
be shown owa ds di e se p ac ices and belie s, a eali y ha non-na i e eache s
a e mo e amilia wi h when compa ed o na i es. Since hey a e al eady accus omed
and expe ienced wi h di e se con ac si ua ions i is also likely ha hey a e mo e
amilia wi h a ious communica i e s a egies o o e coming obs acles be ween
people om di e en linguis ic, cul u al and social o ien a ions. The e o e, non-
na i e speake s may be ega ded as he mo e sui able ones o es ablishing a lingua
anca domain and o legi imizing, codi ying and s anda dizing non-na i e a ie ies
which a e a e lec ion o hei own mindse , as well as dis inc i e om he na i e
speake ’s ames o e e ence.
547
LILI CAVALHEIRO
4
Jenkins has de eloped a ‘Lingua F anca Co e’ o in e na ional p onuncia ion, based on
empi ical da a d awn om English as an In e na ional Language (EIL) in e ac ions. The
ins ances whe e p onuncia ion causes miscommunica ion and whe e o he i ems also cause
miscommunica ion on a egula basis a e designa ed as belonging o he ‘co e’. On he o he
hand, i ems di e ing om na i e speake p onuncia ion, bu no causing miscommunica ion,
a e designa ed as ‘non-co e’ and ins ead o being ega ded as e o s, a e ega ded as ins ances
o L2 egional a ia ion.
5
Be ns (2006: 719) e e s o he no ion o ‘communica i e compe ence’ wi h ega d o Dell
Hymes as a “knowledge o sociolinguis ic ules ha is sepa a e om knowledge o g amma ical
ules”. Communica ing is mo e han jus p oducing g amma ically co ec sen ences.
3. Final ema ks
English and globaliza ion ha e gone hand in hand du ing he wen ie h
and wen y- i s cen u ies. Consequen ly, English has in luenced no only he
globaliza ion p ocess, bu globaliza ion in i sel has also g ea ly con ibu ed o he
changes in he English language. Mo eo e , no only has English changed, bu also
he discou se conce ning he language, which has shi ed o cap u e a new eali y
su ounding i s use.
In he Eu opean con ex , he use o English e lec s an eme ging mul i-linguis ic
communi y, as Eu opeans a e no using English ins ead o hei na ional languages,
bu in addi ion o hem. All Eu opean languages con inue o ha e hei own place;
each one is used a i s own le el, bo h as mo he ongue, whe e i plays a undamen al
ole wi hin na ional en i onmen s, and as a o eign language. Howe e , he ole o
English in his con ex eme ges as he language o communica ion a a Eu opean
and in e na ional le el, he language which c osses linguis ic ba ie s.
As a esul o his unique si ua ion, eaching objec i es in Eu ope may conside
an ELF app oach whe e English as a language o sup ana ional communica ion
(B eidbach 2003) is emphasized, wi h s ess on in elligibili y and communica i e
compe ences (Be ns 2006, and House 2002) bu always keeping in mind he
eaching o na ional and egional languages as well. By doing so, he no ion o
plu ilingualism h ough English will ein o ce and con ibu e o he idea ha
na ional and Eu opean iden i ies a e no monoli hic.
Despi e all ha has been discussed in e ms o ELF, he adop ion o hese
communica i e s a egies should no be judged as a simplis ic app oach o he
language. These speake s should be pe cei ed a he as pa o a p i ileged g oup,
who ha e access o a wide ange o languages and cul u es, and whose aim is o
nego ia e meaning, while e aining a he same ime hei own iden i y and a i ude
(House 2007: 16):
Mul icul u al and in e cul u al ac an s should be looked upon as belonging
o a p i ileged g oup whose membe s can achie e a wide ange o impo an
and in e es ing hings by means o ha ing mo e han one language and cul u e
a hei disposal and showing i . They show i by hei speci ic ways o ma king
iden i y, a i udes and alliances, signaling discou se unc ions, con eying
poli eness, c ea ing aes he ic and humo ous e ec s, o p agma ic ambigui y
and so on.
To conclude, hese p oposals emphasize he no ion ha English language
eaching is going h ough a p ocess o change due o he ac ha languages a e
being con inuously eshaped by hei use s, so as o se e hei communica i e and
psychological needs, jus as each gene a ion ewo ks i s cul u al inhe i ance o mee
he needs o communi ies and indi iduals (Be ns e al. 2007: 7). The idea is hen
no o cen e ou knowledge on a single model o app oach, bu a he o ‘ hink
globally and ac locally’ acco ding o each si ua ion.
548 “A SCHOLAR FOR ALL SEASONS”
Bibliog aphy
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