Teacher Training in Linguistic Diversity within Inclusive Education: Cooperation between Non-governmental Non-profit Organizations and Educational Institutions. Situation in Three European Countries

Title Teacher Training in Linguistic Diversity within Inclusive Education: Cooperation between Non-governmental Non-profit Organizations and Educational Institutions. Situation in Three European Countries. PHD CANDIDATE COORDINATOR Janet Wolf Alessandra La Marca TUTOR TUTOR Francesca Pedone Raquel Casado-Muñoz Dissertation written within international co-tutela and double-degree regime between Università degli Studi di Palermo in a study program: Formazione pedagogico-didattica degli insegnanti CYCLE XXXII Universidad de Burgos in a study program: Educación UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PALERMO UNIVERSIDAD DE BURGOS To all living beings. Since we are all equal. Aknowledgement Being an international student of two foreign countries, with two foreign languages and cultures put me into shoes of students I am focusing on in this dissertation. Along this way, difficult times have taken turns with times of joy and gratitude. There were moments when I wished I had never done the decision to live and study abroad and, maybe, the same number of moments when I felt as the luckiest girl in the world to get this chance. And here I am, at the end of this journey, crying tears of joy and gratitude, luckiest girl in the world, knowing that without people I have had by my side, I would not probably manage and most importantly, I would not be the same person as I am today and I am proud of. There are so many wonderful people I would like to thank to. To start with, I would like to express my gratefulness to my supervisors, my precious guides in the academic environment, to Prof Francesca Pedone and Prof Raquel Casado Muñoz who taught me a lot, supported me and became part of my professional and private life. I will always remember their kindness and will do my best to feel my future students as safe and welcomed as I experienced with them. To find a real friend for a lifetime is hard, and I was lucky to get few on my PhD road. My charming and cheerful friend Gamzettinka who experienced the same troubles with foreign languages, the same moments of up-and-downs, and who used to draw me away from my laptop to get some fresh air and socialize a bit, deserves a big “thank you” because if there was not her, …., no, I will not even think about it! I also cannot forget my lovely Italian friends and colleagues Cate, Carlita and Dani, who countlessly helped me with language and made me feel more comfortable in a foreign country. Thanks to all of them, Italy was my second home. This dissertation could not be done without precious advices and help of experts who helped with the creation of a completely new questionnaire. I would like to thank to Prof Fernando Lezcano Barbero who dedicated a lot of his time and used his personal connections to help me with my research in Spain. I am also very grateful to all participants of the research and appreciate their time and willingness to participate. Last but not least, special “thank you” in special paragraph belongs to my beloved super supportive and loving husband, Adam, for being always here with and for me. I could not wish for more. Thank you! Grazie! Gracias! Děkuji! CONTENT CONTENT ................................................................................................................................ 4 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES ....................................................................................... 8 FIGURES ................................................................................................................................. 8 TABLES ................................................................................................................................. 10 ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................................. 13 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 17 PART I: KEY TERMS .......................................................................................................... 22 EXPLANATION OF KEY TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS THESIS ........................ 23 PART II: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND..................................................................... 29 1. NON-PROFITS AS PARTNERS IN LIFELONG LEARNING, INCLUSIVE EDUCATION.......................................................................................................................... 30 1.1 WHY LIFELONG EDUCATION .......................................................................................... 32 1.2 EDUCATION FOR ALL ..................................................................................................... 35 1.2.1 Strategical documents and implementation of inclusive policy ............................ 39 1.2.2 Attention to diversity in SPANISH education system ........................................... 41 1.2.3 ITALY has the longest inclusive history ................................................................ 46 1.2.4 Inclusive education in THE CZECH REPUBLIC................................................ 50 1.3 NPOS IN THE WORLD OF EDUCATION ............................................................................ 53 1.3.1 Czech non-profit sector .......................................................................................... 56 1.3.2 Italian not-for-profit approach .............................................................................. 57 1.3.3 Spanish non-profits ................................................................................................ 58 1.4 ACTIVITIES PROVIDED BY NPOS FOR INCLUSIVE, LIFELONG EDUCATION................... 60 1.5 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 61 2. NPOS & STUDENTS WITH DIFFERENT MOTHER TONGUE ............................... 63 2.1 STUDENTS WITH SEN IN THE CZECH REPUBLIC, ITALY AND SPAIN ............................ 63 2.2 STUDENTS OF SECOND LANGUAGE IN OUR CLASSROOMS.............................................. 67 2.2.1 Czech Republic has still a long way to go .............................................................. 69 2.2.2 Complex framework in Italy .................................................................................. 71 2.2.3 Culturally diverse Spain ......................................................................................... 73 2.3 EFFICIENT INCLUSIVE PRACTICES ................................................................................. 76 2.3.1 Support for schools ................................................................................................. 77 2.3.2 The change of thinking in teaching ....................................................................... 80 2.3.3 Services in education for foreigners ...................................................................... 82 2.4 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 83 3. TEACHER TRAINING FOR LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY & NPOS ........................... 85 3.1 THE ELEMENT OF AN INCLUSIVE TEACHER: YESTERDAY, TODAY AND TOMORROW ... 86 3.2 QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS AND COMPETENCE FRAMEWORK ........................... 94 3.2.1 Competence Framework ........................................................................................ 94 3.2.2 Qualifications frameworks ..................................................................................... 96 3.3 INTERCULTURAL COMPETENCES AND KNOWLEDGE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION ........................................................................................................................ 98 3.4 TEACHERS’ CAREER ..................................................................................................... 102 3.4.1 Initial teacher education (ITE) ............................................................................ 103 3.4.2 Continuous professional development (CPD) ..................................................... 114 3.4.3 Teacher educators ................................................................................................ 125 3.5 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 128 PART III: PARTNERSHIP IN EDUCATION, EMPIRICAL STUDY .......................... 131 4. CONTEXT METHODOLOGICAL PROCESS............................................................ 132 4.1 PROBLEM RELEVANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THIS THESIS ....................................... 132 4.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................. 134 4.3 OBJECTIVES OF A RESEARCH ....................................................................................... 134 4.4 GEOGRAPHICAL SETTINGS DELIMITATION ................................................................. 135 4.5 PLAN AND TIMELINE OF A RESEARCH .......................................................................... 136 5. PROCESS OF THE RESEARCH .................................................................................. 138 5.1 RESEARCH PLAN AND METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 138 5.2 TARGET GROUPS – REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE ............................................................ 139 5.2.1 Non-profit organizations ...................................................................................... 140 5.2.2 Teachers ................................................................................................................ 143 5.3 INSTRUMENTS ............................................................................................................... 144 5.3.1 Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 145 5.3.2 Interview ............................................................................................................... 157 5.4 TOOLS FOR DATA ANALYSIS ......................................................................................... 160 5.5 ETHICS AND ANONYMITY OF A RESEARCH .................................................................. 161 6. INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS .............................................................................. 162 6.1 DATA CLEANING ........................................................................................................... 162 6.1.1 Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 163 6.1.2 Interview ............................................................................................................... 171 6.2 DEMOGRAPHIC BACKGROUND ..................................................................................... 173 6.2.1 NPOs ..................................................................................................................... 173 6.2.2 Teachers ................................................................................................................ 180 6.3 MEETING RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ............................................................................... 183 6.3.1 Analysis based on NPOs responses ...................................................................... 183 6.3.2 Analysis based on teachers’ point of view ........................................................... 213 6.3.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 233 6.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................................. 235 6.4.1 How do NPOs see the current situation in education of students with a different mother tongue in relation to teachers? ......................................................................... 235 6.4.2 What services do NPOs offer for teachers/schools? And how do they see the current cooperation? ..................................................................................................... 238 6.4.3 How do teachers see the current situation in education of students with a different mother tongue? ............................................................................................... 239 6.4.4 Do teachers/schools know about the existence of NPOs in this area and are they interested in such cooperation at all? ........................................................................... 240 6.4.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 241 6.5 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................. 242 6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE RESEARCH ................................................................................. 244 6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................................................................... 244 7. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 246 8. PUBLICATIONS OF A PHD CANDIDATE ASSOCIATED WITH THE DISSERTATION .................................................................................................................. 248 8.1 JOURNAL ARTICLES ..................................................................................................... 248 8.2 BOOK CHAPTERS ......................................................................................................... 248 8.3 PROCEEDINGS AND CONTRIBUTIONS TO CONFERENCES ............................................ 248 8. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 250 9. ANNEXES ......................................................................................................................... 305 I FORM OF A QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................... 305 II FORM OF AN INTERVIEW ................................................................................................ 311 III DATABASE ..................................................................................................................... 312 LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES Figures Figure 1 Abbreviations and acronyms...................................................................................... 26 Figure 2 The Structure of Spanish Education System .............................................................. 42 Figure 3 Target groups of the measures in Spain ..................................................................... 44 Figure 4 The Structure of Italian Education System ................................................................ 47 Figure 5 The Structure of Czech Education System ................................................................ 50 Figure 6 Categories of students with a different mother tongue in Castilla y León................. 66 Figure 7 Profile of inclusive teachers for teacher training ....................................................... 91 Figure 8 Intercultural competences Framework for teachers ................................................... 99 Figure 9 Spanish Teacher Training Curricular Design .......................................................... 111 Figure 10 Issues related to intercultural education included in teacher competence frameworks for initial teacher education (ITE), 2017/18 ........................................................................... 112 Figure 11 Status of continuing professional development for teachers in pre-primary, primary and general (lower and upper) secondary education (ISCED 0, 1, 2 and 3), 2011/12 ........... 116 Figure 12 Time schedule of research activities ...................................................................... 137 Figure 13 Plan of the research ................................................................................................ 138 Figure 14 Target groups of a research .................................................................................... 139 Figure 15 Research instruments ............................................................................................. 144 Figure 16 Research instruments and target groups ................................................................ 144 Figure 17 Design of evaluation form of a questionnaire for experts...................................... 146 Figure 18 Introduction part of a questionnaire ....................................................................... 148 Figure 19 Questionnaire – Personal data of a respondent ...................................................... 148 Figure 20 Questionnaire – NPOs' demographic data ............................................................. 148 Figure 21 Questionnaire – Part 2: General cooperation – Question 1 and scalling ............... 149 Figure 22 Questionnaire – Part 2: General cooperation – Questions 2 - 8 ............................. 150 Figure 23 Questionnaire – Part 3: Cooperation in teacher training – Questions 9–16 ........... 153 Figure 24 Period of questionnaire dissemination ................................................................... 156 Figure 25 Form of working names for non-profits................................................................. 161 Figure 26 Form of working names for teachers ..................................................................... 161 Figure 27 Non-profit organizations: Respondents by job position ........................................ 175 Figure 28 List of NPOs .......................................................................................................... 178 Figure 29 Geographical radius of NPOs ................................................................................ 179 Figure 30 Used ICT tools for communication of NPO with the public ................................. 180 Figure 31 Years of practice of teachers: Range chart ............................................................ 181 Figure 32 Intensity of collaboration of NPOs with educational institutions .......................... 184 Figure 33 Intensity of collaboration of NPOs with professionals ............ Chyba! Záložka není definována. Figure 34 Areas of cooperation: NPOs and educational institutions ..................................... 189 Figure 35 Forms of cooperation in the NPOs’ offer .............................................................. 191 Figure 36 Topics of cooperation in the NPOs’ list of offer.................................................... 194 Figure 37 Cooperation of NPOs with parents ........................................................................ 196 Figure 38 NPOs’ forms of addressing potential clients ......................................................... 198 Figure 39 Cooperation with teachers – types of teachers ....................................................... 199 Figure 40 Priorities in teacher training according to NPOs ................................................... 204 Figure 41 Reasons for students’ academic failure according to NPOs .................................. 209 Figure 42 Suggestion of improvement of cooperation between NPOs and schools .............. 211 Figure 43 Suggestion for better cooperation between NPOs and schools – NPOs’inputs ..... 213 Figure 44 Teachers' approach to L2 students: main categories .............................................. 214 Figure 45 Encountering L2 students in classrooms: sub-categories ...................................... 214 Figure 46 Difficulties faced by teacher: sub-categories ......................................................... 217 Figure 47 Difficulties faced by students: sub-categories ....................................................... 220 Figure 48 Teachers’ solutions overcoming difficulties: sub-categories ................................. 223 Figure 49 Obstacles preventing full inclusion of L2 students: number of responses within individual groups .................................................................................................................... 237 Disertační práce se snaží zmapovat situaci ve třech evropských zemích ve vztahu k potenciálu neziskových organizací spolupracovat s učiteli ve vzdělávání studentů s odlišným mateřským jazykem, a to v období rychlých a dramatických změn vyplývajících z geopolitických transformací po celém světě, na které je nutné okamžitě reagovat. Neziskový sektor díky své flexibilní a nezávislé politice může přispět ke stabilizaci situace. Pro samotný výzkum byl použit návrh smíšené výzkumné metody, specificky se jedná o model KVAN - KVAL → Výsledky → Interpretace. Účastníky výzkumu byly: neziskové organizace (NPO), které pracují v oblasti studentů s odlišným mateřským jazykem ve třech zeměpisných oblastech (Česká republika, Sicílie v Itálii, autonomní společenství Castilla-León ve Španělsku); a učitelé se zkušenostmi z mateřských, základních a středních škol ze stejných geografických oblastí. Naše zjištění ukazují, že NPO jsou připraveny zastupovat několik rolí (instituce pro přípravu učitelů, prostředník mezi školou/učitelem a rodinou/studentem, poradenské centrum, zdroj inspirace pro učitele atd.) ve funkci partnerů pro školy/učitele při vzdělávání studentů s odlišným mateřským jazykem ve všech třech zemích. NPO však mají pocit, že spolupráce se školami má své slabé stránky (např. různé přístupy a strategie financování, výměna názorů a osvědčených postupů, širší vzájemná komunikace atd.) a měla by se učinit opatření na různých úrovních (např. škol, státu, učitelů, neziskových organizací) vedoucí ke zlepšení situace. NPO identifikují strategie, které by mohly posílit takováto partnerství. Skutečnost, že situace není ideální, dokazují také výsledky získané z rozhovorů s učiteli, během nichž se učitelé přiznali, že nemají téměř žádné zkušenosti s neziskovým sektorem. Vyjádřili však svou otevřenost k takového spolupráci. Klíčová slova: inkluze, interkulturní vzdělávání, neziskový sektor, školení učitelů, studenti s odlišným mateřským jazykem, síťování, partnerství 17 INTRODUCTION “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.” Nelson Mandela At the European Union level, the Europe 2020 strategy has been developed to overcome economic crisis and create the conditions for more competitive economy. This economic strategy has five main transversal objectives reflecting economic, social and environmental contexts of development of European societies, which undeniably effect on education. Economic, social and environmental aspects together form the basis for inclusive, competencebased, innovative, resource-efficient and sustainable environment within social cohesion, in which education represents fundamental building block (European Commission, 2010a). In accordance, Global Agenda from September 2015 under United Nations (UN) auspices supports economic factors of social and environmental development in the world and emphasizes the need to provide quality life to growing number of people in the long run. Important role in reaching this objective plays the quality of education for all (EFA) that shapes current and future economic growth (World Economic Forum, 2015). A key issue in many economic and social sectors is to identify future changes and transform them into educational reality in which future generations will be prepared to successfully deal with challenges. (European Commission, 2010a; Ministerstvo školství, mládeže a tělovýchovy [MŠMT], 2015b). In the Rome Declaration (Council of Europe, 2017) which has been signed by leaders of 27 member states and of the European Council, the European Parliament and the European Commission, countries pledged to work towards “a stronger Europe: a Union in which young people receive the best education and training and can study and find jobs across the continent; a Union which preserves our cultural heritage and promotes cultural diversity” (European Commission, 2018a, p.1). Sustainable future in education guarantees everyone to acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed during the whole life. The recent Council Conclusions on the Social Dimension of Education and Training stated that education and training systems across Europe need to recognise key competences for all as a fundamental principle not just for economic growth but also for social inclusion (Council of Europe, 2010a). In response to current competence gaps in a society, the Pillar of Social Rights underlines as its first principle that "everyone has the right to quality and inclusive education, training and life-long learning in 18 order to maintain and acquire skills that enable them to participate fully in society and manage successfully transitions in the labour market" (European Commission, 2017c, p.5). The success of a society relies, to a large extent, on a quality of an education system. This quality depends on a status of its teachers, which arises from their proper choice and subsequently from their education/training during all stages of their professional career. As teaching is a very demanding and challenging profession, it requires support in order to succeed in a constantly changing society (European Commission, 2017b). Even though national politics towards teacher training of European countries differ, Incheon Declaration for the implementation of Agenda for Sustainable Development Goal no. 4 on Education urges to Member States to “… ensure that teachers and educators are empowered, adequately recruited, well-trained, professionally qualified, motivated and supported within well-resourced, efficient and effectively governed systems” (UNESCO, 2016, p.8). This call expects Member States to continuously review, analyse and improve the quality of teacher training (pre-service and in-service) in all currently relevant areas to proceed towards common goal which leads to inclusive education, i.e. education for all where every learner matters and matters equally (UNESCO, 2017a). Inclusive education celebrates differences and views these varieties between students as resources to enrich learning rather than problems which have to be overcome (UNESCO, 1994). Moreover, inclusive approaches to teaching and learning process respect and build on differences bearing in mind that diversity is connected to each, individual child in a classroom not just those with impairments (Ainscow, Booth & Dyson, 2006; Booth & Ainscow, 2016). The term diversity can be generally defined as the state of being diverse. For this reason, it is not a surprise, that diversity relates to countless spheres of our lives and its particular definition depends on its particular sphere and context. In the light of education, diversity shines as a term that is widely spoken in the sense of inclusive education and also there, within this concrete area, it has many positions. OECD (2010a) define diversity as: “characteristics that can affect the specific ways in which developmental potential and learning are realised, including cultural, linguistic, ethnic, religious and socio-economic differences” (p. 21). This dissertation thesis focuses on a diversity in terms of having different mother tongue from language of schooling (also referred to as second-language students [L2 students]). It includes students of first and subsequent generations of EU and third country migrants, asylum seekers and refugees, national and regional linguistic minorities, as well as other students for whom a language of schooling is the second language. 