Co espondence o: Ma ía José, Pé ez-Fabello. Di ección Pos al:
Facul ad de Bellas A es, Rúa Maes anza, 2, 36002, Pon e ed a, Spain
Tel: 34 986 801 879. Email: [email p o ec ed]
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, ol. 20, 3, 41-54 © Copy igh 2018: Se icio de Publicaciones de la Uni e sidad de Mu cia
Recibido: 10/05/2019_ Mu cia (España) ISSN edición imp esa: 1578-8423
Acep ado: 04/05/2020 ISSN edición web (h p:// e is as.um.es/cpd ): 1989-5879
Psychome ic p ope ies o he Spanish e sion o he Exe cise Image y
Ques ionnai e (EIQ)
P opiedades psicomé icas de la e sión en español del Exe cise Image y
Ques ionnai e (EIQ)
P op iedades psicomé icas da e são em espanhol do Exe cise Image y
Ques ionnai e (EIQ)
Pé ez-Fabello, M. J.1 & Campos, A.2
1Uni e si y o Vigo; 2Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela
ABSTRACT
In his s udy, he psychome ic p ope ies o he Spanish e sion o he Exe cise Image y Ques ionnai e (EIQ) we e
e alua ed in a sample o 166 i s -yea unde g adua es o a Bachelo ’s deg ee in Physical Ac i i y and Spo s
Sciences, 127 men, and 39 woman; Mage = 20.57, SD = 2.24. Pa icipan s exe cised a leas 4 imes a week.
Mo eo e , he Spanish e sions o ou men al image y ques ionnai es we e adminis e ed: MIQ-R, VMIQ, VVIQ,
and Go don Tes . Two con i ma o y ac o analyses o he EIQ we e pe o med. Fi s , a h ee- ac o model
( echnique, ene gy, and appea ance image y) he same as he o iginal model, ailed o ob ain he ecommended alues
o a good i . Howe e , he second model adjus ed o wo ac o s ( echnique and ene gy image y) was good (CFI
= .97, NNFI = .94, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04) wi h esul s simila o he o iginal es . Reliabili y was accep able
as measu ed by he C onbach’s alpha, bu composi e eliabili y was lowe han ecommended. Howe e , con e gen
and disc iminan alidi y was inadequa e. The e was a signi ican co ela ion be ween he EIQ and he Go don Tes .
Fu he mo e, Tables ha e been included as an aid he elucida ion o he esul s o he sample o unde g adua es on
he Bachelo ’s deg ee in Physical Ac i i y and Spo s Sciences. The esul s a e discussed, and subs an ia ed he
Spanish e sion o he EIQ was a alid and use ul es o explo ing wo ypes o image y in pa icula : echnique
and ene gy.
Keywo ds: isuali a ion; eliabili y; alidi y; physical ac i i y.
RESUMEN
En es e s udio se e alua on las p opiedades psicomé icas de la e sión en español del Cues iona io de Imágenes de
Eje cicio (EIQ) en un g upo de 166 ( 127 homb es y 39 muje es ) es udian es de de p ime año de g ado en Ciencias
de la Ac i idad Física y del Depo e (Medad = 20.57, SD = 2,24). Los pa icipan es ealizaban eje cicio al menos 4
eces po semana. Además adminis amos la e sion Española de cua o cues iona ios de imagen men al: MIQ-R,
Ci a: Pé ez-Fabello, M. J.; Campos, A. (2020). Psychome ic p ope ies o he Spanish e sion o
he Exe cise Image y Ques ionnai e (EIQ). Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20(3), 41-54
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Pé ez-Fabello, Ma ía José & Campos, Al edo
42
VMIQ, VVIQ, Go don Tes . Lle amos a cabo dos análisis con i ma o ios del EIQ, en p ime luga , un modelo con
es ac o es (imagen de écnica, ene gía y apa iencia) simila al o iginal, aunque no cumplía los alo es
ecomendados pa a un buen ajus e. Sin emba go, el ajus e del segundo modelo con dos ac o es (imagen de écnica
y ene gía) ue bueno (CFI = .97, NNFI = .94, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04), con esul ados simila es a la p ueba
o iginal. La iabilidad medida a a és del al a de C onbach ue accep able pe o la iabilidad compues a ue más baja
de lo ecommendable. La alidez con e gen e y disc imina e esul ó adecuada. Encon amos una co elación
signi ica i a en e el EIQ écnica y el Go don Tes . También se incluyó una abla de ba emación del g upo es udian es
o Physical Ac i i y and Spo s Sciences. Los esul ados se discu ie on, y se obse ó que la e sion Española del EIQ
es una p ueba álida y ú il pa a explo a , especialmen e, dos ipos de imagen: écnica y ene gía.
Palab as cla e: isualización; iabilidad; alidez; ac i idad ísica.