19 Initiatives and opportunities to build and share knowledge and experiences on principles of inclusion should be a part of teacher training programs throughout the whole teacher’s career (Casado-Muñoz & Lezcano-Barbero, 2012). Teachers need constant support to update their knowledge and competences to handle new situations in their classrooms. Relating to L2 students, teacher do not feel prepared for diverse schooling environments and tend to keep negative attitudes towards students with a diverse linguistic, cultural and/or religious background (Public Policy and Management Institute [PPMI], 2017a); nevertheless, they seek to obtain information to handle and overcome difficulties they meet (UNESCO, 2016).. The recent arrival of migrants in Europe made this even more pressing issue. To avoid tensions in society, education systems and hence teachers have to be ready to accept diversity as an essential part, a substance, which, if treated separately, can deepen intolerance and exclusion (Van Driel, Darmody & Kerzil, 2016). In the agenda called A Clear Agenda for Migrant Education in Europe and in its additional recommendations, the SIRIUS Network (2014) recommended, to Educational Authorities in Member States, to train teachers in the topics of migration, acculturation, social psychology phenomena, language (including second language learning, formative assessment, language diagnostics and intercultural education), diversity and ethnic identity issues relating to the diverse and challenging environments in which teachers have to perform. According to this report, any pre-service or in-service training programs for school leaders and teachers should include intercultural skills, expertise in the second language learning, as well as knowledge about project implementation and evaluation (SIRIUS Network, 2014). Even though the task to educate teachers should belong to the main objectives and responsibilities of governments, it might not be in their capacities to cover the whole spectrum of teacher training activities and follow new demands that shape or constrain teachers’ pedagogical choices (Gardinier, 2012). Moreover, the state sector may not be sufficiently flexible in responses to changes. Non-profit organizations with their participatory and experiential approaches have made significant contribution to education for sustainable development as they perform various functions in democratic society. In regard to governmental institutions, they can contribute (as service providers) to compensate limited finances and capacity of governmental institutions (Kieu & Singer, 2017), they also play their role in innovation, advocacy, expressive function, capacity and community building (Kendall, 2003; Salamon, Anheier, List, Toepler & Sokolowski, 1999). “NGO action is often described as small scale, flexible, dynamic, adaptive, local, efficient and innovative” (Ulleberg, 2009, p. 12). To identify changes which will appear in the future is not an easy task. Adaptation to these 20 changes takes time and require systematic management of activities such as planning, regulating, commanding, coordinating, controlling and evaluating. The importance of NPOs as collaborator with governments, partner, and a contributer in the world of education is becoming more recognized among international researchers (Rollan & Somerton, 2019). To create networks of partnerships can be a way how to effectively achieve the objectives pursued. There have been already done some studies which support such collaboration and reveal its benefits (Nelson & Gazley, 2014; Tabira, Otieno & Goto, 2016). The dissertation thesis responds to the current tense situation in our society caused by gradually increasing migration and highlights the need to form sustainable partnerships which help, through a joint effort, to form well-informed and educated society that knows how to live in a multicultural environment without prejudice and stereotypes. The dissertation thesis contains 6 chapters and is divided into theoretical and empirical part. The theoretical part includes 3 chapters in which summarizes theoretical knowledge relevant to the topic while examining work published in foreign and domestic (Czech, Italian and Spanish) publications, scientific articles and significantly important European or worldwide reports. Before individual chapters, the meaning of main terminology used in the thesis is explained. Chapter 1 deals with non-profit organizations in lifelong inclusive education and clarifies the importance of lifelong learning and inclusive education in the 21st century. It also brings view on non-profit sector in examined countries, in particular in relation to inclusive policy. The name of Chapter 3 NPOs and students with different mother tongue suggests closer look in the topic of students with different mother tongue (also abbreviated as L2 students). This chapter offers an insight into the topic of students with special educational needs (SEN), examines why L2 students belong to group of students with SEN and gives the overall picture on situation in the Czech Republic, Italy and Spain. Moreover, it points out how NPOs can contribute to education of L2 students. In the last chapter, the attention is paid to teacher training for linguistically diverse environment. It shows what demands are put on today’s teachers in form of their education and competences they have to acquire and how they are prepared for linguistically diverse classrooms during their whole carrier. The theoretical basis served for the following empirical research which is described within chapters 4-6 that justify chosen topic, methodology, determines target groups and used instruments and tools for analysis. Further it deals with interpretation of findings, discussion, recommendations for practice, limits of the thesis that present a summary of conducted research. For the research itself, a mixed method research design was applied, particularly Convergent Parallel Design QUAN – QUAL → Findings → Interpretation model (Creswell, 21 2014, 2015). The main aim of the research was to map a situation in three European countries relating to potential of non-profit organizations to cooperate with schools/teachers in education of students with a different mother tongue in a period of rapid and dramatic changes resulting from geo-political transformations around the world, to which it is necessary to react promptly and non-profit sector with its flexible and independent policy may contribute to stabilization of a situation. The results of the dissertation thesis may serve as a source of information for non-profit organizations from all three countries to compare data and learn something about approaches of colleagues from abroad working in the same area. Findings also represent a summary of topics, activities and services performed by NPOs which might be interesting for schools and teachers since they are intended and designed for them. Finally, this research might be interesting for professionals in this field and for the general public involved in the issue. 22 PART I: KEY TERMS 23 Explanation of key terms and abbreviations used in this thesis This dissertation theses includes various key terms that have to be clarified for the further understanding and avoiding misunderstandings of or within the text. In addition, there is a list of abbreviations and acronyms used in this dissertation thesis. Teacher: There are several views and thus several definitions and typologies of the teacher. In the pedagogical dictionary, a teacher is defined as a professionally qualified pedagogical staff, co-responsible for preparation, management, organization and results of the educational context (Průcha, Walterová, Mareš, 2009). Jůva (2001) sees a teacher as an initiator and manager of educational process, who at the same time evaluates children’s school results and designs content of lessons, decides about used methods, forms and instruments of schooling and modifies them in accordance with the age and individuality of a child. Helus (2009) says that a teacher is a professionally equipped and proficient, competent leader of school education of the child. Pedagogy distinguishes teachers according to different aspects, e.g. by relation to pupils, concept of education, style of teaching, attitudes (including innovations), preferences. The purpose of these typologies is to describe, map, clarify the complex reality of the ways in which a teacher's role is exercised. The typology does not mean that each teacher can be classified and put into one of the categories; he/she will usually be "somewhere between", closer to or further from one category or another. To make an example, the typology according to Caselmann (Göncz, 2017) and his categorization is based on the emphasis the teacher puts on the two basic elements of teaching: pupil, teacher or curriculum. Or another more popular typology promoted by Lewin in which teaching styles accord to the style of teaching and thus labels teachers as autocratic, democratic, or liberal (Dytrychová & Krhutová, 2009). Due to changes not only in the roles of the teacher but also throughout the schooling, the abovementioned typologies are often considered to have been overcome and teachers today are often called “chameleons” for various tasks and approaches they have to choose. For simplicity and clarity of the text, “teacher” works in this dissertation thesis as an umbrella term in which pedagogical staff, teacher educators and also future teachers are included. Teaching as a profession: Sociologists have been interested in the study of professions for a long time and settled various determinants that characterize “profession”. As teaching does not fulfil, according to majority of them, all the criteria, for which it cannot be called profession but semi-profession (Howsam, 1985; Ingersoll & Merrill, 2011). According to 24 Howsam (1985) teaching is a semi-profession because it lacks a common body of knowledge, practices and skills that constitute the basis for professional expertise and decision-making. On the other hand, semi-profession does not have to meet all criteria. As Etzioni (1969) states, semi-professions are occupations for which training is shorter, status tends to be less legitimated, there is less specialized body of knowledge and less autonomy. In some cases, semi-professions can be reached through a process known as “professionalization” that leads to achieving the status of a profession (Evetts, 2012). According to Freidson (2007) “professionalism” exists “when the organized occupation gains the power to determine who is qualified to perform a defined set of tasks, to prevent all others from performing that work, and to control the criteria by which to evaluate performance” (Friedson, 2001, p. 12). When we consider these indicators, there are several obstacles which prevents teaching to become fully recognized profession. Even the perfect work of a perfectly prepared teacher cannot guarantee success. The outcome is dependent on pupils and a number of unpredictable and unrepeatable effects. The situations in which the teacher finds himself cannot, for this unpredictability and unrepeatability, be prepared during the course of study. A number of skills such as to cope with unexpected situations are taught by a teacher himself/herself, and even the rich practice is not a guarantee that he or she does not meet a completely new situation requiring a skill that he/she has not been mastered yet. Bearing that it in mind, when using the term “teachers’ profession” in this dissertation thesis, I refer to the occupation. Intercultural and/or Multicultural Education: In the scientific literature it is possible to meet the concepts of intercultural (“inter“ – between/among) and multicultural (“multi“ – many), but at the same time there appear synonyms such as polycultural – (“poly” from Greek many), pluricultural (“pluri” from Latin - several), transcultural, cross-cultural or multi-ethnic. In this dissertation thesis, I mainly use terms intercultural or multicultural, so that it seems important to explain their meaning, also because understanding the meaning of the terms slightly differs across countries also due to linguistic and interpretative barriers. Rey-Von Allmen (2011) understands the term intercultural as interdependence, interaction, influence. According to this interpretation, the term intercultural symbolizes the values of society, mutual relationships, symbols and their understanding in the world. This view is justified by the fact that people's lives and their relationships are part of a dynamic process and subject to the constant change. According to Buryánek (2002), multiculturalism means only the existence of several cultures side by side, but does not imply the mutual interactions, cultural exchanges, cooperation and dialogue. Multicultural can be any society in which at least two socio-cultural 25 groups coexist but may also experience segregation or discrimination. In contrast, the term intercultural includes reciprocity, exchange, dialogue of different socio-cultural groups. In intercultural society there is intercultural dialogue, cooperation, mutual enrichment with one another. Holcová and Synková (2008) deal with terminology using the terms multicultural education and culturally standard education as synonyms, and at the same time briefly formulate multicultural education as education leading to the discovery of different groups. Intercultural education, on the other hand, is interpreted as education that deals with how different groups can live together, and transcultural education represents upbringing to increase the ability of an individual to live together with other people. Faltýn (2005) perceives the difference between multicultural education and intercultural education in the following way. Multicultural education as a whole is based on multiculturalism - a static social order. Multicultural education translates knowledge of the realities of the situation of minorities and the realities of the multicultural constellation of society. There is no emphasis on the education of different people, the educator and the learner do not necessarily have to come from different cultures in multicultural education. Intercultural education is based on interculturality - the process of cultural change, intercultural dynamics. Multicultural education enables pupils to get to know the diversity of cultures, their traditions and values. Students can better understand their own cultural identity, traditions and values. The gradual development of knowledge and society, however, also changes the approach to this discipline. The current concept emphasizes the individuality and the original life experience of the educated. This concept corresponds to the term intercultural education (intercultural learning) (Národní institut dětí a mládeže [NIDM], 2007). Although the concept of intercultural education is much better described by new trends and requirements of modern times, in the official curricular documents of many countries, the term multicultural education remains in the same sense that “intercultural education” represents. For this reason, multicultural education holds the same value as intercultural education in this dissertation thesis, if not, it is specifically mentioned. Students with a different mother tongue: In practice, we encounter inconsistent labelling of students with a different mother tongue and in many cases, those terms include, in essence, only children of citizens of other states. In terms of access to education for children with insufficient or totally lacking knowledge of the language of a host country, coming from a different cultural and linguistic environment, we talk about a wider group of students. It includes first and subsequent generations of EU and third country migrants, asylum seekers and refugees, as well as national and regional ethno-cultural and linguistic minorities. For this 32 organization and non-public sector body. It can be either large one such as Oxfam, Save the Children, UNICEF, or one-person NPO where an individual is working at the grassroots level operating at any level (local, regional, national, international etc.) (Unerman & O'Dwyer, 2006). NPOs are seen here as non-profit, private sector actors located between the state and market institutions involved in the provision of educational services, no matter their size, location and primary sponsorship. 1.1 Why lifelong education The future perspective of learning is based on utilizing the qualities of global citizenship and lifelong learning so that learners will be able to keep up with changes in the world (Zukas, 2006). At the 1970 UNESCO conference, the concept of lifelong learning was used in a longterm project entitled "Introduction to Lifelong Learning" (Elfert, 2015), which through followingly published reports by Faure et al. (1972) and Delors et al. (1996) placed learning throughout the whole life on the position that represents education for democratic society where all citizens have equal learning opportunities. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) introduced the term of lifelong learning into the language of political documents and science and together with World Bank and European Union began to extend this notion through programmatic policy documents (Roche, 2017). Today’s concept of lifelong learning that replaced the notion of lifelong education (Kristensson Uggla, 2008) combines formal, non-formal and informal learning in all stages of human life (initial, follow-up education and all the activities of an individual connected with education and learning), among which a person is continuously changing according to the actual needs of his/her life. Those needs are based on multiple possibilities and different opportunities that a person – learner – meets and for which he/she has to seek for additional education (European Commission, 2001, 2018a). Thus, lifelong learning involves not just learning but also enhancing active participation in society, providing solutions to community issues, improving necessary skills, and being open to new learning opportunities (Knapper & Cropley, 2000). Lifelong learner has to implement different learning strategies in different cases of life (e.g., in educational field the profile of lifelong learners reflects their positive sense of self, critical thinking, curiosity, self-motivation, inquisitive learning, information literacy, advanced organizational skills, multiple sources for learning skills and styles, and aerial outlook [e.g., broad vision, different perspectives]; Acar & Yildiz, 2016). The requirement for continuous upgrading does not only apply to individual professions, but it permeates across professions and occupations and can be filled through diverse forms of education. 33 Modern society requires lifelong learning to be a purposeful and institutionalized activity, which must reflect on changes and be actively promoted into the structure of the education system in which all educational actors play their role and collaborate (Laal, 2012). In the field of education, lifelong learning is usually connected with economy, especially with “labour market” and represents the useful tool that has all attributes to help accelerating the economic growth and reacts on rapidly changing technological, economic and political developments (Roche, 2017). The current labour market is very variable and very dynamic in its nature. It requires updating of individuals’ training in individual fields, changing the structure of requirements and changing the graduates’ competences and skills (European Commission, 2018c). According to Dandara (2014) the labour offers individuals to have a sense in everyday life and feel the meaning for society. It helps to shape self-image and build personal identity. Nevertheless, to be successful on the labour market, we need to learn the roots of our profession. Moreover, we must learn how to adapt to the labour market requirements, in another words, to be aware of the urge for lifelong learning. Even though, great emphasis is placed on continuous learning, so that the individual is prepared for changing conditions of society and the labour market, the work already starts during the initial education either within formal or non-formal learning (European Commission, 2018c). The education in the context of lifelong learning can be realized in various forms, as already mentioned above. The first form, so-called formal education, is mostly institutionalized and typically involves school education. This form of education allows obtaining a specific and precisely defined qualification, usually endorsed with a diploma or other legally valid certificate (Tissot, 2004). Outside-school education is most often carried out through so-called non-formal education. Veteška and Tureckiová (2008) believe that this form of education can be covered by a wide range of different organizations such as schools, non-profit organizations, private education companies, and through education that is carried out at the workplaces of employers. These authors add that non-formal education generally does not target to a comprehensive level of education, but knowledge, skills, competencies acquired during the course of education can also contribute to a better work and social application of the individual. The last form of further education that complements these previous two is education informal. Characteristically, this education is uncoordinated, unplanned, institutionally unencumbered, can be conscious or/and unconscious; and sometimes characterized as a learning process. Informal education involves the process of acquiring knowledge, acquiring skills and attitudes in the context of various activities carried out during lifetime in a family, at work, during leisure time, during interactions with others, etc. (Laal, Laal, & Aliramaei, 2014). 34 Another perspective offers Novotný (2009), who says that it is possible to distinguish between three levels where each level represents a different view of the process of learning and education in accordance with interests and needs of: (1) the individual (individual view), (2) the group (organization view) or (3) other larger entity (public view). An individual view is in the interest of the individual to maintain or possibly improve working conditions for a given job position, which will improve his/her job security. As Veteška and Tureckiová (2008) points out, the activity of learners is an essential element when it comes to the personal development because it is necessary to take on the individual's responsibility. Moreover, it contributes to the fulfilment of a social role. The need and the desire for constant self-improvement has to become an inalienable part of individual’s personal development (Veteška & Tureckiová, 2008). Lifelong learning is based on self-motivation towards learning in order to develop professional and personal skills and implement them in everyday life of our globalized world (Friessen & Anderson, 2004). The view at the level of an institution or enterprise is based on the needs of an organization's growth that helps to fulfil the development of human capital through education and learning. From the point of view of the public, learning is intended to contribute to social and economic development and helps to solve the problems that may arise (Novotný, 2009). As being already said, lifelong learning is meant for everybody and for every profession. Therefore, preparing teachers for the 21st century as lifelong learners in a global context has increased in value (Guo, 2014). A teacher, as the main ingrediency of any educational activity, stands on both sides – as the educator of lifelong learners and the lifelong learner himself. Teachers must constantly include the latest knowledge of contemporary science, research, and technology in their teaching activities. They have to keep up with new requirements of a society and the labour market, new approaches within education (such as inclusive approach of 21st century) in order to prepare younger generation for their future professional and personal life, which is hardly to be predicted. Therefore, it is imperative that they constantly renew and innovate their knowledge within the framework of their own development (European Commission, 2017a). New trends in education, require new activating methods and new thinking on learning and teaching as a whole (EADSNE, 2011). One of which is the competence-oriented approach, which basically focuses on competences that one should acquire to fulfil required educational outcomes. Teachers should be adopting and developing competences during their whole professional life (from pre-service to in-service period). Furthermore, they should print the basic set of competences also on their students. It is important to bear in mind that competence needs are not static. They change throughout life, therefore, it is essential to understand and 35 follow the lifelong learning concept to make sure that every person will actively search for opportunities to update, upgrade, enrich and broaden the set of competences already acquired either during initial education or continuous development, across all forms of formal, nonformal and informal learning (European Commission, 2017a). Numerous studies have also shown that teachers’ qualities, their prestige and position in a society determine and form their influence on students and their academic success (Goe & Stickler; Harris & Sass, 2011; Wiswall, 2013). How teachers see themselves as personalities and professionals, what motivates them to start the profession of teaching and what motivates to stay at this profession, are also crucial elements that influence teachers’ performance and also the desire to educate themselves further. 1.2 Education for all Collaboration of various stakeholders allows generating and sharing of experiences and knowledge; moreover, stimulates other ways of thinking about inclusion in education (Miles and Ainscow, 2011) and supports equity in education (Ainscow, 2016a). To understand better new challenges and the shift from homogeneity through heterogeneity to diversity that teachers are facing in their classrooms everyday, it is crucial to know what the inclusive education represents. Although the answer might seem simple, the reality and practice show that the conception of inclusion has gained on various shapes. This chapter and its sub-chapters outline the evolution and the main characteristics of inclusive education, touching the role of nonprofits. A brief look back into the past The history of inclusive education itself is not long and its worldwide origins can be dated to the 1990s. To understand why we discuss this topic today, we need to know what preceded it. The main reason for inclusion today is inadequacy of approaches we took in the past. To give some examples, Buchem (2013) distinguishes four stages in which we treated children in terms of education: a) exclusion: individuals with particular types of handicap (today’s used term special needs) were excluded from all social settings (family, school, community) b) segregation: individuals with special needs were recognized as an object of education, however, their education was carried out separately from the rest of society, thus apart from intact students; c) integration: individuals with special needs were placed to schools (regular classrooms, special education classrooms, pull out services); however, they were supposed to 36 adapt to school environment d) inclusion: social structures (classrooms, schools, communities) and socio-educational actions are designed from the outset considering the students with special needs. As Winzer (1993) points out, every society in each particular time recognizes certain "extreme forms" of human differences that are judged according to the norms of a given society. Simply put, general attitudes and maturity of a society determines the quality of everyday life for everyone and naturally it embraces all areas of life including the area of education; especially care for individuals with disabilities. She also adds that it is not easy to understand the approach of a society in which another society does not live. However, from the perspective of our current experience, it is not so difficult to imagine that conditions such as economic, political, social and even religious could have played crucial roles in everyday life also in the past (Winzer, 1993). Lechta (2016) highlights socioeconomic and cultural-ethical factors as fundamental factors that determine society's treatment and approach to those who are weaker and dependent on help. He argues that socioeconomic factor plays its role in the security of care for people with disabilities and depends on the sufficiency of financial resources in a particular society. Collaterally, the cultural-ethic factor determines the form and level of care that reflects the overall attitude of a society (Lechta, 2016). For this reason, in our history, we can find different approaches to disadvantaged groups from discussing about their rights to live, or slavering them as prostitutes or objects of entertainment, ignoring them or putting them outside of our sight and from our comfort zone. It was not until the 18th century that institutions for the care of individuals with disabilities started to be established in Europe, and this kind of care began to be organized more systematically and to develop specific educational procedures according to the type of disability (Winzer, 1993). However, this institutionalization has led to segregated education. At the turn of the century and in the first third of the 19th and 20th centuries, the revival was brought about by the onset of reform pedagogy and, in particular, thanks to alternative currents such as M. Montessori's pedagogy or the Waldorf School of R. Steiner, who perceived a disabled child as a compulsory member of a regular school community (Klein, 2015). The second half of the 20th century brought many changes in the area of education for children with special education needs (generally used abbreviation: SEN). The contradiction between theory and practice has resulted in the search for new educational approaches (Winzer, 2009). With the boom of computerization and the trend of normalization in the 1980s, there has been a shift in education towards the concept of integration of SEN children (Farrell & Ainscow, 2002). This period of postmodernism had a great impact on the educational approach to people with disabilities, as it opened up new dimensions for people's 37 relationships by respecting and developing the “other”, including the search for correct access to disabled people (Kudláčová, 2010). Discourse on inclusive pedagogy emerged at the end of the 20th century and culminates in the beginning of the 21st century. From pedagogical point of view, there is no consistent view of whether inclusive education stands alone or is an adopted child of special pedagogy (Winzer & Mazurek, 2000). The concept of special pedagogy puts in the foreground a homogeneous educational environment that facilitates the application of didactic procedures and deals with pupils who are classified as disabled pupils. On the other hand, inclusive education involves meeting and educating individuals with physical or mental disabilities, extremely talented individuals, individuals from a socially disadvantaged environment, individuals of different nationalities, ethnic groups, individuals without disabilities, people with dysfunction, and many others, become the subject of an individualized approach, and there is no division into disabled and non-disabled (so called “intact”) pupils (Lechta, 2016). Some experts therefore consider that inclusive education goes beyond the boundaries of special pedagogy and becomes an independent inclusive pedagogy (Hájková & Strnadová, 2010), which is becoming more and more of the forefront of general pedagogy. Bintinger and Wilhelm (2001) claim that inclusive pedagogy is actually a combination of special pedagogy and general pedagogy that brings an entirely new education and educational quality and other authors add that only in this embodiment can be successful (Stainback & Stainback, 1996). Lechta (2016) summarizes this issue and argues that if inclusive education is to be truly education for all, it is not possible to separate special educational approaches and general educational approaches. "There will be a holistic approach to education processes with a comprehensive view of the education of all pupils: pupils with PNO 1 as intact pupils [author’s translation]." (Lechta, 2016, p. 36). Age of inclusive education Inclusive education or simply inclusion has been a widely discussed topic among the professional and lay public that has been addressing not only Europe but also the whole world for more than decades. The reason for this popularity is a naturally growing call for equity and equality in education (Winzer & Mazurek, 2000). The idea of inclusive education is based on belief that education is intended for all and should be provided equally regardless of personal and social circumstances such as gender, ethnic origin or family background to achieve the maximum of educational potential (MŠMT, 2015b). As mentioned in various worldwide 1 Lechta et al. uses the term PNO to refer to pupils with diverse learning needs 38 reports, every person is different, and level of diversity should not determine the level of access to education. Diversity in inclusive education is not perceived as a problem that needs to be labelled, addressed and remedied, but as something that can enrich people and societies. Considering that no society is homogenous, there is no reason why classrooms should be. However, it does not mean that we should treat diverse situations and needs as if they were equal because it would only accentuate inequalities among students. In contrary, it means that we should consider the different individual identities, needs and choices (UNICEF & UNESCO, 2007). As Barton (1997) points out “Inclusive education is about responding to diversity; it is about listening to unfamiliar voices, being open, empowering all members and about celebrating “difference” in dignified ways” (p. 234). During the 48th session of the International Conference on Education, it was recommended that policy makers should acknowledge that “… inclusive education is an on-going process aimed at offering quality education for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities, characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities, eliminating all forms of discrimination” (UNESCO-IBE 2008, p. 3). It seeks to set up a system of education that allows all children to have equal access to education without discrimination since every child matter and matter equally (UNESCO, 2017a). At European level, inclusive education is also seen as the way to combat racism and discrimination and cultivate mutual respect to base active citizenship and social cohesion (European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education [EASNIE], 2015a). Arnesen, Allan and Simonsen (2010) also argue that in education, inclusion policies have been associated with the following broader values and principles: (1) access and quality; (2) equity and social justice; (3) democratic values and participation; and (4) balance between community and diversity. The path to the goal is multifaceted. The method of its implementation is influenced, to a large extent, by culture, history, political orientation and ethical values of the country. It can therefore be concluded that the concept of inclusion in individual countries varies (Lechta, 2010). To date, inclusion in practice is manifested and hence interpreted differently. Ainscow and Miles (2009) acknowledged those differences and determined four ways of thinking about inclusion: • inclusion is a process, • inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers, • inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all students, • inclusion involves a particular emphasis on those groups of learners who may be at risk of marginalisation, exclusion or underachievement. 