RESUMO
Nes e es udo a aliamos as p op iedades psicomé icas da e são em espanhol do Exe cise Image Ques ionnai e
(EIQ). Pa icipa am 166 (127 homens e 39 mulhe es) alunos do p imei o ano de uma licencia u a em A i idade
Física e Ciências do Despo o (Midade = 20.57, SD = 2,24). Os pa icipan es exe ci a am-se pelo menos 4 ezes
po semana. Além disso, adminis amos a e são em espanhol de qua o ques ioná ios de imagem men al: MIQ-R,
VMIQ, VVIQ, Go don Tes . Fo am ealizadas duas análises con i ma ó ias do EIQ, p imei o um modelo com ês
a o es (imagem écnica, ene gia e apa ência), exa amen e como o o iginal, embo a não se a endesse aos alo es
ecomendados pa a um bom ajus e. No en an o, o ajus e do segundo modelo com dois a o es ( écnica e imagem
ene gé ica) oi bom (CFI = .97, NNFI = .94, RMSEA = .07, SRMR = .04) com esul ados semelhan es ao es e
o iginal. A con iabilidade medida a a és do al a de C onbach oi acei á el, mas a con iabilidade compos a oi meno
que o ecomendado. A alidade con e gen e e disc iminada oi adequada. Hou e uma co elação signi ica i a en e
o EIQ écnica e o es e de Go don. Também oi incluída uma abela de escala do g upo de es udan es de A i idade
Física e Ciências do Despo o. Os esul ados o am discu idos, e obse ou-se que o EIQ é um es e álido e ú il pa a
explo a , p incipalmen e, dois ipos de imagem: écnica e ene gia.
Pala as cha e: isualização; con iabilidade; alidade; ac i idade ísica.
INTRODUCTION
Men al image y is an e ec i e echnique ha has been
used in many di e en ypes o physical and spo s
ac i i ies (Cumming & Ramsey, 2009; Giacobbi,
Hausenblas, & Pen ield, 2005; Kosse & Mun oe-
Chandle , 2007). Using men al image y in ol es
ec ea ing an expe ience s o ed in he memo y o
c ea ing a new one o he pu pose o imp o ing
lea ning, and de eloping ce ain skills aimed a
pe o mance op imiza ion (Simons, 2000). As a
men al echnique used in he spo s con ex , i is also
employed o enhance sel -con idence, o con ol
exci emen and anxie y, and aise mo i a ion and goal
achie emen in spo speople (Cumming & Williams,
2012; Palmi Gue e o and Rie a Rie a, 2016). The
cu en in e es in men al image y in ields such as
spo s and physical aining has been well illus a ed
by se e al s udies such as Campos, López-A aujo, and
Pé ez-Fabello’s (2016) analysis o he ypes o men al
image y used in physical and spo s ac i i ies. A wide
ange o spo s ha e been ound o bene i om using
men al image y isualiza ion aining echniques such
as baske ball (Rekik, Khacha em, Belkhi , Bali, &
Ja aya, 2019); oo ball, bo h in playe (Pe is-
Delcampo, 2019), and eam s udies (Mo eno-
Fe nández e al., 2019); gol (F ank, Land, Popp, &
Schack, 2014, 2016), ennis (Fo es e al., 2019, Meie ,
F ank, G öben, & Schack, 2020 ), and olleyball
(Fo es e al., 2020).
S udies on image y mo emen ha e p ima ily ocused
on one speci ic ype o image y, mo o image y. Mo o
image y is a dynamic men al ep esen a ion enabling
a mo o mo emen o be exe cised in he wo king
memo y, wi hou pe o ming he ac ion in eali y
(Dece y, 1996). The p ac ice o mo o image y, which
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Spanish e sion o he EIQ
43
is widely popula and has been esea ched ex ensi ely,
is a men al simula ion p ocess, also known as men al
p ac ice, in ol ing he sys ema ic use o image y o
exe cise a mo emen wi hou pe o ming he ac ion
i sel (Di Rienzo e al., 2016). Recen s udies ha e
used physiological measu es o assessing men al
p ac ice. Lebon e al. (2019) e alua ed mo o image y
and i s in ol emen in he p ocesses o p epa a ion and
eal-li e execu ion o mo emen s using ansc anial
magne ic s imula ion. A ecen s udy using
physiological es s, Zabicki e al. (2019), obse ed
spa ial pa e ns o neu onal ac i i y in imagined
ac ions measu ed by MRI scanning, and signi ican
posi i e co ela ions be ween neu onal neu al
dissimila i y alues and he pa icipan s’ subjec i e
e alua ions o he in ensi y o image i idness. Mo an
and O’Shea (2020) sugges s ha he p ac ice o mo o
image y d i es ela i ely high le els o he mo o
sys em ha e ine and pe ec he men al
ep esen a ions o an a hle e’s ac ions du ing he i s
s ages o skills acquisi ion.