39 According to the report titled Profile of Inclusive teachers (EADSNE, 2012), many European countries are moving towards the notion of a “school for all”, however there are still those that primarily focus on students with disabilities and special educational needs and those whose behaviour may cause disruption in the classroom. It further states that the use of the term “integration” resits in a number of countries, with its connection to discussions primarily about the placement of students in mainstream or special schools. 1.2.1 Strategical documents and implementation of inclusive policy The emphasis on equal opportunities in education over the past thirty years can be found in many international human rights documents, international conventions and agreements. Casado-Muñoz (2012) argues that even if some voices might devaluate the importance of such documents because of countries’ reluctance to turn written words into deeds, they still represent important lead which can be followed and cannot be forgotten. Starting with international human rights documents, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) can be ranked as historically oldest. The World Program of Action, initiated by the United Nations (UN) in 1982, focused on education and promoted the equalization of opportunities for people with disabilities and their full participation in society (UN, n.d.). The World Declaration on Education for All (UNESCO, 1990) that was created as a result of World Conference on Education for All in Thailand, analysed the state of elementary education across the world and revealed disturbing facts about access to basic education and its quality. An essential influence on the dissemination of inclusive ideas in education has the intergovernmental organization UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), of which one of the long-term development goals is the development of quality education (Ainscow, 2016b). UNESCO also organized a global conference on the education of people with special educational needs in 1994, which gave rise to The Salamanca Statement. Its publication was a major turning point towards an inclusive trend and was fundamental in advancing the concept of inclusive learning environments for individuals with disabilities (Priestley, 2005). “… schools should accommodate all children regardless of their psychical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. This should include disabled and gifted children, street and working children, children from remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalized areas or groups.” The Salamanca Framework for Action, Article 3, 1994 40 The statement was signed by representatives of 92 countries, including countries on which this work is focused - the Czech Republic, Spain and Italy. The World Education Forum adopted the Dakar Framework for Action (UNESCO, 2000) reaffirming the commitment to achieving Education for All by the year 2015 and entitled UNESCO as the responsible organ for co-ordinating this activity worldwide. Another UNESCO document that focuses on the need for inclusive education is the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which, like its predecessor Convention on the Rights of the Child requires all countries to recognize the right of people with disabilities to education. It states that people with disabilities should have access to inclusive, quality and free of charge primary and secondary education at the place where they live and should be provided with adequate adjustment to individual needs. Moreover, it emphasises the need to train all teachers to teach in inclusive classrooms (UN, 2006). The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, approved by the United Nations in September 2015 includes the Sustainable Development Goals and includes global commitments for the coming years to promote human rights, fight against poverty and facilitate the development of all peoples. The fulfilment of these objectives requires, among other things, guaranteeing an inclusive, equitable and quality education and promoting lifelong learning opportunities for all (UN, 2015). UNESCO together with UNICEF, the World Bank, UNFPA, UNDP, UN Women and UNHCR organized the World Education Forum 2015 in Incheon, Republic of Korea and adopted the Incheon Declaration for Education 2030, which sets out a new vision for education for the next fifteen years, and the Education 2030 Framework for Action, which provides guidance for implementing Education 2030. All these documents have had a significant impact on the promotion of inclusion of people with disabilities within the mainstream society (Shah & Priestley, 2010). The European Union (EU) has also been proactive in recent decades in developing strategies to address the inequality experienced by people with disabilities, such as The European Disability Strategy (1996), the European Disability Action Plan (2006) and the European Disability Strategy (2010-2020). The ET 2020 Strategic Framework – Education & Training sets out four strategic objectives for education and training in the coming decade. Strategic objective 3 focuses upon: Promoting equity, social cohesion and active citizenship – within this objective, the importance of values is highlighted: “Education should promote intercultural competences, democratic values and respect for fundamental rights and the environment, as well as combat all forms of discrimination, equipping all young people to interact positively with their peers from diverse backgrounds.” (European Commission, 2015a, p. 4). The European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive 41 Education (EASNIE) (earlier: The European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education) has been in the forefront of initiating discussions among Member States about how to develop inclusive learning environments. Within the EU context, each state is responsible for the design and delivery of educational provision and it is clear that the standards outlined in the international initiatives have not been incorporated into the legal systems of many EU countries (EASNIE, 2018d, Shoonheim & Ruebain, 2005). Given that the inclusive education is an on-going process that has to build on current situation in particular country, its education system and attitudes towards inclusive education from expert to non-expert public, it is not surprising that the implementation of inclusive education varies throughout the European countries. What concerns the countries of interest of this dissertation thesis, Spain and Italy have started to implement integrated/inclusive education in their policies very soon, in line with global developments, whereas the Czech Republic addressed the issue of inclusion at the policy and in-field level more recently. 1.2.2 Attention to diversity in SPANISH education system Education system in Spain is decentralised (established by 1978 Spanish Constitution) and educational powers are shared between State General Authority (Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport) and the 17 Autonomous Communities (Regional Ministries or Departments of Education) (Luengo, Sevilla, & Torres, 2005). The Ministry of Education, Culture and Sport (MECD) organises Spanish education system in general; regulates the conditions for the obtaining, issuing and recognition of academic and vocational qualifications, and of the basic rules for the development of the rights to education; establishes the general plan for education; evaluates and innovates different types of provision of the Spanish education system; designs, plans and manages the system of grants and financial support; promotes equality, nondiscrimination and universal accessibility policies within the scope of its powers; manages the teaching staff policy and development of the foundations for the legal regime governing public teaching service; and exercises the functions of National Authority for the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Commission. Sectoral Committee for Education is the body for cooperation in education policy between the MECD and the Educational Authorities of the Autonomous Communities, with the purpose of achieving the maximum coherence and inclusion of the education system. Regional Ministries or Departments of Education of the Autonomous Communities assume the regulations developed by the State rules and for the nonbasic elements or aspects of the education system; assume the executive and administrative competences for managing the education system in its own territory; promote and strengthen 48 of school education, respectively. Within the relevant sectors of competence, they are responsible for the establishment, aggregation, merging and the closing down of schools, the interruption of teaching for serious and urgent reasons, the setting up, control and vigilance, as well as the dissolution of school collegiate bodies. Schools have important administrative and managing functions, as well as high responsibility tasks such as the definition of curricula, the widening of the educational offer, the organisation of teaching (school time and groups of pupils, etc.), within the general frame defined at national level (Damiani, 2016; Paletta & Bezzina, 2016). First inclusive attempts in Italy started in 1970s starting with Law 118/1971 and subsequently extended by Law 517/1977 to all kinds of disability. Since then it has been systematically implemented, evaluated and improved. Law 104/1992 provided detailed description of integration of disabled people and the role of support teachers (Devecchi, Dettori, Doveston, Sedgwick & Jament, 2012). Law 328/2000 defines the ‘integrated system of interventions and social services, while Law 53/2003 defines the essential levels of provision in education and training (EASNIE, 2018a; Zanobini, Viterbori, Garello & Camba, 2018).“La Buona Scuola” reform adopted in July 2015 as law 107/2015 gave more power to schools, introduced a teacher evaluation system and compulsory school-work alternation. This Law is designed to support and improve inclusive conditions in education while improving the status of supporting teachers and developing their competences within further education; specifying indicators of self-evaluation and evaluation of school inclusion and reviewing the assisting territorial groups in the field of inclusion. The whole educational staff is supposed to be involved in the process of education and training and school directors and teachers have the obligation to educate themselves further. The implementation of this law is pursued through several decrees focused on initial teacher education, early childhood education and care and inclusion of pupils with special educational needs. The area of special educational needs includes (1) Disabilities; (2) Specific developmental disorders and/or specific learning disorders; (3) Disadvantage from socio-economic, linguistic and cultural factors (EASNIE, 2016; Legge 13 luglio, 2015). The updated Law 107/2015 focuses, more than ever, on inter-ministerial cooperation in the field of inclusive education. The central regulations foresee that schools, local and local health authorities stipulate agreements to establish collaboration methods for co-ordinating their activities (Legge 13 luglio, 2015). The achievement of school inclusion falls under the responsibility of various bodies. Therefore, other advisory organs are also included in the counseling system, working indirectly for schools and school facilities. This includes the 49 Gruppi di Lavoro per l'integrazione scolastica - GLH (Working Group on Social Integration) and the Gruppi di lavoro e di studio d'Istituto - GLHI (Working Group and Study Institutional Group) which are newly supplemented by the Gruppi di lavoro per l’inclusione o per l’inclusività – GLI (Working Group for and on Inclusion). As described by various authors (Ianes & Cramerotti, 2013; Pitino, 2015), the GLHI and GLI deal with the intervention tools for pupils with special educational needs at the school level. GLHs are present in each school authority of the region and their task is to conduct consultations with schools, work with local organizations, set up and update educational plans or any other activities related to school inclusion. In every school, there is a working group for inclusion (GLI), made up of teachers, support teachers, administrative staff, specialists of the local health authority, which have the task of cooperating on the educational and integration activities indicated in the curricula. GLH are therefore institutional groups of a region, while GHLIs are territorial units helping to implement school inclusion. The last existing group is the Gruppi di Lavoro Interistituzionali Regionali - GLIR (Regional Working Groups), which puts in motion planning strategies with regard to the development of inclusive education. GLH and GLIR are bound to work together (Ianes & Cramerotti, 2013; Pitino, 2015). What concerns schools themselves, each school, as part of the definition of the three-year educational plan, draws up the Inclusion plan establishing the use of resources, including overcoming architectural barriers and identifying facilitators (MIUR, 2015). Finally, from an organisational point of view, Territorial Support Centres (Centri territoriali di supporto - CTS) work at local level for fostering school inclusion. Centres, at least for provincial area, refer to one school and are set up by the Regional school offices (Uffici scolastici regionali – USR) in agreement with MIUR. Their task is the creation of school networks with local services in order to include fully pupils/students with special educational needs to schools with an efficient use of financial resources. CTS are also committed with the activation at local level of training initiatives on the correct use of technologies addressed to teachers and other school professionals, as well as to parents and pupils themselves (Milani, 2017; Munaro & Cervellin, 2016; Salvioni, Gandini, Franzoni & Gennari, 2012). Italy gradually replaces the current model based on the support by a support teacher on a model in which a student with special educational needs is supported by a wide range of actors, including class teacher, peers, educators, pedagogical assistants and other staff at school who collaborate among each other (Paletta & Bezzina, 2016). Article 3 of the Constitution of the Italian Republic declares that “all citizens of the Italian Republic have the same rights regardless of gender, race, language, religion, political 50 opinion, personality and social conditions” (Constitution of the Italian Republic, 1947, p. 5). Moreover, referring to Article 34, it guarantees the right to education for all. 1.2.4 Inclusive education in THE CZECH REPUBLIC The right of all children to be educated is enshrined in the Constitution of the Czech Republic (Ústava České republiky). All pupils of basic and upper secondary schools, children in preschool education and students of tertiary professional schools are entitled by a codified law, the Education Act, to get a form of education that respects their individual educational needs. The compulsory education takes ten years (from 5 to 15 years of age) as seen in Figure 5, and is provided, as well as other formal public education, free of charge. Similarily as in Spain, Czech education system has multi-track form and along with the mainstream schools it offers special classrooms within mainstream schools and special schools for students with special educational needs (OECD, 2013a). Figure 5 The Structure of Czech Education System Note. Source: Eurydice (2017b). The basic principles governing the provision of education are contained in the Charter of Fundamental Rights and Freedom which is a part of the Constitution and in which Article 33 states that everybody is entitled to education (Ústava České republiky, 1992). The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports (MŠMT) is responsible for the availability, structure and conception of education at the national level; at the regional level this responsibility belongs to 51 a relevant regional authority. The regional authority works out the Long-term plan of education and development of the regional education system for a given period based on the Long-term education plan and development of the education system in the Czech Republic, which includes among other things main objectives and tasks for each area of education, including education of pupils with special educational needs (EASNIE, 2018c). The Czech Republic has been addressing the issue of inclusion at the policy and practice level more recently in the last twenty years. In contrast, education policy towards children and young people with disabilities remained underdeveloped in the Czech Republic until the 1990s. In the 1970s and 1980s, children with disabilities were placed in special schools by default. The majority of children with intellectual disabilities or combined disabilities were considered "unfit for education" and did not receive any education. Parents of children with disabilities were strongly advised to place their children in large residential social care institutions. Only through a separate application process could parents (or guardians) apply for their child's integration into mainstream schools, but with the important provision that they secured the agreement of the school administration. Persons with disabilities were often officially deprived of compulsory schooling on the basis of psychological and medical diagnoses, a practice contrary to the already ratified Convention on the Rights of the Child (European Commission, n.d.; Gargiulo, Černá, & Hilton, 1997). The two track system (special/mainstream) which characterized the education of pupils with disabilities within the Czech Republic where special education was particularly privileged began to evolve into a multi-track system in the early 1990’s when the Edict on Primary Schools 1991 provided for the individual integration of children with visual disabilities, physical disabilities and speech impediments, but not for those with intellectual disabilities (OECD, 1997). In late 1990s the Government began work on a “White Book” as part of the overall strategy to advance social and economic development in the Czech Republic. Education and human resource development were top strategic priorities and the White Book asserted the Government’s responsibility to guarantee parents the right to choose the appropriate education for their children. Until 2004, children with disabilities could only be group integrated; that is, in special classes in mainstream schools. The Edict on Primary Schools was finally amended in 2004, permitting the individual integration of students with intellectual disabilities in regular classes at mainstream schools. Gradually, the two-track system, where special education had a strong position, has evolved into a multi-track system EASNIE, 2018c.). In 2005, a new Education Act (No. 561/2004, Call) on Pre-school, Primary, Secondary, Vocational and other Education (further The Education Act) came into force. The Education Act explicitly sets out 52 the obligation to support the development of abilities of all pupils and students at schools (MŠMT, 2018). Therefore, it is only since 1 January 2005 that children with disabilities have, by law, been permitted to be mainstreamed through individual integration. However, the legislation did not explicitly mention the concept of “inclusive education”, in contrast to the other countries under discussion; the law only recognized the right to equal access of all people to education and there is no definition of what constitutes reasonable accommodation (Šiška & Latimier, 2011). Since its approval in 2004, the Act has been amended many times and the most important changes dealing with approach to the education of pupils with special educational needs and follow-up decree enter in force in September 2016. In 2016, the Czech Republic implemented major amendments to the Education Act of 2015 (Act No. 82/2015 Coll.), which significantly modified the rules for education, especially regarding inclusion. These subsidiary regulations include the following: (1) Decree No. 27/2016 Coll., on the education of pupils with special educational needs (SEN) and talented pupils; (2) Decree No. 197/2016 Coll., which amends Decree No. 72/2005 Coll., on the provision of counselling services and facilities in schools, and certain other decrees (MŠMT, 2017). They removed the unreasonably strict definition of students with SEN and defined a student with special educational needs as a student who needs support measures to fulfil his/her educational possibilities and pursue his/her right to education on an equal basis with others. Support measures are selected to reflect the pupil’s state of health, the cultural environment and/or different living conditions. Classification of support measures is thus at the forefront, with classification of SEN subsequently derived from it (EASNIE, 2018c; The League of Human Rights, 2018). Students with special educational needs are either educated with the help of support measures (based upon unified, nation-wide educational framework programmes designed for intact population); or those with serious mental disabilities are educated according to a modified educational programme (OECD, 2013a). Without predetermining the level of support, the law defines the types of support measures, so that the support can be determined throughout all levels with different degree. They allow the following: 1. The possibility to adjust the conditions, content, forms and methods of education 2. Prolonging the standard duration of education 3. Adjustments to the conditions governing admission into, and completion of, education 4. Support for deaf and blind people 5. The adjustment of learning outcomes 6. The use of individual education plans 7. The use of teaching assistants and/or the opportunity to use relevant school counselling facilities or staff who provide support to pupils with SEN during their time at school 8. The construction and alteration of school premises (EASNIE, 2017). On 9 July 2014, Government Resolution No. 538 approved the Strategy of the Czech Republic's 53 Education Policy until 2020, which became the cornerstone of Czech education policy, and together with the following documents develop inclusive approach to education at the national level, the documents are: National plan to support equal opportunities for disabled persons for 2015–2020, Action plan of inclusive education 2016–2018, and Strategy to fight social exclusion 2016–2020. These documents recognize that the reduction of inequalities in the education system cannot only represent interventions to support children, pupils and students with special educational needs or otherwise disadvantaged. Even though these measures are extremely important, they are not enough. The position of disadvantaged children, pupils and students in education can be improved only if the elements of inclusive education will be promoted and systematically strengthened (MŠMT, 2014). The last document approved in July 2015 is the National Action Plan of Inclusive Education 2016–2018 (so called Akční plan). The document strives to deal with the situation in the area of equal access to education of children, pupils and students, mainly those at risk of school failure. It works out the measures for supporting equal opportunities and fair access to quality education, including the measures in prevention, rectification and intervention in the area of early school leaving of vulnerable target groups (MŠMT, 2015a). One of the three cross-cutting priorities of the Czech Republic's Education Policy Strategy until 2020 is to reduce inequalities in education. The strategy seeks to ensure that no social group is disadvantaged in access to school education and that educational opportunities and outcomes are least affected by factors such as gender, socio-economic status, region, nationality, origin in a culturally diverse environment (immigrants), which an individual cannot influence (MŠMT, 2014). 1.3 NPOs in the world of education Civil society organizations (CSOs) are a product of community and as such play an imperative role in the creation of a culture of peace and prevention of conflicts (Azzopardi, 2011). Since 1980s, CSOs have gradually started to refer to the fact that they have what to say when it comes to education sphere, thus their word should be considered. This harmonized voice was followingly strengthened during several important events in education such as the Jomtien Conference in 1990, the World Education Forum in Dakar in 2000 and the World Education Forum in Incheon in 2015 (Kruse, 2003). During the latter, over 250 non-profit organizations (NPOs) fully participated, actively contributed and commented on the Draft Declaration and Framework for Action (FFA) (UNESCO, 2016). As a result, they issued a declaration in which they highlight inclusive, free quality public education and lifelong learning for all as a 54 fundamental prerequisite to reach United Nation’s Sustainable Development goals “recognising the critical role of education for social, economic and environmental justice and the indivisibility of human rights” (UNESCO, 2015a, p. 2). Without doubt, the continuity and ongoing effort of non-profit organizations to be heard, engaged and involved at all stages of education policy development (from planning through monitoring to evaluation) has been finally recognized and guaranteed by various international, cross-border, and transnational authorities such as UNESCO, United Nations, European Community etc. who play a key role in the formation of educational strategy for current and future generations (United Nations [UN], 2011, 2017; UNESCO, 2005, 2016, 2018). Partnerships with civil society organisations for service delivery can involve contractual or semi-contractual agreements; for example, partnerships between public authorities and local community associations for educational services or training (OECD, 2011). Benefits of interorganizational cooperation (or also so-called: governance, networking etc.) in addressing public policy issues has become increasingly popular among policy-makers (McQuaid, 2010). It is a way in which organizations interact with their stakeholders (Salvioni, 2009). Academic literature provides a number of advantages which this cooperation brings. As one of the benefits of collaboration of organizations that e.g. Nelson and Zadek (2010) report is the development of human capital through the creation of new opportunities for training, motivation and volunteer programs. Establishing cooperation can also provide organizations with pros in the form of cost reductions, better availability of financial, technical resources and information, and thus increase the effectiveness of individual steps towards achieving the goal. As McQuaid (2010) points out, in case of non-profit organizations, cooperation with public sector bodies is beneficial for example, to new possibilities for practical impact on policy-making and thus advocating the interests of disadvantaged groups. The benefit of collaboration is also to enable a comprehensive solution to the problem and the creation of innovative practices through sharing of ideas, professional theoretical and practical knowledge. Nelson and Zadek (2010) believe that this fact contributes to the formation of a stable society, which is the main objective not only of the state administration bodies, but also of many non-profit organizations. According to Hudson (1987), it is important to understand the external factors influencing the development of network links in a given context, in order to fully understand the development and nature of inter-organizational relationships. The author also adds that when developing cooperation and fulfilling conditions conducive to the development of cooperation, organizations may encounter certain obstacles and limits to achieving such development. Prior to commencement of cooperation, these obstacles need to be realized and 55 tried to be avoided. The formation of cooperation is a complicated process in which individual actors encounter a number of obstacles. Organizations face conflicts of interest that complicate negotiation of objectives, clear division of responsibilities and individual competencies, limit mutual trust and relative freedom of decision-making among partners (Winkler, 2005). Moreover, NPOs can erode the legitimacy and moral authority of the state or their own for example depending on donors who have their conditions before funding NPOs activities or when NPOs become too closely identified with the state (Ranucci & Lee, 2019). As mentioned in the previous lines of this chapter, inclusive education is a prerequisite for the common education of all pupils/students regardless of their ethno-cultural identity, language, religion or handicap, i.e. any type of disadvantage. Promoting and supporting the development of this type of education in the individual Member States is one of the main objectives of the European Union's education policy and is essential for achieving high quality education for all pupils (UNESCO-IBE, 2008). To ensure inclusive education, inter alia, significant support networks of key actors participating in a given location to services in the education of children with special educational needs, including also children with language handicaps (with a different mother tongue), is required. According to Todd (2007), cooperation between schools, families and professionals is a key to the long-term government strategy to support child welfare, including deepening inclusive education. Hyánek, Hladká and Prouzová (2008) recognize that NPOs play the roles of a creator of social capital that links people to their communities and to others; an influencer of the political process; a creator of social changes; a fulfiller of participant’s needs and interests; a provider of services; a creator of income, jobs and knowledge as well as economic development. As Mundy and Murphy (2001) describes, NPOs gained a new place as educational service providers at the beginning of 21st century as there was a necessity to have more responsive organ which serves better to local needs and is more efficient in the delivery of basic social services than governmental organizations. They are independent actors, a voice for marginalized populations, who are in action when the state is unwilling to act; and who can relieve the burden on the state to provide education for all age groups. According to Paniagua and D’Angelo (2017) NPOs can operate also as a bridge between families and schools. This partnership may foster a long-term vision and provide more stability in the distribution of power between schools and families. Moreover, NPOs can become agents that improve the competences of parents and teachers to overcome institutional barriers; and help schools develop more welcoming climate within culturally different families. Some other authors add that this cooperation can improve relationships with ethnic minority families and foster greater inclusion (Lopez, Kreider, & Coffman, 2005). 