Nume ous s udies on mo o image y ha e been
unde pinned by he mo o simula ion heo y ( o
u he in o ma ion see: Mo an & O’Shea, 2020;
Mo eno-Fe nández e al., 2019; Pe is-Delcampo,
2019). This heo y asse s men al p ac ice is
e icacious as an imagined mo emen in ol es he
in e nal simula ion o he eal mo emen in designing
an ac ion plan, p edic ing he ou come, and in
p epa ing he means o achie e he goals. Mo eo e ,
he e is a unc ional equi alence be ween simula ion
and execu ing an ac ion. This heo y d aws on he
axonomy o Pai io (1985), subsequen ly ex ended by
o he au ho s (see, Mun oe-Chandle , & Gammage,
2005), who ha e p oposed i e image y unc ions:
Cogni i e Speci ic (e.g., skills), Cogni i e Gene al
(e.g., s a egies), Mo i a ional Speci ic (e.g., se ing
objec i es), Gene al Mo i a ional-Anxie y (e.g.,
exci a ion), and Gene al Mo i a ion -Dominio (e.g.,
sel -con idence). Bo h simula ion heo y and Pai io’s
(1985) axonomy unde pin he s udies o Hall (1995),
who was one o he i s au ho s o poin ou he
bene i s o image y in spo s, bo h in compe i i e and
ec ea ional, and link exe cise and physical ac i i y.
Mo eo e , Hall sugges ed ha exe cise image y
enhanced sel -con idence o ask pe o mance by
p o iding people wi h a sense o achie able success.
Hall’s indings pa ed he way o new esea ch on
exe cise image y, gi ing ise o he Exe cise Image y
Ques ionnai e (EIQ; Hausenblas, Hall, Rodge s, &
Mun oe, 1999). Though his measu emen ins umen
was designed on he p emise ha image y has
cogni i e and mo i a ional unc ions, he
ques ionnai e does no co e ed he en i e ange o
image y unc ions ( o a e iew o he model see,
Mun oe-Chandle , & Gammage, 2005). Pa icipan s in
he Hausenblas e al.'s s udy (1999) we e olun ee
ae obic p ac i ione s who belonged wo di e en
uni e si y campuses (144 unde g adua es 89% women
in he i s campus, and 267 unde g adua es, 97.6%
women in he second). The i ems on he es we e
d awn om he i s phase o he s udy ollowing he
pa icipan s’ esponse o h ee basic ques ions: When
do exe cise s use image y? Why do exe cise s use
image y? and Wha do exe cise s image? Con en
alidi y was de e mined by six expe s ( h ee exe cise
p o essionals and h ee exe cise pa icipan s).
A e a con i ma o y ac o analysis, Hausenblas e al.
(1999) ound h ee ac o s co esponding o h ee
ypes o image y commonly used by use s: (i)
appea ance image y, which e e s o imagining
onesel becoming heal hie and imp o ing one’s
physical appea ance; (ii) ene gy image y, which is
ela ed o imagining onesel ull o ene gy and eady
o exe cise; and (iii) echnique image y, which implies
imagining he co ec execu ion o he echnique. The
analysis o he fi indexes indica ed excellen model fi
(RMSEA = .05; AGFI = .93; CFI = .97). C onbach’s
alphas o he subscales we e accep able (α om .71
o .85). Finally, Hausenblas e al.’s (1999) s udy ound
mos pa icipan s egula ly exe cising used image y a
di e en imes and si ua ions, and ha he use o
men al image y inc eased wi h exe cise.
Gammage, Hall and Rodge s (2000) del ed deepe
in o he s udy o exe cise image y by applying he EIQ
o a sample o 577 exe cise s (312 women) who
pa icipa ed in a wide a ie y o physical ac i i ies.
The esul s showed ha gende , exe cise equency,
and he ype o physical ac i i y in luenced he use o
exe cise image y. Appea ance image y was used mos
o en, ollowed by echnique, and ene gy image y,
espec i ely. Gende also in luenced he use o
exe cise image y, wi h signi ican di e ences ound
be ween men and women in appea ance, and
echnique image y. Women used appea ance image y
mo e o en han men, bu men used echnique image y
mo e o en han women. Mo eo e , each speci ic ype
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Pé ez-Fabello, Ma ía José & Campos, Al edo
44
o physical ac i i y was ound o de e mine
p e e ences in he use o exe cise image y. La e
se e al EIQ s udies ha e co obo a ed he asse ion
ha he equency o exe cise image y posi i ely
p edic s exe cise beha iou and in en ion ( o a e iew
see Kosse & Mon oe-Chandle , 2007; Mun oe-
Chandle & Gammage, 2005).