56 To sum it up, NPOs may play an important role in education field as a part of bigger education community and act in the areas that are often neglected by the state and have depended upon the private sector and local actors for their existence. Nevertheless, it is important to mention, that not all NPOs are progressive entities pursuing a universalistic agenda, some can be extremely sectarian, if not reactionary, and also this fact should be taken into consideration while speaking about non-profit sector (Sutton & Arnove, 2004). Notwithstanding, NPOs appear to become one of the essential stakeholders in educational networks who together with other players help step out of traditional school boundaries and create new concept of educational community (Díaz-Gibson, Civís, & Guardia, 2014). 1.3.1 Czech non-profit sector Since 1989 there has been a very rapid development of non-profit sector in the Czech Republic. Citizens were allowed to reunite themselves freely, promote their interests and respond to social issues of a different nature (Müller, 2002). A large number of non-profit organizations begun their activities, which had a very strong influence on society, many of which are holding their strong position till today. Some are more or less the inertia of their influence; others were able to adapt to new conditions and to modernize their services and management processes. However, over the past 30 years, there have been significant changes in management, technology, communications and other business segments. Just as competitiveness was growing in the commercial sector, non-profit organizations also had to learn to reach out to the public, gain and keep their donors. This is related to the pressure on the professionalisation of non-profit organizations. NPOs have become an important part of the national economy, since they deal with issues that the state itself cannot solve due to some obstacles such as limited financial means, flexibility, velocity etc. Due to the growing importance of globalization, the development of cooperation between Czech non-governmental non-profit organizations has moved beyond its borders (Pospíšil, et al.). To date, there are five forms of not-for-profit organizations, namely: Associations (spolek), Foundations (nadace), Funds (nadační fond), Registered institutes (ústav), and Social co-operatives (sociální družstvo); nevertheless, the principal legal forms of not-for-profit organizations (NPOs) in the Czech Republic are associations and foundations (International Center for Not-for-Profit Law [ICNL], 2018). The Czech state supports NPOs through financial transfers such as subsidies and grants, or indirectly, through tax deduction or tax exemption, or other regulation (Hyánek et al., 2008). 57 In the Czech Republic, there is currently no strategy or concept that would involve networking actors in inclusive education. The only more detailed document created within the public administration is the document called Development of cooperation with other actors in the local education network, which was created by the Centre for the Support of Inclusive Education. In this document, it is emphasized that inter-organizational cooperation, in other words sharing good practice and exchanging experience through interdisciplinary consultations, appears to be an essential tool for successful start-up and the introduction of inclusive education. The centre of the network identifies schools, and other actors acted as providers of support services. It is based on the assumption that needs of children with the needs for supportive measures can be met by schools, governmental organizations and other service providers (Centrum podpory inkluzivního vzdělávání [CPIV], 2012). Nevertheless, there are several NPOs working in education sphere which support and practise the inclusive education policy within their lifelong learning education mission. Those activities are described further. 1.3.2 Italian not-for-profit approach Italy belonged to countries with the smallest non-profit sector among western countries until the period of 2001 and 2011 when the number of non-profit organizations increased more than 28% according to the Italian statistical office (Anheier & Salamon, 2006). As the main reason for this growth can be attributed to a relevant change in the attitude of the public authorities (Barbetta, Canino, Cima & Verrecchia, 2018). In 1990s, the system of social welfare was reformed and social services were transferred under the responsibility of regional and local administrations, in which state takes care of the most disadvantaged and non-profit sector provides support to others in need, however in which also non-profits face tough competition of commercial companies as service providers (European Center for Not-for-Profit Law, 2012). Nowadays, non-profit sector is composed of non-profit-making associations (Organizzazione Non Lucrativa di Utilita' Sociale), non-governmental associations (Organizzazione Non Governativa [ONG]), voluntary associations, cultural associations (inspired by religious principles), environmental protection associations, consumer associations, and specific disease treatment associations; moreover, local grass-roots organizations (Pro Locos) and blood donor associations have been added to these (Associazione Volontari Italiani del Sangue [AVIS]) (Rossi, 2011). Some of these organizations replace public administrations, the others are unified, without the public administration supplying services. Such non-profit organizations are supported by laws, funds etc., however, according to Rossi (2011) this privilege also brings the 64 Decree No. 27/2016 Coll., Amended by Decree 270/2017 Coll., on the education of pupils with special educational needs and gifted pupils, sets out rules for the use of support measures by the school and school facilities. Paragraphs 16 and 17 of the Education Act regulate the education of pupils with special educational needs and gifted pupils. The amendment brings a new perspective on the common learning of all pupils, specifying support measures that are eligible free of charge. First-level support measures offer minimal adaptation of methods, organization and evaluation of education and are provided to a pupil who requires the need to adapt to education or school services and to engage in a team. Second-to-fifth degree support measures are provided on the recommendation of a school counselling facility and with the informed consent of an adult student or legal guardian of the student (Mrázková & Zapletalová, 2014; MŠMT, 2016a). Thus, who are those children specifically? In the Czech legislation we cannot find any categorization. The law establishes, as mentioned above, that students with special education needs are those of special educational support in terms of support measures which are defined in a scale from one to five. Students with a different mother tongue in most cases belong to the second level of support measures’ needs. Similar approach can be also found in Italy. The term bisogni educativi speciali (BES) indicates students from all categories of students with special educational needs, i.e. not only students with disabilities covered by Act 104/1992. This intention signals the fact that inclusion does not only mean the inclusion of children with disabilities and disadvantages in mainstream schools, but it affects all students and, therefore, the entire society. According to the new Ministerial Decree of 27 December 2012, some rules on support measures for BES students are amended. The regulation states that every student may have a special pedagogical need for physical, biological, physiological, psychological, social needs for some time or a long time in his/her life, and so it is necessary for the school to be ready and able to respond adequately. The ministerial regulation defines three areas of change in support. It is (1) an increase in positive awareness of inclusion (it is literally about inclusion culture). Furthermore, (2) it is necessary to increase the competencies of ordinary teachers and (3) to create a new model of organization within the school (MIUR, 2012). The new support system imposes on the directors to create the working group for inclusion, so-called "Gruppo di lavoro per l'inclusione", which is the team of: the director, teachers, autonomists and communication assistants, coordinators, special/supportive educators , parents, representatives of UMEE - Unità Multidisciplinare per l'Età Evolutiva (organizations dealing with prevention, rehabilitation, therapy, diagnosis of disabled students attending compulsory education), representatives of AEC - Assistente educativo culturale (personal assistance/ service/support of the integration of the student), 65 employees of the so-called ATA (administrative, technical, auxiliary staff) (Coordinamento Italiano insegnanti di sostegno, 2017). Support is therefore largely focused on teamwork, including the early detection of BES students at school, the collection and documentation of all pedagogical and educational practices in order to create a functional organizational system (Sandri, 2014). The importance also has the preparation of an annual inclusion plan, the socalled Piano Annuale per Inclusione for all BES students, which must be written by the end of June at the latest. The plan is to link and evaluate the human resources, organization and tools that are available in the school, and reviewing "special" support for learning (Dainese & Friso, 2016). Law no. 104 of 1992 is the reference legislation for the integration at school and in the society of disabled people. It establishes that the aim of the integration at school is the development of the potentials of the person with disabilities in learning, communication, relationships and socialisation. It also defines ‘disability’ as any progressive or stable physical, mental and sensory disability that causes difficulties in learning, relationships and in the working life (Legge 5 febbraio 1992). Law no. 170/2010 has recognised dyslexia, dysgraphia, dysorthography and dyscalculia as Specific Learning Disabilities (Disturbi specifici dell’apprendimento, DSA). Pupils suffering of these disabilities receive special organisational and didactic support measures through personalised plans (Legge 8 ottobre 2010). In 2013 the Ministry of education has published a directive on measures for pupils with special educational needs. Besides confirming the existing strategy of inclusion, the directive has also extended the field of application of all provisions on school integration of pupils with disabilities. Finally, the reform Law 107/2015 has delegated the Government to legislate on the promotion of school inclusion of disabled pupils through decree no. 66/2017 which came into force on 31 May 2017, even though the main changes foreseen are introduced from 1 January 2019. The decree focuses on the assignment procedures for the support resources for teaching and school staff training and teaching continuity in order to help disabled pupils to create their own life project with the involvement of different subjects of society (EASNIE, 2016). Students in Spain have, as their basic right to receive the necessary assistance and support to compensate for personal, family, financial, social and cultural disadvantage, particularly in the case of pupils with special educational needs (Organic Law 8/1985). At the national level, as being already described in the subchapter 1.2.2, the Law LOE sets up as the essential principle the attention to diversity with the aim to provide all students with education adapted to their characteristics and needs. On this manner, the focus is not only on students with different needs, but on all students. The concept of “students with special education needs” is replaced with a broader term “students with specific needs for educational support”; in 66 original language “estudiantes con necesidades específicas de apoyo educativo (NEAE)”. According to the regulation, the target groups of the measures (ordinary and/or extraordinary) for attention to diversity are: (1) Students of the education system as a whole; (2) Students with specific need for educational support; (3) Socially disadvantaged students (Ley Orgánica 2/2006). The current Law in force “LOMCE” states that a more open, inclusive and participatory society requires alternative ways of organisation and management through collaboration and teamwork (Azorín & Muijs, 2017). Each Autonomous Community in Spain has its own model of Education Authority, sometimes as a Regional Ministry, and sometimes as a Department of Education. Such Education Authority prepares Plans on Attention to Diversity (Plan de Atención a la Diversidad, further referred as “Plan”) in accordance with the national policy. Castilla y León region, which is the one of these Autonomous Communities on which this thesis focuses, has currently in force “The II Plan on Attention to Diversity (II Plan de Atencin a la Diversidad en la Educación de Castilla y Len)” from 2017, whose purpose is to implement education measures and actions allowing the maximum adaptation of the teaching-learning processes to the whole students' characteristics. In the Annex I of the Instruction from 9 July 2015 issued by the Department of Innovation in Education and Teacher Training of Castilla y León region, we can find detailed description of students with SEN and their typologies and categorization. There are 4 basic groups of students which specific needs for educational support: 1. Students with Special Educational Needs 2. Students with Educational Compensation Needs 3. High intellectual capacities 4. Learning difficulties and/or low academic performance (JCyL, 2015b). Students with a different mother tongue can be found in the second group of Students with Educational Compensation Needs within categories Late incorporation and Special social, geographical and cultural conditions, as demonstrated in Figure 6: Figure 6 Categories of students with a different mother tongue in Castilla y León Typology Category Late incorporation Immigrants without sufficient knowledge of a language Immigrants with curricular lag The Spanish without sufficient knowledge of a language The Spanish with curricular lag Minorities Disadvantaged environment 67 Special social, geographical and cultural conditions Social exclusion Temporary inhabitants Geographical isolation Note. Source: Direccin General de Innovacin Educativa y Formacin del Profesorado, por la que se establece el procedimento de recogida tratmiento de los datos relativos al alumnado con necesidad espeifica de apoyo educativo escolarizado en centros docentes de Castilla y Len. To sum up given information from all three countries, despite the different terminology and procedures of identification and reassignment of barriers students with SEN can face while performing in schools, all countries have the common aim – to challenge those obstacles with necessary instruments such as individual plans or support measures are. The shared goal in these legislative cornerstones is to allow all students to advance and experience their own successes with the same chances. This is the legal base. 2.2 Students of second language in our classrooms There are several reasons why students with a different mother tongue are included in the group of students with SEN. They are disadvantaged in terms of enrolment in type of school, duration of attending school, indicators of achievement, drop-out rates and types of school diploma reached (Migrant Integration Policy Index [MIPEX], 2015a). Indeed, the language barrier is not the only element which plays its role in academic failure of these students. Different cultural backgrounds, social status of parents, different physical appearance, different communication habits, religious differences, among many others, have their indisputable impact; thus, apart from schools fails, students can also face xenophobia, racism and/or cultural misunderstandings (Graham, Minhas & Paxton, 2016). Language barrier has been identified as a classical obstacle in education which gets on its severity with the higher age of a student in the time of his/her arrival (Network of Experts in Social Sciences of Education and Training [NESSE], 2008). According to Cummins (1984, 2000), the language, respectively its acquisition is divided into two phases, the acquisition of communication skills and consequently cognitive academic skills. We learn how to communicate in everyday situations, and it takes from six months to two years to master this skill. Considering communication in academic environment, it may take up to seven years to develop language skills (that is, use professional expressions, work critically with text, express in context, etc.). The importance of this topic is also supported by the European Council which sees two key measures to support students with different mother tongue: (1) teaching and 68 learning of the official language of schooling; and (2) support teaching and learning of mother tongue (Council of Europe, 2007). This subchapter aims to describe who these students are and what can serve as prevention and intervention to reduce or eliminate the risks of failure. Even though the emphasis is put on the language barrier, the author realizes that the issue is much broader and thus, has to be always considered in connection with other aspects such as socio-economic inclusiveness within schools (European Commission, 2017a), linguistic, cultural, religious and educational backgrounds of students. In practice, we encounter inconsistent labelling of students with a different mother tongue and in many cases, those terms include, in essence, only children of citizens of other states. In terms of access to education for children with insufficient or totally lacking knowledge of the language of the country, coming from a different cultural and linguistic environment, we talk about a wider group of students. For this reason, the term children/students with different mother tongue or in short L2 students is used here since it seems to the author to be the most appropriate. In academic literature we can also find terms such as: English language learners, English as a second language learners, English as second/additional language pupils/student etc. – in case English is a language of schooling. According to Education and Training Monitor from 2017, the number of students in Europe whose mother tongue is different than the language of instruction is growing. These students do not represent a homogeneous group as the level of knowledge of the language varies individually, as well as the level of students’ education (European Commission, 2017b). This should be always taken into the consideration while designing the appropriate support measures, such as those set by European Commission: • supplementary education in and outside school, including help with homework, language learning and mentoring during activities; • immersion in mainstream classrooms with support from specialists and teachers who have the competences and experience to tailor teaching to children in the classroom who do not have the same level of competency in the language of instruction; • developing their mother tongue competences (European Commission, 2015b, p. 10). The disadvantage of language is a serious issue which, if not treated properly, can lead to extirpation of a child. It is associated, among other things, with cultural shock, loss of motivation to learn, frustration, feelings of alienation and deep loneliness (Igoa, 2009). Highquality and well-organised language support and school guidance services can be an effective way how to prevent and reduce these consequences. The closer look into these forms of support 69 will be introduced in the following chapters, however generally, we can say that the language support for students with different mother tongue is widespread. It comes in several forms, usually as a provision of extra lessons of language or assistance in the student’s mother tongue (European Commission, 2017a). It is important to note down that language of schooling is a second language for student with a different mother tongue and in this manner, with appropriate methodologies, has to be approached and taught. Another aspect of either success or failure is teachers’ preparedness reached within formal or non-formal education and teachers’ possession of intercultural competences. Also, this topic will be discussed further. And finally, already mentioned presence of mother tongue in the education process, which is a welcomed element that gives students a strong early start in education (UNESCO, 2008b) has to be recognized. Unfortunately, there is an evidence which shows that many educational systems around the world insist on exclusive use of one or sometimes several privileged languages and exclude others, including children who speak them (Arnold, Bartlett, Gowani, & Merali, 2007). According to Cummins (1981, 2001), the proficiency developed in one language is transferable to another if there is sufficient exposure to both languages and sufficient motivation to learn. He believes that the non-dominant languages form a resource, and not a threat to the learning of the school language. The following subchapters describes the educational environment for students with a different mother tongue in countries of the author’s interest – Czech Republic, Italy and Spain. 2.2.1 Czech Republic has still a long way to go Although Czech education system is multi-tracked, L2 students are not automatically assigned to special schools as it is a practice with different groups of SEN students; on the other hand, they do not have the option of attending language training courses before coming to mainstream schools as it is a common practise in some European countries (Radostný et al., 2011). As being said, students with a different mother tongue belong to the group of students with SEN and they should receive the form of help in accordance with the second level of support measures in the Czech Republic. As defined by Národní ústav pro vzdělávání (NÚV), the second level of support measures requires the report from Pedagogical Consultancy Institution according to which schools apply the recommended support measures. The whole procedure has to be consulted and agreed with a student and/or student’s legal representative (Mrázková & Zapletalová, 2014). The support measures may consists of: (a) counselling assistance from the school and school counselling facility; (b) adjusting the organization, content, evaluation, forms and methods of education and school services, including the 70 provision of teaching of subjects of special pedagogical care and extending the duration of secondary or higher vocational education (up to two years); (c) adapting the conditions of admission to education and leaving school; (d) the use of compensatory aids, special textbooks and special teaching aids, etc.; (e) adjusting expected learning outcomes within the limits set by the Framework Education Programs and accredited training programs; f) education according to the individual educational plan; g) use of teacher assistant; h) use of another pedagogical worker etc.; (i) the provision of education or educational services on premises which are technically or technically modified (Národní ústav pro vzdělávání [NÚV], n.d.). The Czech Republic signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child, hence, is obliged to respect and safeguard children rights without any discrimination. Moreover, the national legislation, in the Education Act, states that the equal access to education without any discrimination has to be guaranteed, both to citizens of the Czech Republic and citizens of other EU Member States. Unfortunately, children from third-country nationals are excluded from this claim for unknown reasons (MŠMT, 2016b). Nevertheless, children-citizens and childrenforeigners (no matter the country they come from) are obliged to compulsory schooling, even though these children-foreigners are in the country illegally. According to official statistics, there were around 38 000 of students (approx. 2% of all students) with a different mother tongue in kindergartens, primary and secondary schools during 2016/2017 academic year and around 43 000 at higher education institutions, however it is estimated that the number is bigger as relevant detailed statistic does not exist (see Český statistický úřad, Education of foreigners). In the Czech legislation, children with different mother tongue are defined as childrenforeigners which, as being said before, does not correspond to the actual group of children with a language barrier. However, this fact is widely recognized; moreover, local NPOs, especially META o.p.s. tries to change this approach with their professional inputs to various legislative decisions and opens this topic within public and political dialogs. Several investigations of this non-profit revealed that the methodology of learning to language of schooling as a second language is, sadly, unsystematised, happens randomly and without professional methodological preparedness of teachers who should provide it to students. Schools that educate students with different mother tongue lack the systematic support and the situations resulting from the arrival of children from different cultural and linguistic environment solve ad hoc. Schools that have no experience with foreigners often do not know where to look for support (META, 2014). Moreover, according to last investigations, some schools and pedagogical counselling institutions still try to avoid provide adequate support measures to L2 students (META, 2018). 71 2.2.2 Complex framework in Italy In Italy, students with a different mother tongue, does not matter if immigrant ones or from other language minorities, have the right to education and must attend compulsory education and undergo the same assessments as Italians. In the “Guidelines for the reception and inclusion of foreign students” MIUR provided, beside the legislative frame, some suggestions for organisation and teaching, to favour both entrance of foreign pupils at school and their success in their studies. The document includes a series of good practices that, from an administrative, organizational and didactic point of view, should be adopted to promote the integration of non-Italian pupils into the school (MIUR, 2014). In its essence, the Italian inclusive approach does not support the idea of separate/different ways in education for foreign students (e.g. to learn the language first). All students, no matter what barrier they can face, are included in regular schools. However, Italian legislation recognizes the need of extra linguistic support in 10 hours weekly of Italian as a second language over three to four months and establishing individualised educational plans and objectives (Piani Didattici Personalizzati) (Santagati & Ongini, 2016). The process of inclusion for foreign students consists of two aspects: “integration/inclusion” and “inter-culture” which is a model based on intercultural education (Sani, 2011). Specific guidelines concerning the inclusion of migrant pupils (MIUR, 2014) provide a regulatory framework, as well as suggestions concerning school organisation and teaching in order to increase the quality of education, nevertheless Italian schools still need an accurate planning of educational and didactic strategies (Sani, 2012). Therefore, the principle of inclusion also applies to pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds for social and economic reasons and to immigrant pupils. In such circumstances, support measures focus on didactic flexibility and, in the case of immigrants with low levels of Italian, linguistic support, personalised teaching (through a personalised teaching plan); and can adopt compensative tools as well as be exempted from some activities (Santagati & Ongini, 2016). For example, immigrant pupils can be exempted from reading aloud, or from dictation. In such cases, the efficacy of intervention is monitored in order to apply support measures only for the time necessary. In fact, in contrary to certified disabilities, support measures in these cases of disadvantage are temporary and the classes with these students do not have support teachers (unless pupils have a certified disability) (Coccia, 2016). The Ministerial Directive of 27 December 2012, on “Measures for pupils with special needs and local organisations for school inclusion”, cites all the initiatives taken for different types of pupils with special needs: pupils with assessed disabilities, with specific developmental disorders or with socio-economic, linguistic and cultural disadvantages (MIUR, 2012). 72 The presence of a linguistic and cultural mediator is essential in the initial stage of student’ entrance to school to support communication among teachers, students and their families. In Italian education structure, the person of language or cultural mediators is recognized. According to Favaro, mediators should have four functions: to promote social inclusion; to facilitate communication between school and family; to support enrolment in school; and enact initiatives that promote languages and cultures of origins (Favaro, 2001). Nevertheless, some researches still reveal the absence of specialised professional figures within schools, particularly around linguistic and cultural mediation (see e.g. Chiodo, 2018). Low participation or total absence of mediators in schools is disappointing, on the other hand, they are not those who should welcome, communicate and support L2 students on behalf or instead of a regular teacher (Kowalczyk, 2016). It is still a responsibility of a teacher. In the academic year 2016/2017, there was about 826 thousand students with different than Italian origin (MIUR, 2018). Central aspect of the process of school inclusion of pupils with citizenship non-Italian is their distribution among schools and, within schools and classes. In order to avoid the concentration of pupils with non-Italian citizenship in certain schools and preferably having their distribution balanced, the MIUR has set some organizational criteria about their own distribution between schools and in individual classes. Based on C.M. 2/20104 the number of students with non-Italian citizenship with reduced knowledge of the Italian language should not normally exceed 30% of the enrolled in each class and in each school. The regional school offices are required to facilitate a balanced distribution of pupils with noncitizenship Italian among schools through the promotion of agreements at local level and agreements between school and local authorities (MIUR, 2018). MIUR has been critizised for being too artificial when it comes to the actions and systematical solutions. On one hand MIUR considers the politics of intercultural approach at schools to be complex, such as creating guidelines, recommendations how to overcome traditional teaching models and techniques (a limit of 30% of foreign students per class; students’ improvement of Italian knowledge; and students’ involment in school life, with the help of the recently introduced subject “Citizenship and the Constitution”) (Bussotti, 2017), and releasing calls for school projects in order to fund relating activities (e.g. teaching Italian as a second language with special attention to newly arrived students; fostering integration of and/or providing linguistic/psychological support to unaccompanied minors; training for teachers and administrative staff; awareness-raising activities around migration and human rights; linguistic-cultural mediation (Grigt, 2017). 73 2.2.3 Culturally diverse Spain Spain is a multicultural and multilingual country with diverse local cultures with their own distinct languages, all living together in one country. New newcomers have even broadened already rich cultural and linguistic diversity and made the country realized that it is not completely prepared (Sales & García, 1999). It has brought the reflection on education and subsequently various changes in legislation. Nowadays legislation states that the education authorities have to support the entry of students that come from other countries or, for any other reason, are incorporated late in the Spanish education system (Ayuntamiento de Badajoz, 2011). Lpez Cuesta summarized this educational support into “organisational and curricular actions to take account of diversity, curricular adaptations, splitting groups, integrating materials, flexible groupings, support in ordinary groups and offer of specific materials, programmes to improve learning and performance and programmes for the specialised treatment of pupils with specific educational support needs” (Lpez Cuesta, 2017, p. 11). Educational plans and programmes including the particular measures are designed in accordance with students’ knowledge, age and prior educational background to ensure they are able to enter the most appropriate course (MECD, 2011). In particular, these programmes and plans include: • Hosting programmes and plans. Aimed both at students of foreign origin and all late students joining the education system. These include measures to prepare the school for the arrival of new students, such as the inclusion of the values of intercultural education in the school development plan, teacher training, adjusting center resources or preparation of information documents in multiple languages. They address, therefore, linguistic, curricular, attitudinal and school context aspects. • Programmes and plans for teaching the language of the host society. It includes measures of two types: On one hand, language classrooms, which aim to provide students with the necessary linguistic competence to enter the mainstream classroom. Their stay is flexible, meeting their needs, so the student does not attend there the whole day. On the other, linguistic and curricular reinforcement actions, which facilitate the study in all areas or subjects of the course with fewer difficulties. • Programmes for teaching the language and culture of the country of origin. These programmes are targeted to students from other countries to continue studying their native language, while studying the host language. It is sometimes done in collaboration with the country of origin and with public non-profit organizations. Usually the courses 80 2.3.2 The change of thinking in teaching The support of pedagogical staff who have a direct impact on students is essential and this fact is well recognized also by NPOs. Support is mainly provided through training activities, counselling and methodological support, school assistance and the development of educational materials. Including L2 students in classroom requires the same techniques and methodologies which are used generally for student-centred learning, inclusive education of 21st century. Traditional ways of teaching are substituted by progressive views, teachers are expected to collaborate with several internal or external stakeholders and develop/update their competences in various areas through their whole career. Above that, relating to L2 students, teachers should also think differently about the language of schooling as it becomes a foreign language for some of their students. In essence, teachers are expected to critically observe and evaluate teaching and learning processes and change/modify them in time. Many non-profits offer guidance and methodological support to teachers in addressing situations related to the education of students with a different mother tongue. These consultations can be done in field (observations in the classroom) with follow-up analysis and recommendations or via email, telephone, websites which serve as a e-learning portal with chat possibilities, downloads of worksheets, handouts or dictionaries etc. There are several methodologies that are emphasized in terms of inclusion and as authentic learning for the 21st century (Lombardi, 2007) and they are, hence, valid for inclusion of L2 students, such as: cooperative learning, interactive groups, problem-based learning projects, mind maps, visible thinking routine, thinking skills: analytical, critical and creative thinking; and methodologies that favour commitment. Cooperative learning is defined as a learning situation in which the objectives of the participants are closely linked, so that each of them can only achieve their objectives if, and only if, others achieve theirs (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1994). Authors argue that it allows distributing opportunities, helping to simultaneously build equality and respect for diversity. Moreover, there is also space to conduct a dialogue among students which can contribute to mutual understanding and respect of opinions of others (La Marca, 2015). Relating to structure, cooperative learning is a set of procedures or teaching techniques within the classroom, which starts from the organization of the class into small heterogeneous groups, where students work together in a coordinated manner to solve academic tasks and deepen their own learning (Varas & Zariquiey, 2011). The principles of learning that guide the implementation of cooperative learning are: Sociocultural Theory of Vygotsky, Piaget's genetic theory, Johnson and Johnson 81 Positive Interdependence theory, Significant learning of Ausubel, Rogers Humanist Psychology and Theory of Multiple Intelligences of Gardner. Interactive groups are defined as a form of classroom organization that provides better results in terms of improving learning and coexistence (García & Molina, 2013). Through these groups, characterized by an inclusive organization of students and participation of other adults apart from a teacher responsible for a classroom, it is possible to diversify and significantly increase the interactions, as well as, the effective work time (Flecha & Soler, 2013). With the interactive groups it is possible, in the same work dynamic, to develop and improve student learning, both in the area of knowledge and emotions (Valero, Redondo-Sama. & Elboj, 2018). According to Parra, Castro and Amariles (2014), problem-based learning is a teachinglearning strategy in which the acquisition of knowledge and the development of appropriate skills and attitudes are the core. It is a pedagogical strategy in which students are presented with a real-life problem, initiating a research process that will lead them to look for possible solutions to the posed situation (Parra, Castro & Amariles, 2014). While including intercultural topics, students put themselves into others’ shoes and through real experience become more empathetic (Choi & Yang, 2011). Mind maps represent a graphic representation of knowledge that allows ideas to be organized visually, favouring the ordering and structure of thoughts through hierarchy and categorization (Mento, Martinelli & Jones, 1999). According to Evrekli, Balim and İnel (2009), “mind mapping could provide teacher with a feedback about students’ mental structure and development of their mental structure, could facilitate students’ recalling the knowledge by the assistance of using visual elements and could be used as an activity that makes the students participate the lesson (p. 2274)”. Similarly, the methodology of visible thinking routine stands for the elementary pattern of thoughts that can be used and easily integrated into the learning process. For example, Perkins finds one routine particularly applicable in many settings and it includes two questions "What's going on here?" and "What do you see that makes you say so?" (Perkins, 2003). Analytical, critical and creative thinking methods organize deep and careful thinking in curricular situations and in daily life, and they can be incorporated into the students' way of thinking. These skills include skills which generate ideas, clarify ideas and evaluate whether such ideas are reasonable. Within the methodologies that favour commitment are those that facilitate the development of social skills and emotional development and prepare students to be the protagonists of the world in which they live (Palomares Ruiz, 2017). Other forms include seminars, workshop, on-line courses where teachers are informed about new methodologies and approaches in teaching with emphasis on inclusive and 82 intercultural education (see for example program Aulas Refugio from Accem Spanish nonprofit, on-line project Oddiseu by Oxfam Italia, or course Foreigners in the Czech Republic by MOST PRO non-profit. Some of these seminars are even accredited by appropriate authority thus teachers may, apart from the knowledge, also obtain credits if required by some legislative orders. The last note to be done relates to the importance of language of schooling as a second language. Teaching Czech, Italian or Spanish as a foreign language is totally different from teaching Czech, Italian or Spanish as the mother tongue. We cannot assume that a student with different mother tongue will be able to understand everything from the beginning; therefore, the teaching requires another angel of view (Bainski, Kaseric, Michel, McPake & Thompson, 2010; Council of Europe, 2010b). NPOs offer methodical courses for teachers during which teachers learn how to work with the language of schooling if it is a second language for their students. Moreover, several NPOs also offer cultural or linguistic mediator who is presented in a school during first school weeks and who helps both students and teachers. 2.3.3 Services in education for foreigners As being many times mentioned, one of the biggest advantages of NPOs is the close and intense collaboration with their target group – in this case with students of different mother tongue. Hence, NPOs offer innumerable services which I divided into five layers: (1) activities which directly corelates to school and school performance; (2) courses of a language of a country (for students of any age or/and parents) (3) community interpretations; (4) free time activities; (5) usage of NPOs sources (library, internet, e-learning environments etc.). The first layer includes activities such as: assistance in enrolment to school; mediating communication between the two parties (e.g. school vs student); accompanying social workers (or volunteers) to schools or offices; assistance in the process of authorisation of previous education; provision of interpreting for consultation at school; mediation of contacts with judicial interpreters; counselling in selecting higher-secondary schools, universities etc.; mediation of tutoring to those who have language barrier (tutoring in various subjects, assistance with preparation for examinations); mediation of contact with related services (e.g. pedagogical-psychological counselling, legal counselling etc.) (META, 2013, 2014). Community interpretations is a form of interpretation in which an important role plays mediating culture that leads to an easier breakdown of the communication barrier, not only in linguistic constraints but also in cultural differences. Community interpreters are able to translate not only the words but also the reality of the host society in analogy with reality of the country of origin (Holkupová, 2014). 83 NPOs are often visible for the public when they organize some intercultural events or conferences during which the general public may raise its awareness. Apart from these recognized events, NPOs prepare plenty of free time activities for foreigners or minor culturallinguistic groups to promote culture, traditions and environment of a country they live in. Last but not least, NPOs offer variety of devices, equipment or premises that they possess and can be used by the target group. It can be the place – club, library where students/parents can meet and study or it can be a virtual place such as e-learning portal and many others. To mention few examples, the network of organizations including the Red Cross, Caritas and other non-profits in Belgium set up centres to support refugee and asylum seekers families with services for children support children in their early years establishing firm grounds for their future school readiness and success (Park, Katsiaficas & McHugh, 2018). Due to shortages of places and resources in public schools in Turkey, non-profit organizations together with international agencies provided services for Syrian children such as learning and recreational activities, psychosocial and mental health support, education materials and associated teacher training (UNESCO, 2018). 2.4 Conclusion To master the language to be able to perform academically is a challenge for all students whatever their linguistic background is. However, learners from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds tend to find this challenge particularly difficult to overcome. They need special support in the dominant language as a second language, also because of large-scale assessment studies such as TIMSS, PISA, DESI, PIRLS/IGLU which have proven beyond doubt that students from marginalised and thus vulnerable groups perform at a significantly lower level than students from the autochthonous majority (Thürmann, Vollmer & Pieper, 2010). NPOs can bring some kind of relief to this issue as they are professionally ready and equipped to help schools, teachers, students or parents to overcome particular obstacles. In this chapter, I also pointed out several activities that where collected from websites of NPOs with focus on a topic of students with a different mother tongue. I categorised those which serve for foreigners into five layers that, of course, overlap. One can assume that the offer of activities is quite rich and can be beneficial for its target group. Our research will clarify the correctness of this hypothesis later on in the empirical part of this thesis. Nevertheless, it is already clear that by involving NPOs organizations in language education, it might be possible to address several concerns and opportunities for development within and outside a classroom (Bainski et al., 2010). 84 85 3. TEACHER TRAINING FOR LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY & NPOs “No education system can be better than its teachers. Recruiting the brightest and best into teaching is a critical imperative in all nations, whatever their wealth or poverty its value in society.” VARKEY GEMS FOUNDATION, 2013, p. 9 Whilst European classrooms are becoming more diverse, teachers remain predominantly homogenous, they lack experience in diverse schooling environments and tend to keep negative attitudes towards students with a diverse linguistic, cultural and/or religious background (UNESCO, 2016). Although these statistics do not sound positively, it is important to know where European teachers find themselves and to what extent they feel prepared. The awareness of starting point is important as inclusion does not and cannot happen overnight. According to Incheon declaration, “… there is strong evidence that teachers are open to change, and keen to learn and develop throughout their careers. At the same time, they need the time and space to take more initiative to work with colleagues and school leaders and to take advantage of opportunities for professional development… ” (UNESCO, 2016, p. 54). The issue of educating children with a different mother tongue is becoming increasingly urgent with the deepening of the immigration trend across Europe. The current situation regarding the rising influx of refugees also requires national responses and preparedness to teach students who have grown in a different language environment. L2 students may be disadvantaged in terms of enrolment in type of school, duration of attending school, indicators of achievement, drop-out rates and types of school diploma reached (MIPEX, 2015a). To transmit values and attitudes of tolerance and openness towards diversity, to provide support to newly arrived pupils, to address the specific needs of all learners, to promote respect for diversity and civic responsibility, these all should be tasks of a teacher in a classroom. To handle it, teachers need to be prepared for the multi-dimensional diversity during their whole career (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015), starting with initial teaching education (ITE), and continuing with their continuous professional development (CPD) at school. In an agenda called A Clear Agenda for Migrant Education in Europe and in its additional recommendations, the SIRIUS Network (2014) recommended to Educational Authorities in Member States to train teachers in the topics of migration, acculturation, social psychology phenomena, language (including second language learning, formative assessment, language diagnostics and intercultural education), diversity and ethnic identity issues relating to the diverse and challenging environments in which teachers teach. According to this report, 86 any pre-service or in-service training programs for school leaders and teachers should include intercultural skills, expertise in the second language learning, as well as knowledge about specific needs of migrant learners. This should motivate teachers to value heterogeneity in a classroom and encourage other learners to do the same. Another important factor is to support and develop the communication with learners’ families and recognize the value of learners’ diverse cultural backgrounds. All of these can contribute to better assimilation with the language of instruction and its mastering (SIRIUS Network, 2014). The number of students in Europe whose mother tongue is different from the language of instruction, is growing; and they do not form a homogeneous group because the level of knowledge of the language varies individually, as well as the level of their previous obtained education (European Commission, 2016, 2017b). In terms of access to education, this fact should not be neglected and the support for their education should be considered individually. In general, studies show that countries with a higher immigration experience and more children with a different mother tongue have a well-developed education system. The MIPEX assessment (2015a) shows that EU countries have the most sophisticated educational system in relation to the education of children coming from a different cultural and linguistic environment of the Scandinavian country and the countries of Western Europe. Sweden is by far the most accessible education system, characterized by an individual approach to the specific needs of children. High scores are gained especially in the area of the ability to quickly teach the language of instruction (MIPEX, 2015a). On the other hand, there are countries such as the Czech Republic which is the second worst-rated category in the area of integration of highly under-the-average assessment, which means that schools, in the time of a survey, did not have sufficient conditions for the education of these children (MIPEX, 2015b). In many cases, good practices of model countries such as Sweden, Finland are transferable and can serve as the base for further adaptations to other countries. This chapter focuses exclusively on the training of teachers during their whole career in three examined countries – the Czech Republic, Italy and Spain with an emphasis on the education of students with a different mother tongue and the current role of NPOs in this process. 3.1 The element of an inclusive teacher: yesterday, today and tomorrow Who is a teacher? What does it mean to be a teacher and what does it involve? … A dictionary says that the origin of the word ‘teach’ lies in the Old English tæcan meaning “show, present, point out”, which is of Germanic origin and relates to token, from an Indo-European 87 root shared by Greek deiknunai “show” (Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries, n.d).. If the definition of a teacher had related to any person who performs the activity of teaching, we could have generalized that we all are teachers while playing several social roles within family, friendship, job etc. In this sense, it is, of course, true – we all are teachers and learners at some point. Nevertheless, in terms of a teacher as a profession, the description should be more precise. Even our past distinguished between two types of teachers - “pedagogue” (paidaggus) and “subject teachers” (didáskalos or diadacts) operating simultaneously or separately depending on the century, family, society, culture etc. into which a child was born. The task of “subject teachers” was to teach the content and transmit the knowledge however there was no closer relationship with students (Castle, 1961), whereas “pedagogues” were supposed to educate. The first pedagogues are considered to be slaves of rich households and the ‘spoils of war’ who usually came from different countries. They played a major part in children lives (from the age of seven till adolescence) helping them to recognize the good and the bad and learn how to behave in different situations (Smith, 2018). Immanuel Kant, in his book On Pedagogy (Über Pädagogik), argues that while the first group (of teachers) educated for a school only, the other one (of pedagogues) for life (Kant, 1900). Our history reveals that the education for children was not always a reality and if practiced at all, it has not been always in hands of institutions and formal teachers. Moreover, children were more considered as adults and lived lives of adult people with all the duties and cruelty and injustice that the times brought not just for them but also for adults (Winzer, 1993). Therefore, it is not a surprise that if children received any form of education, it was provided by unprofessional staff such as the elderly, priests, monks, philosophers, older students, retired soldiers and others; as a part-time, not very seriously perceived job (Grecmanová, Holoušová & Urbanovská, 1999). As early as in the 17th century, Jan Amos Komenský (1948) highlighted the importance of teachers in education. He claimed that children follow the example of their models. Teachers should represent such models. He also claimed that it is fundamental to educate everyone, and this is possible only in universal schools, through books and under the guidance of well-educated teachers and throughout the whole life. This view, however, came to its reality in the 19th century when other acclaimed personalities from groups of philosophers, politicians and educators began to promote the relevance of teacher’s role. To give some example, an educator, Adolf Diesterweg claimed that teachers should educate not only students but also themselves and prepare students for real life with awakening their desire to know and recognize the truth. It was in this period, when teaching was actually recognized as a demanding profession and therefore it was not allowed to have any other job aside (Grecmanová et al., 1999). 88 Who is the teacher of today? Does our society recognize a key role he/she plays? Are they rather “teachers” or “pedagogues”? There is no uniform definition that would state who the today’ teacher is and perhaps, it is impossible to define it due to ongoing changes in our society. However, there has been much said about how qualified teachers should be in terms of their knowledge and competences to fulfil the expectations of the society; and how they should perform in order to help to develop key competences of those who they educate. This competence-oriented education often requires “… cross-curricular approaches, a greater emphasis on interactive learning and teaching styles, combining formal with non-formal and informal learning, more collaboration with non-education stakeholders and local community, a new role of the teacher, trainer and educator in guiding learning processes as well as new approaches to assessment (European Council, 2018c, p.5).” Increasingly complex demands, such as a more diversified student population (e.g. students with special needs, immigrant students); external demands from employers, parents, media, various stakeholders; previously mentioned cross-curricular education and constantly improving technology, makes teacher profession more and more demanding (OECD, 2005, 2010a). In the book Educational Research and Innovation Pedagogical Knowledge and the Changing Nature of the Teaching profession, Guerriero and Révai name new requirements and challenges put on today’s teacher: • meeting the individual needs of increasingly heterogeneous groups of students; • stimulating and managing student learning processes; • promoting human rights and civic education; • developing transversal competencies, or 21st century skills; • helping students to become lifelong learners; • collaborating with colleagues and other professionals; • being involved in administrative and school management tasks; • developing and maintaining an approach towards education based on reflection, inquiry etc. (Guerriero & Révai, 2017, p. 253). Čáp and Mareš (2001) distinguish two basic activities of a teacher. The first task is to educate themselves through the transfer of knowledge, skills and practices of thinking and secondly to educate others to develop the pupil's interests, abilities and character. This division results in a number of requirements for professional and psychological teachers such as the acquisition of professional, pedagogical and psychological knowledge. Moreover, it requires the adaptation to changes that accompanies teaching profession along the whole way. Clarke 89 and Hollingsworth (2002) identified six perspectives on changes which teachers are constantly exposed to: • change as training - change is something that is done to teachers; that is, teachers are ‘‘changed’’, • change as adaptation - teachers ‘‘change’’ in response to something; they adapt their practices to changed conditions, • change as personal development - teachers ‘‘seek to change’’ in an attempt to improve their performance or develop additional skills or strategies, • change as local reform - teachers ‘‘change something’’ for reasons of personal growth, • change as systemic restructuring - teachers enact the ‘‘change policies’’ of the system, • change as growth or learning - teachers ‘‘change inevitably through professional activity’’; teachers are themselves learners who work in a learning community (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002, p. 948). To sum it up, if the teacher of 21st century is supposed to succeed as an educator of today’s and future generations, he/she needs to get an adequate support in a wide range of formal and non-formal education within a lifelong learning perspective that could seek to understand necessary competences, set out good practices and address his/her needs. Cor Meijer, the director of European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive Education, said during his contribution for the World Report on Disability, published in 2011 by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and the World Bank the following: We can discuss inclusion on many levels: conceptual level, policy level, normative or research level, but in the end it is the teacher who has to cope with a variety of students in the classroom! It is the teacher who implements the principles of inclusive education. If the teacher is not able to educate a variety of students in the mainstream classroom, all the good intentions for inclusive education are worthless. So the challenge for the future is to develop curricula and educate teachers in how to cope with diversity (EADSNE, 2011, p. 5). It follows that a teacher is an element who can actually promote inclusive values in classrooms, for that reason it is essential to pay attention to them in terms of support and education. The concept of an inclusive teacher arises from the definition of inclusive education, which is closely described within previous chapters. An inclusive teacher performs in inclusive 96 3.2.2 Qualifications frameworks Qualifications frameworks are typically found at the national, regional, and international level. Countries participating in the Bologna Process are committed to produce a national qualifications framework (Bologna Declaration, 1999). As the Czech Republic, Italy and Spain are members of European Higher Education Area and all of them signed Bologna Accord in 1999, they are obliged with this pledge. In accordance with The Council Recommendation of 22 May 2017 on the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning repealing the Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2008 on the establishment of the European Qualifications Framework for lifelong learning provides a common reference framework to help individuals and organisations compare different qualification systems and the levels of qualifications from these systems in order to improve transparency, the possibility of comparison and the transferability of the qualifications of citizens.. It covers general and adult education, vocational education and training and higher education, therefore, the entire range of qualifications, from those obtained at the end of compulsory education to those resulting from the highest academic and professional levels or from professional training (European Union, 2008b, 2017). The Spanish Qualifications Framework (El Marco Español de Cualificaciones – MECU) is an instrument to promote and improve everyone's access to lifelong learning and participation in it, as well as the recognition and use of qualifications at national and European level. It includes both qualifications obtained in the educational system and also outside the educational system (through on-the-job training, work activity, cooperation with NGOs, etc.) (MECD, n.d.). In Italy, with the decree MLPS-MIUR 8 January 2018, published in the Official Gazette n. 20 of 25 January 2018, the National Qualifications Framework (Quadro nazionale delle qualificazioni - QNG) is established as a tool for describing and classifying the qualifications issued within the national competence certification system. In addition, Italian National Qualifications Framework recognizes skills acquired in formal, non-formal and informal education, including those gained in work-based learning contexts. (Ministro del lavoro e delle politiche sociali, 2018) And finally, in the Czech Republic, National Qualifications Framwork (Národní soustava kvalifikací – NSK) is established in accordance with Act No. 179/2006 Coll., On verification and recognition of the results of further education. It defines the professional qualifications requirements of the individual qualifications, regardless of how they are acquired. It describes what is needed to be able to practice the profession or part of it. (MŠMT, n.d.b). However, if we want to find qualifications relating to the teacher’s profession, we will have to search in different waters, with the exception of the Czech Republic for pre-primary 97 teachers, teacher’s profession is a matter of tertiary education (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). The National Qualification Framework for Tertiary Education in the Czech Republic (Q-RAM) is a comprehensive description of the knowledge, skills and general competencies that a student of a Czech high or higher vocational school must prove to be awarded the appropriate diploma in the field of study (MŠMT, n.d.c). In case of Spain, there is so-called el Marco Español de Cualificaciones para la Educación Superior (MECES), which is the sectorial qualifications framework for tertiary education established under the Royal Decree 1027/2011, of July 15 (Real Decreto 1027/2011, 2011). In Italy, starting from 2005, the Italian Ministry (MIUR) has started the process of realization of the Italian Framework For Degrees (Quadro dei titoli italiani – QTI), that is divided into the three main cycles of higher education as defined by the Bologna Process, and presents all the titles issued for each cycle, with reference to the number of ECTS credits and learning outcomes (Dublin Descriptors) (MIUR, n.d.b). Consequently, the question is put forward what qualifications are necessary to fulfil to become a qualified teacher. The answer differs throughout the world also in this case The Act on Educational Staff and on the Amendments of several Acts No. 563/2004 of the Czech Republic defines a teacher as a pedagogical employee who performs teaching, educational and special educational activity or pedagogical-psychological activity through direct action on an educated person. For concrete levels of education, specific qualification requirements follow. As being mentioned, upper secondary or non-tertiary post-secondary level (ISCED 3 and 4) is sufficient for pre-primary teachers when talking about minimal requirements. On the contrary, primary and lower and upper secondary teachers have to graduate from five-year master study programmes, otherwise they are not considered qualified teachers (MŠMT, 2016b). In Italy, pre-primary and primary teachers are required to obtain master’s degree which takes five years to start their career, whereas for lower and upper secondary teachers it is six years of master studies (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). In Spanish legislation, the Organic Law of Education (LOE) from 2006 describes roles of a teacher and sets qualification requirements to enter this occupation. Both pre-primary and primary teachers have to spend four years at bachelor level and must complete a large part of their studies within professional training in field. This proportion of professional training rapidly decreases with education for lower and upper secondary teachers, for which five-year master study programmes are “a must” (Ley Orgánica 2/2006, 2006). None of the three mentioned countries allows alternative pathways to gain qualification for teacher’s profession. 98 To sum it up, teachers of today can be also defined according to the level of education they have to achieve and competences they have to acquire. Even though some general rules, at least at the European level, have been set, each country has its own setting in form of qualifications and competence frameworks. The competence frameworks should contain description of skills and comptences that express what teachers should know and be able to. The form, value and recognition of frameworks differ widely, from being very broad but consisting of fairly general statements (the case of Italy), or more detailed (the case of Spain). In some countries, however, there is no existence of such frameworks (the case of the Czech Republic). These competence frameworks usually include areas such as subject and pedagogical knowledge, assessment skills, teamwork abilities, the social and interpersonal skills necessary for teaching, awareness of diversity issues, research skills as well as organisational and leadership skills (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). As competence needs are not static (they change throughout life and across generations), it is important to make sure that teachers have the opportunity to acquire the required competences in initial education (ITE) and training, higher education, continuous professional training (CPD), adult education or different forms of non-formal and informal learning. Countries should consider the competences needed at all stages of teacher education to ensure consistency in ITE and CPD at national level – and in particular to ensure that diversity is at the core of every programme. 3.3 Intercultural competences and knowledge of second language acquisition This subchapter makes a stop at the most important competences when it comes to students with a different mother tongue – intercultural competences. Due to the heterogeneous composition of contemporary society, intercultural competencies can be considered as one of the necessary components of the professional competences of not only teachers. Even in everyday’s life, it is necessary, in contact with members of other cultures, to perceive the specific traits of another culture and to be able to adequately respond them. Hereabove, we mentioned that there is a set of competences that every citizen should possess, and European Commission put them into eight categories. The competence number 8 “Cultural awareness and expression competence” is described as a competence in cultural awareness and expression that involves understanding and respect for how ideas and meaning are creatively expressed and communicated in different cultures and through a range of arts and other cultural forms (European Commission, 2018c). To be more concrete, it involves being engaged in understanding, developing and expressing one's own ideas and sense of place or 99 role in society in a variety of ways and contexts.; it requires knowledge of local, national, European and global cultures and expressions, including their languages, heritage and traditions, and cultural products, and an understanding of how these expressions can influence each other as well as the ideas of the individual; which at the same time calls for an understanding of one's own developing identity within a world of cultural diversity and how arts and other cultural forms can be a way to both view and shape the world (European Council, 2018b). When we focus on intercultural comptences themselves, the European conception of intercultural competences (Huber, 2012) sets them apart in five interdependent dimensions. The first factor characterizing attitude or approach to intercultural education relates to the ability to relativize one's own values and values of others. To name few features within this ability: curiosity, openness, willingness to reflect on distrust of other cultures, etc. The second knowledge dimension is the awareness of one's own feelings and behavior in social situations, with simultaneous knowledge of the basic rules of interpersonal interaction. In particular, we speak about the knowledge of social groups, customs and social rules not only of their own culture, but also of the different ones. The third experience of intercultural competences is the ability of an individual to interpret facts and events relating to different cultures and to place them in a global context (skills of interpreting and related). Another dimension based on an individual's experience is the ability of discovery and interaction. This allows individuals to acquire new knowledge of culture and cultural habits, utilizing the knowledge, attitudes and skills of multicultural interaction. The last dimension concluding a complex of intercultural competences is critical cultural awareness, which affects the possibilities of using perspectives, practices and products of other cultures in their own culture (Huber, 2012; Risager, 2007). The Council of Europe has defined a set of competences that ITE graduates should acquire to effectively engage with diversity in classrooms (see Figure 8). They emphasize learning outcomes related to three key competence areas (1) Knowledge and Understanding; (2) Communication and Relationship; and (3) Management and Teaching (PPMI, 2017b). Figure 8 Intercultural competences Framework for teachers 100 Note. Source: PPMI (2017b, p. 25) Reynolds and Reynolds (1997) define intercultural competences by means of seven subfocuses, including: 1. Knowledge and appreciation of the importance and needs of culturally disadvantaged groups and individuals. 2. Awareness of own prejudices and cultural supremacy. 3. Knowledge of intercultural relations, such as the issue of aculturation or the development of cultural identity. 4. Ability to use knowledge and own multicultural consciousness to develop cultural sensitivity. 5. Properly identify the level of own multicultural skills. 6. Awareness of the interpersonal processes that take place within a multicultural society. 7. Awareness of how own ethnocentrism can influence the learning process. The spread and transfer of humanistic ethical behavior and the creation of worldviews presuppose a full awareness of our own cultural identity, spiritual values, prejudices and stereotypes. The teacher should know both his limits in multicultural expertise and his own emotional response to culturally different pupils. According to Graf (2004), an interculturally competent teacher is the one who: a) is able to critically perceive and evaluate cultural exchange and intercultural communication and knows how to mediate it to pupils; (b) promotes intercultural understanding amongst pupils; c) is 101 capable of developing pupils' understanding and interpretation of the manifestations and meanings of other cultures in cultural artefacts and the communication of other people; d) is able to mediate contacts of different cultures in the classroom. The existence of multicultural society, the introduction of multicultural education in schools and the need for equal access to all pupils leads to the extension of (not only) professional competencies. The task of the teacher is to prepare pupils for life in a culturally plural society through the transfer of knowledge, skills and values. Due to the nature and complexity of intercultural education, the degree and quality of acquiring these knowledge and skills can be verified only with the educational reality itself (Graf, 2004). The characteristic position, especially in the educational process, has the teacher's communicative competence. In a multicultural environment, teachers, as representatives of the predominant culture, are exposed to interaction with minority groups, in which intercultural communication plays its role. According to Samuel (2019), within intercultural communication, various barriers and conflicts can arise, as there are differences in language expression, and non-verbal communication with its own national or ethnic specificities. Differences are found in the degree of physical contact, in the way of addressing, in mimic expression of emotions, etc. (Samuel, 2019). In the educational reality, three groups in terms of participants in communication can be distinguished: communication between teachers and pupils, among pupils and teachers and parents (Průcha, 2010). Intercultural competences are, despite of their complexity, measurable. As stated in the previous chapters, the overall level of competence acquisition will be immediately reflected in the real circumstances of the particular situation. The knowledge of the intercultural competences of teachers and educators can be also verified through various tests starting with initial training at university. The attitudes, views and approaches of teachers to intercultural education influenced by individual experiences can be monitored through psychological questionnaires and tests (e.g. intercultural sensitivity test) (Van Oudenhoven & Van Der Zee, 2002). As well as teacher competence frameworks vary across Europe, diversity-related competences stated in educational policies differ from country to country too. According to the report from 2013 ((European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013), in some cases, the competency framework is either totally missing or occupying only a marginal part and is not elaborated in detail. In other cases, it is duly anchored, and teachers are educated in the given competencies. This stimulates an understanding of democracy, gender equality, human rights and aims to adapt their teaching to pupils’ special needs, abilities and talents, and develop the 102 ability for critical reflection. The diversity-related competence framework anchored in legislation represents an effective tool to promote diversity topic among professionals and support their education in this vein. (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013) If and how teachers’ training is promoted in our examined countries is the subject of the following chapters and subchapters which a focus on teachers’ preparedness during their formal and nonformal education. 3.4 Teachers’ career The changing role of teachers is increasingly acknowledged, emphasising the need for significant changes in the way teachers are prepared for their professional roles and responsibilities. Student teachers, as well as professional teachers, may experience deficiencies in different situations. They may feel insecure, for example, in areas of communication, social and emotional sensitivity or assertiveness, having negative impact particularly in terms of intolerance, dominance, lability, conformance, or error orientation (Dedeoglu & Lamme, 2011; Vališová & Kasíková, 2008; Yang & Montgomery, 2011). Teacher should possess the whole package of human capital (a sum of competencies such as knowledge, skills, attitudes, beliefs and intellect) in order to be competent to use knowledge and skills to fulfil a predefined goal (Marope, Griffin & Gallagher, 2018; Hinojosa Pareja & López López, 2018). Three recent Council Conclusions (European Union, 2007, 2008a and 2009a) have identified priorities for improving teacher education as defined by the Ministers of Education in member states 1. Promote professional values and attitudes; 2. Improve teacher competences; 3. Effective recruitment and selection to promote educational quality; 4. Improve the quality of Initial Teacher Education; 5. Introduce Induction programmes for all new teachers; 6. Provide mentoring support to all teachers; 7. Improve quality and quantity of Continuing Professional Development; 8. School Leadership; 9. Ensure the quality of Teacher Educators; and 10. Improve Teacher Education Systems. The Proposal for a Council Recommendation on Key Competences for Lifelong Learning (European Commission, 2018c) sees as a one of the three key challenges to support teachers in: (1) embedding competence-oriented approaches to education, training and learning in initial education and continuing professional development; (2) staff exchanges and peer learning allowing for flexibility and autonomy in organising learning, through networks, collaboration and communities of practice; (3) taking part in research and make appropriate use of new technologies; (4) guidance, access to centres of expertise, appropriate tools and materials can enhance teaching and learning methods and practice. This is connected with the European Agency for Special Needs and Inclusive 103 Education recommendations in legislative changes that have an impact on teachers’ education in inclusive environment, it involves: • for all teachers to recognize that diversity is the “norm” in schools and that all learners – many of whom may require support for different reasons, at different times – are their responsibility; • to develop flexible curriculum and assessment frameworks at national/local levels and empower teachers to make use of the flexibility in providing quality learning opportunities for all; • to develop self-evaluation as the basis for a self-improving system that focuses on improving learning outcomes for all learners – including leaders and teachers. This approach should support a culture of trust and professionalism, replacing control and punitive accountability measures; • to raise awareness of the UNCRC and UNCRPD to ensure attention to the rights of all learners and the need for support, in particular for vulnerable learners to become more autonomous and have opportunities to express their views; • for a focus on increasing the capacity/capability of schools and teachers by providing on-going support that may involve using existing resources in different ways; • to increase co-operation/collaboration with parents and other agencies (EASNIE, 2015b, p. 20). Teachers’ career should be a lifelong learning process that launches with their initial education (usually at university) - also so-called pre-service period, continuing through further development alongside with their professional performance at schools, including adaptation phase for newly-arrived teachers, which is referred here as induction phase. Throughout these all phases, NPOs can assist or directly educate teachers in various fields including intercultural education and teaching while language of schooling is a second language for a student. 3.4.1 Initial teacher education (ITE) Initial teacher education is the first and crucial stage of teachers’ life-long learning process. It represents the entry point of teacher education and combines courses in subject matter, pedagogy and psychology, methodological and didactical preparation, and practice in schools (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015). It ensures quality and has a role to train a new generation of teachers who are ready to shift towards new ways of organizing 104 teaching and learning in diverse school environment (European Commission/EACEA/ Eurydice, 2013). The necessity of multicultural education and intercultural education in the education system today almost no one disputes. Hand in hand with intercultural education, new educational objectives, methods and approaches (e.g. transformative learning [Mezirow, 2003]) are required (see more in sub-chapter 2.3.2); moreover, today’s student teachers need to be prepared for collaborative work (Trust, Krutka, & Carpenter, 2016) and career-long professional development. Preparing student teachers for diversity implies to support their knowledge and better understanding of the world and its cultures. The need to develop communication competences for diversity emerges from the capacity of teachers to be empathic and reflexive about their own beliefs, cultural and socioeconomic differences (PPMI, 2017a, p.20). Even though an increasing number of countries acknowledge complex professional requirements by requiring a teaching qualification at master’s level, several different approaches towards ITE in the area of diversity can be found throughout European countries. According to report by Arnesen et al. (2010), most often, it has a form of a single module or an elective course that is isolated from the rest of the curricula; even though, several ITE providers across Europe offer degree programs with a specific emphasis on diversity or specialized transversal modules, or specializations that have embedded multilingual or intercultural elements of teacher education. Some ITE providers offer comprehensive approaches to diversity through well-structured courses. Nevertheless, in general, ITE programmes need to change so that teachers are better prepared for diverse, multicultural and multilingual classrooms to enhance learning (Arnesen et al., 2010; García & López, 2005), but not on the basis of „add-on“ courses that deal with the diversity as a deficit or burden but as a cross curriculum topic that offers an opportunity to enrich learning for all (Forlin & Sin, 2017). The new conditions have led to increased demands on the professionalism and competence of a teacher. Just as in all education also in undergraduate teacher training, learning by acquiring competencies is “a must”. The fact that no categorization is able to affect the complexity of the teacher's activities, it is necessary to define content framework of initial teacher training through teacher’s competences (Průcha 2009, UNESCO, 2009). The outline of these competences is closely described in the previous sub-chapter (see 3.3). The evidence reveals that intercultural competences can be learned in pre-service phase of education (Acquah 105 & Commins, 2017; Hinojosa Pareja & López López, 2018). Moreover, several studies demonstrate that ITE systems that are based on very well defined competences, are more likely to effectively prepare student teachers for diversity (Severiens, Wolff & van Herpen, 2014). Mistrík (1999) states that to become a conscious intercultural teacher is a complicated process. The first step towards acquiring this competence is the individual effort to seek openness and tolerance in oneself – system of inner values (Miravet & García, 2013). Personal growth, at developing personality in intercultural education, requires not only more knowledge of other cultures and socio-cultural peculiarities but also practical verification of intercultural sensitivity through study, observation, travel and interaction with people of different nationalities and values (Del Rosal, Roman, & Basaraba, 2018; Hepple et al. 2017). At the same time, teacher needs to be able to analyse the overall situation in society and understand the principles of a culturally diversified society. Only after the fulfilment of these two requirements is it possible to achieve professional development and become culturally responsive example for students (Álvarez Valdivia & González Montoto, 2018; Mistrík, 1999, Průcha, Walterová & Mareš, 2009). The level of acquisition of intercultural competencies of graduates from teaching study programmes is influenced by many factors. At present, there is growing concern about the unification of requirements for graduate teachers (Dănescu, 2014). The requirement for the complexity and integrity of the undergraduate training is also underlined by Morvayová (2006) which defines as four-phase process. She argues that in the first phase, the teacher (future teacher) is guided to look at himself/herself as an object from the outside. This is followed by a look at own society and social reality and the appreciation of its pros and cons, which also relates to the awareness of own logic of thought, lifestyle, customs, traditions, etc. Reflected view of reality allows registering also different forms of social and individual adaptation to living conditions, without dividing them into better or worse. Awareness of everyday self-worth and their critical assessment will allow to perceive the relativity of standards in relation to socio-cultural diversity. In the second phase, the teacher receives information that will enable him to orient himself/herself in the surrounding world and the time he lives in for understanding the dynamics of the development of society. Part of this phase is the perception of contemporary Europe (and the culture associated with it) as a part of the continental world. The third phase leads the teacher (future teacher) to systematically analyse ways of obtaining information about other cultures and their critical assessment. Of particular importance is the reflection of the reliability of information sources and their impact on human perception, thinking and attitudes. The result should be the understanding that individual cultural elements are always contextual and relative (Morvayová, 2006). In the 112 Note. Source: Ramírez Carpeo & Mekochi (2015, p. 116). As universities are autonomous and independent, they are able to set out specialised syllabi within the framework of the elective subjects established by the basic guidelines. Each university that provides these degrees is required to set out their Educational Quality Assurance Plans, the criteria and procedures that will ensure the monitoring of compliance with the aims set for each degree (Vidal, 2003). The National Agency for Quality Assessment and Accreditation is responsible for, among others, the processes of accreditation of qualifications (Mora, 2004). According to the study of García & Lopéz (2005) within which 155 study programs from 42 universities were analysed, there were just 62 modules that related to intercultural education, however only 8 of them were compulsory. These results were alarming as the treatment of cultural diversities at Spanish universities was insufficient (similar results can be found in Palomero, 2006 and Peñalva and Soriano, 2010). The same situation is described in recent study by Aguado-Odina, Mata-Benito and Gil-Jaurena (2017) who confirm that study plans include some content about intercultural education as a theme or elective course in some universities and they claim that re-structuring of study plans from an intercultural approach is still needed addressing it as intercultural approach in practice. In general, according to the last report by European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2019) Italy and some Autonomous Communities of Spain have a teacher competence framework for initial teacher education within which intercultural education can be found tackling teaching in diverse, multicultural classrooms and/or addressing general discrimination issues and implicit bias against culturally and linguistically diverse students (see Figure 10). In cases of our examined countries, we can see that Italian and Spanish (some autonomous communities) initial education should address the issue of intercultural education, however in Czech case this competence is not officially required. Figure 10 Issues related to intercultural education included in teacher competence frameworks for initial teacher education (ITE), 2017/18 113 Note. Source: Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2019, p. 21) To conclude, the need for multicultural teacher has arisen with the culturally and linguistically diverse society (Gay, 2010). The teacher’s career starts with his initial preparation at a university, where, to this date some courses, curricula, field experience that develop future teachers’ cultural competence have been already introduced and performed (Acquah & Commins, 2013; Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2019). Nevertheless, after the years of gradual preparedness of future teachers, graduates who are coming to the real school conditions feel unprepared to teach culturally and linguistically diverse students (Pérez-Cusó, MartínezClares & González-Morga, 2014). This naturally brings the question to the researchers how these courses are taught and what can be done to step forward in developing intercultural competences among future teachers (Acquah & Commins, 2017). The teaching profession is, in most European countries, viewed as easily accessible when compared to other professional occupations such as medicine or law, applicants do not face competition and have minimum entry requirements (Guerriero, 2017a). It is suggested that one of the strategies, how to spread and develop intercultural environment also at higher education institution, may be to accept teacher candidates with minority backgrounds (Szecsi & Spillman, 2012). However, the statistics show that if students from minority backgrounds achieve the grades needed for admission to tertiary education, they seem to prefer to enter professions such as law, medicine and engineering (Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). Furthermore, according to the available data, we can see that teaching staff with a migrant background are generally under-represented compared to the actual diversity of the learners (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013; McGrath et al., 2014). One of the solutions 114 to make teaching profession more prestigious, may be to make entry requirements for teaching more demanding, along with improving the subsequent working conditions, may contribute to attracting people with the right values, attitudes, beliefs, competences and knowledge for this profession (European Commission, 2017a; European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). 3.4.2 Continuous professional development (CPD) The second phase of teacher education is represented by professional improvement in its own pedagogical practice via self-study, exchanging experiences and cooperation with other colleagues and further teacher education (Scott, 2015; Whitworth & Chiu, 2017). Further education of teaching staff includes all educational activities leading to the maintenance and improvement of professional competence, the development of personal attitudes and the overall development of the school (Scott, 2015). In essence, it is possible to characterize this process as a lifelong development of professional competences that builds on and upgrade undergraduate training (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2015). Further teacher education must be based on current society needs and reflect the latest findings of pedagogy and other sciences. One of the most important tasks is to introduce innovations and changes of the education system into educational practice. Teaching requires both a high level of expertise and continuous development. The desire to stay up-to-date with the needs and changes of a society should be a part of inner world of every teacher. Teaching is a mission and teachers should feel the importance of education not only for those who they educate, but also for their own development (Roche, 2017). What concerns topic of diversity, involving schools and teachers in agreeing on priority topics can help improve the relevance of CPD in the offer of language teaching skills and intercultural competences. Except traditional courses (which are often costly and organized outside schools), collaborative or school-based formats such as peer observation, cooperation with other colleagues etc. have a potential to support teachers in their education (European Commission, 2017a; Trust, Krutka & Carpenter, 2016). Teachers themselves report that important areas for student support are not often sufficiently covered by CPD, such as (1) teaching cross-curricular skills (2) teaching in multilingual and multicultural settings (3) student career guidance and counselling (4) teaching students with special educational needs (5) new technology in the workplace and (6) approaches to individualized learning (European Commission, 2017a). Above all, to make easier for teachers to voluntarily follow the way of lifelong learning path, continuous professional development should be accessible, affordable and relevant for all teachers (Corcoran, 1995; 115 Villegas-Reimers, 2003). These three factors were found to play the main role in teachers’ participation in CPD, which is according to recent reports very low (European Commission, 2017a). Kohnová (2009) divides types of further/continuous education programs according to the supporting function as follows: a) subject orientation; b) problem orientation; c) personality orientation and psycho-hygiene. Due to the complexity of the problem, elements of intercultural education can be found in all the above-mentioned types of programs. According to her, the subject-oriented programs of further education focus primarily on the development of the didactic competences and the professional development of the teacher in the field of reflection and self-reflection of experience from pedagogical practice. It is imperative that the teacher is able to consider the actual needs and problems of the students and implement them into the teaching. Because of the plurality of classes, the ability to reflect on learning is gaining on its importance. She further explains that problem-oriented programs focus attention on teacher education on socially or culturally determining factors and their elimination in the educational process. In these types of education programs, we can find topics such as the prevention of racism, xenophobia, bullying; and education to tolerance, etc., which lead to the improvement in communication skills, flexibility and teamwork. And finally, programs focusing on personality development and teacher psycho-hygiene contribute to the enhancement of teacher's cultural and general education, the support of foreign language education, and the psychological regeneration of the teacher (Kohnová, 2009). In the same way as Morvayová (2006) suggested topics for future teachers in initial education period, she also recommends areas that should be addressed for pedagogical staff in field relating to intercultural sphere. According to her, teachers should: 1. not assume that it is not necessary to introduce elements of the majority culture into the school curriculum if the composition of the class is homogeneous; 2. not work mainly with the themes and elements of the majority culture, but has endeavoured to ensure that the classroom and the whole school represent by its climate a broad spectrum of society composition; 3. not approach all pupils as a monocultural group; 4. not be convinced that his/her behaviour is not based on stereotyped thinking, but he/she constantly reflected his/her opinions, work and results; 5. always remember that used didactic aids are traditionally used and determined by gender roles, and may not always be comprehensible to all pupils. 6. not divide pupils into groups according to their appearance, gender roles; 7. not emphasize the deviations and errors of individuals compared to the majority normal society; 8. not require absolute adaptation to the majority society; 9. consider that special curricular strategies are essential to the effective functioning of society; 116 10. not apply the same requirements to all pupils (do not apply the objective assessment); 11. not see the equality as a mere theory; 12. not require answers and reactions from students that teachers from their perspective consider to be correct and appropriate (communication is a culturally conditioned phenomenon); 13. respect the habits and ways of upbringing in family or religion (Morvayová, 2006). Continuing professional development (CPD) is recognized as a professional duty. It has gained on its importance over the years and was promoted in legislation, regulations, employment contracts etc. of several education systems. In the following map (see Figure 11) you can see how serious countries are about continuing professional development. In Czech and Italian educational systems, it is recognized as a duty connected to teachers’ profession. In case of Spain depends on the Autonomous Community, in some parts of Spain it is a duty in some parts it might help to a teacher’ promotion but is not compulsory (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013). Figure 11 Status of continuing professional development for teachers in pre-primary, primary and general (lower and upper) secondary education (ISCED 0, 1, 2 and 3), 2011/12 117 Note. Source: European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice (2013, p. 57) Teachers may be confronted at any point of their career with situations that hinder them from performing their duties effectively. Three areas of support were identified in Eurydice report (2013), namely (1) personal matters (2) interpersonal conflicts involving students, parents and/or colleagues (3) the teaching activity as such and more specifically for the development of professional competences. According to this report, the majority of countries offer special support to teachers to help them access continuing professional development opportunities and the support for the professional competences’ development is often regulated within the framework of teachers' continuing professional development. In the majority of European education systems, it is compulsory for schools to have a CPD plan. The development of such a plan is usually a responsibility of the school head, the school management team or a teacher assigned to coordinate the CPD activities in the school; thus, naturally, CPD plans should take into account the development needs of teachers in the context of guidelines or regulations from top-level authorities (Whitworth & Chiu, 2017). According to various European reports (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, 2015; Eurydice, 2008), in Italy, CR and Spain (varies between Autonomous Communities) CPD plan is compulsory. These reports show, that CPD plans are developed at school level in the majority of European education systems however, top-level authorities establish priority themes or areas. In addition, all education systems offer some kind of financial support for teachers’ CPD and some are totally free of charge. Offering courses for free is, according to these reports, the way through which most countries take away the financial burden from teachers for participating in CPD activities. However, it is not a practise everywhere. Usually, education authorities cover provider costs for CPD activities that are considered mandatory for teachers, or that fall into priority topics or areas determined by top-level authorities. In Italy, mandatory CPD is free of charge. In Spain, CPD activities delivered by education authorities are free of charge and in the Czech Republic, the budget for CPD is a part of the lump sum provided for schools (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, 2015; Eurydice, 2008). Additionally, teachers need special support during the early stages of their career as it may be critical period for the professionalization process of teachers (Wang, Odell & Schwille, 2008). School environment is a very challenging place for newly arrived teachers and without any help or support, teachers find it difficult to bear and they drop out of the profession (European Commission, 2017a). If done properly, the adaptation phase, or so-called induction, can help to reduce dropout rate, moreover, it can boost quality of teaching and support 118 professionalism in schools (Carlo et al., 2013). Therefore, induction can serve as a bridge between initial and continuous education of teachers (European Commission, 2010b). A structured support phase for newly qualified teachers is considered crucial also by teachers who need to overcome possible “praxis shock” and who need to feel more secure and confident in the first stage of their career (OECD, 2005). While considering induction programs, the theme of diversity should be taken into an account and should be included as a cross-curricular topic (European Commission, 2010b). Induction programmes have many different organisational patterns. As described in European reports (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, 2015), in most countries, induction is a compulsory phase, which includes a final assessment that beginning teachers must pass in order to qualify. Most countries provide this induction phase in addition to the compulsory professional training received before the acquisition of a teaching diploma. The length of this programme ranges from several months to up to two years. The usual length is, however, one year. Induction programmes usually provide for regular meetings with the mentor, assistance with lesson planning and other pedagogical advice, opportunities for job shadowing, and training modules provided by teacher education providers (European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2013, 2015). Situation in the Czech Republic, Italy and Spain Preparing young teachers for diversity at the induction stage has been implemented in several countries across Europe. The adaptation period in the Czech Republic, or so-called induction period, is neither legally defined nor directly supported by the state at the moment (Janík et al, 2017). Nevertheless, it is the subject of the current interest of the Ministry of Education, which is working on this issue in connection with the creation of a career system for teachers. The proposal foresees a two-year period in which the starting teacher will benefit from increased support from his/her employer (MŠMT, n.d.; Janík et al., 2017). Pursuant to the legislative document Law on Pedagogical Staff of the Czech Republic, teachers have the obligation to continue in their professional education during their whole career to keep themselves updated with needs and changes in a society. The headmaster of a school organizes further education of pedagogical staff according to, a so-called Plan of Further Education, which is determined after a prior discussion with the relevant union body. It arises from the educational interests of teaching staff, needs and a budget of a school (MŠMT, 2016b). As being mentioned above, in-service training programs for teachers are mainly provided by the National Institute for Further Education, which consists of a centre and thirteen regional 119 stations. Other institutions which organize further education for teacher (either accredited or non-accredited) are: universities, governmental and non-governmental institutions and within the schools by particular specialists or sector teachers. Even though their offer includes topic of inclusive education, it is up to a teacher (with the respect to the framework of Plan of Further Education of a particular school) whether he/she will follow the courses or not; which was also noted by Strnadová and Topinková (2010), who argue in a report to EADSNE that there is no systematic policy towards CPD for teaching students with a different mother tongue in the Czech Republic. Above all, teachers may prefer the self-study option, where they are entitled to 12 working days off for study in the school year (MŠMT, 2011). To put it simply, teachers in the Czech Republic do not have any legally determined induction phase within CPD, nevertheless, they have the opportunity to choose from several courses at the beginning of their career and use the 12 days out of work for self development in fields they prefer. The topics are diverse and also include themes from intercultural sphere. Nevertheless, several studies reveal that Czech teachers are not prepared to handle multicultural environment in their classrooms, neither during initial nor CPD (Bačáková, 2011a, 2011b; Bačáková & Closs, 2013). Education of newly-arrived teachers in Italy is coordinated with Ministerial Decree 850 of 27 October 2015 and teachers have to undertake 50 hours of training during the school year, to reach the professional standards provided in the article 4 of Ministerial Decree 850 developing cultural, disciplinary, didactic, methodological and relational competences. Newlyemployed teachers have to attend a 50-hour course, organized by the local School Directorate under the Ministry’s guidelines, without specific clarification of its topics (MIUR, 2015a). However, in 2015, the Italian Ministry of Education (MIUR) pointed out eight priority topics for ITE and induction, which still need to be practically implemented by ITE institutions, including special educational needs, fighting early school leaving, social inclusion and intercultural dynamics (PPMI, 2017a). The training plan includes four phases: preparatory meetings (6 hours), four training workshops (12 hours), peer observation (12 hours) and online training (20 hours) (MIUR, 2015a). The plan is created in relation to a teacher as a professional and needs of a school. School invites a new-arrived teacher into the discussion also through his/her self-analysis (see more about on-line portfolio here: Mangione, Pettenati & Rosa, 2016) and accordingly sets up the training workshops and mutual observations of newly-arrived teachers and his/her tutor. The subjects directly involved in various ways along this path are: school managers of schools in which the teacher is conducting his/her induction phase, the welcoming tutors, the schools “polo” (which are responsible for organizing the initial and final 120 meetings, and the training workshops), the Regional and territorial Scholastic Offices and the evaluation and Indire committees (Casado-Muñoz et al., 2018; Cerini, 2015; Mangione, Pettenati & Rosa, 2016). Among the innovations prepared by the Italian model for the year of training and testing, Mangione et al. (2016) identified some salient elements such as: professional pact of insertion, a more specific role of the head teacher (which, besides to chair the evaluation committee, is obliged to make at least one visit to the class of the teacher in trial period in order to acquire useful elements to his/her next evaluation), the role assigned to the tutor also included in the evaluation committee, peer observation between the tutor and the teacher. From the analysis of the relevant budgets complied for newly recruited teachers, it emerged that within the first five required training topics were intercultural aspects (MIUR, 2015b). In Italy, the law regulating teacher training is the Law 107/2015. This law makes teacher training compulsory, continuing and structural. Each school defines CDP activities, which must be consistent with the school three-year plan of the educational offer, with the selfevaluation report and the improvement plans of schools, according to the priorities indicated by the Ministry of education in the National training plan published every three years (EASNIE, 2016). For the three-year period 2016-2019 the Ministry of education has established the following priorities: • foreign languages • digital competences and new learning environments • school and work • autonomy • evaluation and improvement • competence-based teaching and innovative teaching methods • integration, civic competences and global citizenship • inclusion and disability • social cohesion and prevention of youth discomfort (Eurydice, 2018, p. n.d.). Relating to intercultural education we can find there two paragraphs that contribute to this topic, and are highlighted to be trained within teachers: (1) development of skills in the field of active citizenship and democracy through the enhancement of intercultural education; and peace, respect for differences and dialogue between cultures; support assumption of responsibility as well as solidarity and care of the common goods and awareness of rights and duties; […]; (2) literacy and improvement of Italian as a second language through courses and 121 workshops for students of non-Italian citizenship or non-Italian language, to be organized also in collaboration with local authorities and the third sector, with the contribution of the communities of origin, families and cultural mediators (MIUR, 2017a). Last but not least, there is the "Piano per la formazione dei docenti 2016-2019” [Teachers' training plan]" which defines the principles, the purpose of teachers’ training, the priorities, the organisation and the type of training for acquiring new competences. In chapter IV, among the priorities, inclusion is specifically stated as a "daily" way of managing the classrooms and the training should be directed to the following recipients: contact persons of the Institute for the coordination of integration actions in inclusive school plans; support teachers (a specific module for the indepth study of types of disability must be guaranteed in the three-year period); curricular teachers (teams and class advice) to improve lesson planning in the presence of students with disabilities, learning problems and difficulties; support figures (mediators, communication assistants, educators, collaborators) to improve integrated design skills; school directors; and ATA staff (MIUR, 2015b). Relating to intercultural education topics, several researches reveal that Plan does not include any specific recommendations or obligations to focus training on intercultural education or teaching Italian as a second language (Grigt, 2017). In order to help teachers in their CPD activities, decree 107/2015 foresees a financial support delivered in the form of an electronic card. Every year, each teacher will receive a maximum of 500 € for: • purchasing books, magazines, hardware and software; • attending courses offered by accredited bodies or by higher education institutions; • attending cultural events (representations, movies, live events) and visit museums and exhibitions; • carrying out activities consistent with the three-year educational plan of the school and with the National training plan (MIUR, 2017b). The training and re-training activities for Italian teachers are organized by territorial Regional Scholastic Offices (Uffici Scolastici Regionali), school networks, universities, accredited agencies, training centres, local associations (MIUR, n.d.a) and trade unions; however, education is also transmitted through school–university partnerships, teacher colearning and workplace learning (Avalos, 2011). To give some example, in Sicily, the trade union in collaboration with professional training institute IRASE (Istituto per la Ricerca Accademica, Sociale ed Educativa), develop capacity building projects focusing on training and tutoring activities for teachers, education support for administrative staff and workshops for migrant and refugee children (Grigt, 2017). 128 Milner & Blake Tenore, 2010). According to the report focused on support of teacher educators (European Commission, 2013), such educators should deploy competences on two levels: firstorder (the knowledge base about schooling and teaching which teacher educators convey to student teachers) and second-order (the knowledge base about how teachers learn and how they become competent teachers) knowledge, skills and attitudes. In addition, they should acquire the key areas of competence, as follows: (1) knowledge development, research and critical thinking competences; (2) system competences (i.e. managing the complexity of teacher education activities, roles and relationships); (3) transversal competences (for instance, decision making, initiative taking, entrepreneurship, team work); (3) leadership competences (inspiring teachers and colleagues; coping with ambiguity and uncertainty); and (4) competences in collaborating, communicating and making connections with other areas (European Commission, 2013, pp 15-16). Unfortunately, teacher educators, although being seen as key actors, they were found to be rarely prepared to teach ITE curricula for diversity (European Commission, 2017a). Hence, there is still space for an improvement in this area. 3.5 Conclusion To be able to deal with students with a different mother tongue in classrooms, teachers need special training which starts with pre-service education and continues during teachers’ practice within continuous professional development. Not only teachers have to be trained but also those who train teachers should be encouraged to develop their competences and knowledge, moreover, on top of that the whole school staff should be trained how to cooperate and interact. There are several providers of training for pre-service and in-service teachers. The most common ones, also in our examined countries, are universities and governmental institutions. However, there are also other key players who are sometimes forgotten but play the crucial role in educational policy – especially in its development and innovation, such as: associations, NGOs, parents etc. The linkage and cooperation of all actors can contribute to welcome changes in education policies and speed up a process of inclusion where all students get the same possibility to grow (Wolf, CasadoMuñoz & Pedone, 2018). The knowledge, skills and attitudes of teachers necessary for the quality of the teaching profession are characterized by the teacher's professional competencies. When it comes to teacher training for L2 students, intercultural competences are in the foreground. Teachers are supposed to be trained in the area of intercultural competences, they should have knowledge 129 about second language learning and they should be aware of the fact that students’ mother tongue has to be kept and developed as it represents an important tool which can help to achieve better academic results. If education institutions dealing with pre-service or in-service teachers are on doubts whether they provide sufficient intercultural education for their “clients”, they can try to answer the following questions, prepared by Karwacka-Vögele (2012) which help them to identify (either retrospectively or instantly) their weaknesses. Here are the questions to be answered: Do we raise trainees’ sensitivity to and awareness of intercultural issues? Do we encourage trainees to empathise with others? Do we improve trainees’ effectiveness and fairness when dealing with intercultural encounters? Do we support trainees’ productiveness and constructiveness? Do we encourage trainees to move from individual practice to action that shapes societal practice? Do we organise training sessions which focus on diversity, social sensitivity, cultural responsiveness and quality requirements as part of staff development schemes? Do we provide professional training for teachers to address both proactive goals (such as how to build a learning community) as well as responsive needs (for example conflict resolution)? Do we foster intercultural competence, in both initial and in-service training? Do we prepare teachers to develop teaching materials which enhance culturally responsive education? Do we equip teachers across different subject areas with methods and resources supporting deliberative learning, critical understanding, team work, conflict management and multiperspectivity (especially in teaching controversial and sensitive issues)? Do we train teachers to guarantee safe learning conditions? Do we provide trainees with educational strategies and working methods which help them to manage situations caused by discrimination, racism, xenophobia, sexism and marginalisation? Do we train teachers to resolve conflicts peacefully? Do we encourage trainees to deal with difficult situations that might arise in informal and interpersonal encounters (such as verbal threats or sexual intimidation)? Do we promote reflective teachers and the self-development of practitioners, as a condition of quality assurance in education? Do we guarantee school-based teacher training in order to address issues of importance for the local community such as cultural specifics, community development or any other particular training needs? Do we develop the skills needed to update the professional competence required by diverse learning groups? Do we provide teachers with new media skills in order to promote student participation in online collaborative learning and collective knowledge building? Do we prepare teachers to gradually apply and evaluate noncognitive, values-related and citizenship education goals? Do we train teachers to assess students’ previous cultural and social experiences and specific learning needs (for example their language and civic competencies, social distance)? Do we prepare quality- 130 assurance instruments inspired by education for democratic citizenship and taking account of the intercultural dimension? Do we train teachers to motivate learners to work with others to make changes to themselves and their environment? Karwacka-Vögele, 2012, p. 58-59). One way to achieve equal access to education is to create a network of actors who provide services in the field of education of students with SEN, including L2 students, thereby ensuring the availability and quality of services in the education of these children, since linking services at the local level is a prerequisite for effective integration (META, 2014). This view is also supported by several studies, which reveal that teachers’ professional learning can be supported with more systematic links between CPD providers during teacher’s career (Furlong, 2015; Rollan & Somerton, 2019). 131 PART III: PARTNERSHIP IN EDUCATION, EMPIRICAL STUDY 132 4. CONTEXT METHODOLOGICAL PROCESS “Rather than resisting or fleeing a problem, by entering it, making oneself part of it, one can use it as an element of liberation.” Alejandro Jodorowsky 4.1 Problem relevance and significance of this thesis The intent of this thesis is to make a meaningful contribution to knowledge in the partnership of stakeholders in education. The topic of partnership in inclusive education following the path of lifelong learning is very much discussed worldwide in our current time, the 21st century. An important determinant of inclusion in schools is the co-operation of all actors shaping an inclusive environment. Frequently pronounced networks include governments, governmental institutions, civil society organizations, universities, schools and families (Chrispeels, 2015; Koyama & Bakuza, 2017; López-Azuaga & Suárez Riveiro, 2018; Paniagua & D’Angelo, 2017; Rah, Choi & Nguyen, 2009). Non-profit organizations, with their flexible policies, independent budgets, and tackling “wicked issues” (Vangen & Huxham, 2012), can offer a range of professional public services (Kendall, 2005) from which the whole education policy can benefit. To establish, build and develop cross-sectoral partnership is a working process that requires time, resources, trust-building, ongoing support and “soft steering” from central or local government. However, the academic literature more inclines to identify the challenges of such partnership than potential or actual benefits (Kara, 2014; Macmillan, 2003). This dissertation thesis examines topic consisting of several important issues: partnership of public sector with third sector, students with a different mother tongue and teacher training. To our current knowledge, the research in a such specific area has not been examined sufficiently and there is still a lot of potential and space for further investigation. In terms of L2 students and the necessity of their inclusion into a host society has been written and investigated a lot (Ainscow, Dyson, Weiner, 2013; European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2019; UNESCO 2003, 2016). In the same pace, the theme of teacher training in inclusive education has been discussed and examined within various studies (European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (EADSNE), 2011, 2012; Severiens, Wolff & Herpen, 2014). What concerns non-profit organizations and their possible contribution to education as partners, there have been already decates within which several researchers promote cross-sector 133 or so-called community collaboration to enhance school environment (Ainscow, Muijs & West, 2006; Epstein, Gallindo, Sheldon & Williams, 2006; Epstein & Sanders, 1998; Hands, 2005; Sanders & Harvey, 2002). And there are also few studies that link some of these topics together. To mention few examples, the network of organizations including the Red Cross, Caritas and other non-profits in Belgium set up centres to support refugee and asylum seekers families with services for children support children in their early years establishing firm grounds for their future school readiness and success (Park, Katsiaficas & McHugh, 2018). Due to shortages of places and resources in public schools in Turkey, non-profit organizations together with international agencies provided services for Syrian children such as learning and recreational activities, psychosocial and mental health support, education materials and associated teacher training (UNESCO, 2018). The pros and cons of contribution of non-profit organizations in education has been described by several researchers (Stepheson, 2013; Williamson, 2012, 2013). Waitoller and Kozleski (2013) argue that partnerships composed of schools, universities, non-profit organizations and others have the potential to overcome barriers that prevent marginalized students from learning in schools. O’Donovan, Berman, and Wierenga (2015) see non-profit organization as a responsive organ which serves better to local needs due to direct touch with students and as an enabling space for education which may contribute to the complex learning process of an individual. Putting all these topics together, meaning focusing on non-profit organizations as potential providers of teacher training in the area of students with a different mother tongue, there has not been much investigated in the academic sphere, and the potential might not have been fully explored (Lazin, 2001; Lucas, Sherman & Fischer, 2013 & Schultz, 2015). The author of this thesis believes that the networking of non-profits with schools/teachers, having the sense of “groups or systems of interconnected people and organisations (including schools) whose aims and purposes include the improvement of learning and aspects of well-being known to affect learning” as articulated by Hadfield, Jopling, Noden, O'Leary, and Stoll (2006, p. 5), might represent an efficient way how to improve/broaden the process of teaching and learning of all actors while sharing resources and how to learn to cooperate on joint activities (Muijs, West & Ainscow, 2010). 134 4.2 Research questions By conducting the research, we try to answer the following question and its subquestions. The main question was set followingly: How do non-profit organizations contribute as educational institutions to a cooperation with teachers/schools in the field of inclusion of students with different mother tongue? Do national approaches vary across examined countries? To answer the main question, we had to look for answers of its several sub-questions: - How do NPOs see the current situation in education of students with a different mother tongue in relation to teachers? - What services do NPOs offer for teachers/schools? And how do they see the current cooperation? - How do teachers see the current situation in education of students with a different mother tongue? - Do teachers know about the existence of NPOs in this area and are they interested in such cooperation at all? It is necessary to note that all these questions were examined individually for each country and subsequently compared within these three countries. 4.3 Objectives of a research The aim of the research was to analyse the partnership of educational stakeholders, in our case of schools/teachers with non-profit organizations in the field of intercultural education particularly tackling the topic of students with different mother tongue. The dissertation thesis is divided into two main parts – theoretical and empirical part. The aim of the theoretical part was to introduce the dissertation work into the theoretical concept of lifelong learning in the inclusive policy of contemporary and future educators with an emphasis on cooperation with non-profit organizations as one of the important partners in education. The goal was to describe the educational situation in three European countries - Czech Republic, Italy, Spain - in the given field, review the scientific literature related to the objective of a research and prepare the theoretical background for the subsequent research part. The aim of the empirical part was to map the scope and content of cooperation between schools and non-profit organizations dealing with the topic of a student with a different mother 135 tongue, focusing specifically on teachers and their training, in all three countries. As for the pre-survey phase, we set the objective to firstly validate qualitative survey questionnaire items within qualified experts. For the research itself, the objectives were examined within subjective views of NPOs and teachers. The sub-objectives of a research from the NPOs’ point of view were to: - identify with which educational institutions NPOs mostly collaborate in each country; and compare results among examined countries, - identify means of communication which NPOs mostly use to address educational institution; and compare results among examined countries, - identify with which professionals NPOs mostly collaborate in each country; and compare results among examined countries, - identify areas in which NPOs mostly collaborate with educational institutions; and compare results among examined countries, - identify topics in which NPOs mostly collaborate with educational institutions; and compare results among examined countries, - identify forms of cooperation between NPOs and educational institutions; and compare results among examined countries, - identify types of teachers (according to a stage of career) with which NPOs mostly cooperate; and compare results among examined countries, - analyze topics in which teachers need more training according to NPOs; and compare results among examined countries, - analyze determinants that have an impact on academic failure of students with different mother tongue from the view of NPOs; and compare results among examined countries, - analyze NPOs’ views on efficiency of existing cooperation with education institutions; and compare results among examined countries. Here are the sub-objectives from in-service teachers’ point of view. The goals were to: - analyze teachers’ approach to the topic of students with different mother tongue; and compare results among examined countries, - analyze teachers’ approach to cooperation with non-profit organization; and compare results among examined countries. 4.4 Geographical settings delimitation 136 This dissertation thesis sets its research in three European countries, alphabetically – Czech Republic, Italy and Spain. We chose these countries for several reasons. To start with the first one, it was the logical decision in terms of established co-tutela cooperation between University of Palermo in Italy and University of Burgos in Spain plus the fact that the PhD student, the author of this thesis, comes from the Czech Republic, and thus can easily reach the data from her country of origin. The second reason was that those countries have a different approach while dealing with the offered topics for which they can enrich this research. Italy and Spain have a long migration history and at this time it becomes even more pressing and sensitive issue. Moreover, both countries practise the inclusive approach in education for more than two decades, in case of Italy (as the European pioneer country) even more than four. On the contrary, the Czech Republic is not an experienced country neither in immigration policy nor in inclusive education. Finally, Spain and Italy are large countries in comparison with the Czech Republic and their education policies are decentralized. In case of Spain, educational powers are shared between state authority (Ministry of Education) and 17 Autonomous Communities, each of them with its own education policy. Sicily is one of the 20 regions of Italy and one of the 5 autonomous regions where executive power is exercised by the Regional Government. In the theoretical part of this thesis, all three countries are considered equally. In case of Spain, the special attention was put on the one of the 17 autonomous communities of Spain called Castilla y León for two reasons: (1) each region has its own autonomy education policy within Spain, therefore it was necessary to focus on one region to describe the actual situation, (2) the University of Burgos is placed in the region of Castilla y León. What concerns the empirical part of the thesis, we concentrated our research on the whole Czech Republic (10 million inhabitants); then on the Autonomous Community Castilla y León (2,5 million inhabitants) in Spain (for the same reasons mentioned above); and finally on Sicily (5 million inhabitants) where University of Palermo is situated. 4.5 Plan and timeline of a research Since the research has been designed for three countries, there was a necessity to stay in these countries to establish the potential collaboration. The first academic year (2016/2017) the theoretical background was studied during the author’s stay at the University of Palermo, Italy under the main supervision of Prof Francesca Pedone. In the second academic year (2017/2018), we continued with the theoretical background and launched the empirical part 137 during author’s stay at the University of Burgos with the main supervision of Prof Raquel Casado-Muñoz. The fall semester of the last academic year (2018/2019) the author spent at University of Pardubice, Czech Republic under the main supervision of academic professor Zdeňka Šándorová and continued at the University of Palermo, Italy till the end of the research with occasional research trips to other examined countries. During the whole process, the PhD student and her supervisors from the University of Palermo and the University of Burgos collaborated and discussed individual steps (See Figure 12). Figure 12 Time schedule of research activities Activity Time Theoretical research November 2016 - October 2019 Empirical research September 2017 - October 2019 Preparatory phase of quantitative research September 2017 - March 2018 Quantitative research in Spain April 2018 - June 2018 Quantitative research in the Czech Republic September 2018 - December 2018 Quantitative research in Italy January 2019 - March 2019 Preparatory phase of qualitative research November 2018 - January 2019 Qualitative research in all three countries February 2019 - June 2019 Analysing and interpretation of results January 2019 - September 2019 Note. Source: Made by author. 144 second language students for a teacher. Additionally, we eliminated teachers of Czech/ Italian/ Spanish language who teach these languages as a second language for foreigners. What concerns the process of addressing teachers in individual countries, in all three countries we used the same approach. We addressed teachers with who we have already cooperated and asked them to recommend us 5 colleagues who meet the requirements to: (1) have 2 or more years of teaching practise, (2) teach any subject(s) except a second language. We decided to contact all suggested teachers without further testing (i.e. whether they do or do not have an experience with students of different mother tongue; and/or whether they have or have not cooperated with non-profit organization(s)). We assumed that the less we influence the sample the more relevant data we can collect. At the end, we contacted 5 teachers in each country, and they all agreed to participate in the research. 5.3 Instruments The general term for a measurement tool which a researcher uses is called an instrument. Instruments can be divided into researcher-completed and subject-completed. Simply put, it is distinguished according to who completes instruments – if it is a researcher or a participant (Research Rundowns, n.d.). For our purposes we used instruments from both mentioned categories as Figure 15 demonstrates. Figure 15 Research instruments Researcher-completed Instruments Subject-completed Instruments Interview Questionnaire Note. Source: Made by author. Given the target groups, we chose interview as an instrument for teachers and questionnaire as an instrument for non-profit organizations/associations (see Figure 16). Details are described in the following sub-chapters. Figure 16 Research instruments and target groups Quantitative research Qualitative research 145 Target group Non-profit organizations/associations Non-profit organizations/associations Teachers Instrument Questionnaire Questionnaire Interview Note. Source: Made by author. 5.3.1 Questionnaire In the first phase of the research, we decided to use a questionnaire as an instrument for data collection. We had two aims with our questionnaire: (1) to map and describe the situation with the use of closed-ended questions in order to meet the following objectives: - identify with which educational institutions NPOs mostly collaborate in each country; and compare results among examined countries, - identify means of communication which NPOs mostly use to address educational institution; and compare results among examined countries, - identify with which professionals NPOs mostly collaborate in each country; and compare results among examined countries, - identify areas in which NPOs mostly collaborate with educational institutions; and compare results among examined countries, - identify topics in which NPOs mostly collaborate with educational institutions; and compare results among examined countries, - identify forms of cooperation between NPOs and educational institutions; and compare results among examined countries, - identify types of teachers (according to a stage of career) with which NPOs mostly cooperate; and compare results among examined countries, and (2) to analyse the approach of non-profit organizations/associations with the use of openended questions in order to meet the following objectives: - analyse topics in which teachers need more training according to NPOs; and compare results among examined countries, - analyse determinants that have an impact on academic failure of students with different mother tongue from the view of NPOs; and compare results among examined countries, - analyse NPOs’ views on efficiency of existing cooperation with education institutions; and compare results among examined countries. 146 In the first stage we searched for questionnaires which could have been already designed within our topic and which could, with some modifications, serve our purpose. We went through academic literature and significant European or worldwide reports, however to our knowledge, there was nothing that would satisfy our requirements. Thus, we had to consider creating new questionnaire. During the process of designing the questionnaire, we were using English language for formulating questions, however English version was not used for our respondents because the final version of questionnaire was translated into Czech, Italian and Spanish (with slight modifications due to different educational systems in each country), therefore, in practice we used appropriate language mutations. In the following paragraphs, we will briefly describe the structure and the construction of a questionnaire. Once we knew the objectives of our questionnaire, we placed the question who the right person is to answer the questionnaire. We agreed that, in the light of a basic structure we made, the best option is to address someone from the top management of an organization/association. We requested only one person per an organization to respond our questionnaire. The first draft of a questionnaire consisted of 25 questions of which 22 were closedended and 3 opened-ended. We sent this draft to experts from all three countries asking for their evaluation using the evaluation form illustrated in Figure 17. The selected experts tested clarity, relevance and importance of every item (within both demographic data and questions). Figure 17 Design of evaluation form of a questionnaire for experts 147 Note. Evaluation form was also created in Czech, Italian and Spanish mutation. Source: Made by author. We chose 2 experts from each country. The profile of an expert-evaluator was as follows: Academic or scientific employee working in the field of teacher training (pre-service, in-service) in inclusive education for disadvantaged groups who has high-level of expertise in the relevant field for at least 5 years. Once we received evaluation forms, we started to reorganize the questionnaire. The most frequent negative comment we received was “over-expertise” of questions, meaning to be too difficult for its academic language to be answered by its target group. Thus, there was a necessity to simplify questions to make them clearer and more understandable for future respondents. More or less for the same reason, we decided to leave out several questions. We overall omitted 9 and modified 7 questions (some of them more, some of them less). Thus, at the end, the hard-copy version includes 16 questions, 3 of which are open-ended. To shortly describe the structure, we can divide the questionnaire into three main sections: (1) demographic data, (2) general cooperation of NPOs with educational institutions, and (3) NPOs as partners in teacher training. The whole questionnaire starts with the short introduction (see Figure 18) outlining the reasons for the study and explaining who is conducting the study. 148 Figure 18 Introduction part of a questionnaire Note. Source: Made by author. The first section – demographical data - collects information about (a) a person who responds the questionnaire (see Figure 19), and (b) an organization the person represents (see Figure 20). Figure 19 Questionnaire – Personal data of a respondent Note. Source: Made by author. Figure 20 Questionnaire – NPOs' demographic data 149 Note. Source: Made by author. The second section consists of 8 closed-ended questions which were designed to explore forms and intensity of cooperation, professionals who NPOs cooperate with, and topics NPOs focus on (see Figure 21). The example of the first question from the second part shows how we constructed the questionnaire. We established the scale from 1 to 5 which represent the frequency with which the cooperation, activities, topics etc. are performed. We used multiple choice grid form of a question for several reasons: (a) easier follow-up evaluation for researchers, (b) accessible tool in google form platform, (c) time-effective, unambiguous, easy-to-fill-in method for respondents. Figure 21 Questionnaire – Part 2: General cooperation – Question 1 and scalling 150 Note. Multiple choice grid with scale from 1 to 5 where 1 represented no or low cooperation, 2 random cooperation, 3 frequent cooperation, 4 very frequent cooperation and 5 constant cooperation. Source: Made by author. Here are other questions we created to be investigated in this part (see Figure 22) in order to map the intensity of collaboration between studied stakeholders: Figure 22 Questionnaire – Part 2: General cooperation – Questions 2 - 8 151 152 Note. Multiple choice grid with scale from 1 to 5 where 1 represented no or low cooperation, 2 random cooperation, 3 frequent cooperation, 4 very frequent cooperation and 5 constant cooperation. Source: Made by author. The last (third) section includes 5 closed-ended and 3 open-ended questions and tries to identify and analyse current cooperation and approach in view of NPOs. For the first three questions we also used multiple choice grid. Since the other two close-ended questions were constructed as simple questions with no sub-options we used linear scale form. The last three 153 open-ended questions were not compulsory for respondents; therefore, questions could be skipped. We assumed that if we do not allow respondents to proceed further without answering these questions, they could early determinate the whole questionnaire, which was not the risk we wanted to take. On the contrary to the second part, this part of the questionnaire did not use uniform scale for all questions. Each question had its own measurement unit. Questions in the 3rd part (linking them to previous parts) were constructed in order to understand (a) the extent of cooperation in teacher training activities (questions no. 9, 10, 12, 15); (b) view on L2 students’ academic performance (questions no. 11, 14); and (c) general view on cooperation with schools (questions no. 13, 16). The list of topics in the question number 10 was designed on the basis of suggestions of Leiva Olivencia (2011) who highlighted these topics within his book Convivencia y educación intercultural: análisis y propuestas pedagógicas. For question no. 11 we draw an inspiration from a contribution written by Arabi (2001), who in his article tries to identify and describe the main causes of students’ failure. At the end of the questionnaire, we left a space for other recommendations or suggestions which a respondent could have and could feel to express. We also offered respondents to inform them about results of the research in case of their interest. For detailed content see Figure 23. Figure 23 Questionnaire – Part 3: Cooperation in teacher training – Questions 9–16 256 Casado-Muñoz, R. (2012). Educación inclusiva y formación del profesorado en declaraciones y normas internacionales [Inclusive education and training of teachers in statements and international standards]. Revista de educación inclusiva, 5(2), 141-154. Retrieved from http://www.ujaen.es/revista/rei/linked/documentos/documentos/16-10.pdf Casado-Muñoz, R., Canfarotta, D., Korbek, G., Lojacono, C., & Wolf, J. (2018). 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ANNEXES I Form of a questionnaire I Demographic Questions Personal data of a responder Age: Sex: o Female o Male The highest level of education completed: o Basic compulsory education o Upper-secondary education o Higher education – bachelor o Higher education – master o Higher education - PhD Job placement in the organization (e.g. principal, head of a department, etc.): Type of contract: o Full-time o Part-time o No contract, I am volunteer Length of work (in years) for the organization: Data about the organization/association: Name of the organization you work for: Location of the organization (name of a village, town, city): The organisation is of a scope: o local o provincial o regional o national o international Size of the organization according to number of employees: Which tools for digital dissemination your organization uses: o Websites o Facebook o Twitter o Blog o Email How many employees does your organization have: 306 Number of women man Full-time Part-time Volunteers ___________________________________________________________________________ II General collaboration - NGO with educational institutions In all following items, please, indicate the frequency of cooperation. Please, use the following scale: 1: low or no cooperation 2: random cooperation 3: frequent cooperation 4: very frequent cooperation 5: constant cooperation 1. What is the frequency of cooperation with educational institutions? 2. With which professionals does your organization cooperate? Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Top management Teachers Sector teachers (i.e. teachers responsible for some areas – e.g. languages, ICT, inclusion etc.) University teachers Teacher`s educators Educational consultants Inspectors Translators Interpreters Other. Please, specify. Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Nursery schools Kindergartens Primary schools Lower-secondary schools Upper-secondary schools Vocational schools Higher educational institutions Other. Please, specify. 307 3. In which areas do you collaborate with educational institution(s): Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Teacher training Language education Translations of documents Interpretations Counselling services Research activities Educational projects Organization of events Other. Please, specify. 4. What activities does your organization cooperate in: Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Seminar(s) Workshop(s) Conference(s) Counselling Other. Please, specify. 5. What topics does your organizations cooperate on: Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Intercultural Education Regulations on education of students of foreign origin Communication between students with different mother tongue and teachers Communication between families of students with different mother tongue and teachers Courses of xx (espaol/italiano/češtiny) for students Courses of xx (espaol/italiano/češtiny) as a second language for teachers Other. Please, specify. 6. In the following activities, please, indicate, the frequency of cooperation with parents of students with different mother tongue: Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Courses of (espaol/italiano/češtiny) for parents 308 Discussions/courses about the education rights Courses/workshops about the (Spanish/Italian/Czech) culture Translations of educational documents for families Other. Please, specify. 7. In the following activities, please, indicate, the frequency of cooperation relating to training of future teachers (i.e. students of Faculties of Education): Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Intercultural education Traineeships Participation at conferences/ seminars for university students Didactics of (espaol/italiano/češtiny) as a second language Other. Please, specify. 8. Indicate tools which you use for communication with educational institutions: Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Emails Regular post Social networks (twitter, facebook, etc.) Media campaign (e.g. radio, TV, other websites on Internet, etc.) Personal visits and self-promotion Organization of events Information transferred through other governmental bodies Telephone Calls Other. Please, specify. III Cooperation in the area of teacher training 9. Indicate, how often your organization cooperates on teacher training activities with: Scale Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Future teachers - students In-service teachers Teacher educators 309 1: low or no cooperation 2: random cooperation 3: frequent cooperation 4: very frequent cooperation 5: constant cooperation 10. Indicate, what priority, according to you, should have the following topics during teacher training: Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 Intercultural education Mediation in conflict resolution Promotion of positive conflict management Development of equal opportunities Communicative skills Promotion of community participation Facilitation of shared and reflective learning Promoting the understanding of differences Support in overcoming prejudices. Methods and linguistic support resources for students with different mother tongue Principles and methods for including students with different mother tongue at school Communication with parents and its coordination Scale 1: none priority 2: low priority 3: middle priority 4: high priority 5: the highest priority 11. Indicate, what are, according to you, the causes of academic failure of students with different mother tongue: Lowest Highest 1 2 3 4 5 School ignorance of the new multicultural reality Lack of teacher training Low sensitivity of teachers to this problem Low sensitivity of educational institutions Students` lack of the language of schooling Different educational culture Difficulties in previous schooling Lack of teaching staff Scale 1: no impact 2: low impact [Document text truncated for crawler view.]