Gammage e al. (2000) ha e conjec u ed di e en
ypes o exe cise image y in luence mo i a ion o
exe cise, and ha images based on physical
appea ance play a i al mo i a ional ole in
spo speople. In a mo e de ailed s udy on a sample o
150 ac i e exe cise s (193 women) engaged in an
a ay o exe cise ac i i ies, S anley, Cumming,
S andage, and Duda (2012) ound ha , despi e being
associa ed o mo i a ion as poin ed ou by Gammage
e al. (2000), appea ance image y was ac ually
mo i a ion con olled, in o he wo ds, i deal wi h an
ex e nal mo i a ion ocused p ima ily on physical
imp o emen in spo s. Howe e , echnique image y
was posi i ely ela ed o au onomous mo i a ion
(in insic mo i a ion), which consis ed o using
images o a co ec execu ion o an exe cise. This
app oach e lec s an in insic ocus o he use o
echnique image y as a psychological s a egy.
Al hough S anley e al. (2012) ound no signi ican
ela ion be ween ene gy image y and au onomous
mo i a ion, hese au ho s assumed he mo i a ional
ole o his image y would be ans o med in ime,
being mo e in insically g a i ying in he long e m.
Likewise, Mun oe-Chandle and Gammage (2005)
ha e sugges ed he na u e o a use ’s image y may
a y h oughou he p ocess o exe cising, ini ia o y
images may in ol e esul s-based con en (such as
hose ela ed o appea ance) in o de o ini ially se he
in en ion o exe cise. La e on, du ing he aining
session, use s may ake a di e en app oach using
mo e ene gy images so as o keep hei ene gy and
exci emen up. Hall, Rodge s, Wilson, and No man’s
(2010), analysis o a sample o 470 pa icipan s (252
women), o whom 202 we e egula exe cise s, 138
non-exe cise who in ended o exe cise, and 130 non-
exe cise wi h no in en ion o exe cising. They ound
in e en ions wi h men al image y we e e icacious in
egula exe cise s, and non- egula exe cise s,
al hough in ended on exe cising, bu he e icacy o
men al image y in non-exe cise s wi h no in en ion o
exe cising was low.
Rodge s, Hall, Blancha d, and Mun oe (2001) ound
images ep esen ed 20% o he a iance in obliga o y
exe cise using he EIQ be o e and a e a 10-week
exe cise p og am o 243 adul exe cise s. Appea ance-
ela ed images did no signi ican ly p edic obliga o y
exe cise, and ene gy- ela ed images we e he s onges
p edic o . In a la e s udy, Roge s, Mun oe, and Hall
(2002) ound ha appea ance image y signi ican ly
p edic ed exe cise in en ion bu ailed o p edic
exe cise beha iou .
Kosse and Mun oe-Chandle ’s (2007) e iew
concluded ha exe cise image y could be an e icien
ool o imp o ing pe o mance and adhe ence o
physical ac i i y p og ams. Ajibua and Peculia
(2016) con i med his esul on a sample o 150
unde g adua es (81 women).
Bea ing in mind ha isualiza ion o physical ac i i y
in non-compe i i e spo has ecei ed sca ce a en ion
in he scien i ic li e a u e, IEQ can be conside ed a
good gene al measu e o he men al image y o
exe cise. Thus, he aim o he p esen s udy was o
ansla e he EIQ in o Spanish and o assess he
psychome ic p ope ies o he Spanish e sion o he
Exe cise Image y Ques ionnai e (EIQ; Hausenblas e
al., 1999). I was pos ula ed ha he Spanish e sion
o he EIQ would ha e a simila numbe o ac o s as
he English e sion (Hausenblas e al., 1999), wi h
good alidi y and eliabili y. We also wo king wi h he
hypo hesis was he e would be signi ican co ela ions
be ween EIQ and ou men al image y es s ansla ed
in o Spanish, he psychome ic p op ie ies o which
ha e been analysed in p e ious s udies. Two o he
mo emen image ies ques ionnai es applied in his
s udy ha e been ex ensi ely used in physical and
spo s ac i i ies: The Spanish e sion (Campos &
González, 2010) o he Mo emen Image y
Ques ionnai e-Re ised (MIQ-R; Hall & Ma in,
1997), and he Spanish e sion (Campos & Pé ez,
1990) o he Vi idness o Mo emen Image y
Ques ionnai e (VMIQ; Isaac, Ma ks, & Russell,
1986). The gene al image y i idness es used was
he Spanish e sion (Campos, González, & Amo ,
2002) o he Vi idness o Visual Image y
Ques ionnai e (VVIQ; Ma ks, 1973), as well as he
Spanish e sion o he men al image y con ol es
(Pé ez-Fabello, & Campos, 2004) o he Go don Tes
o Visual Image y Con ol (Go don Tes , Richa dson,
1969).
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Spanish e sion o he EIQ
45
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Pa icipan s
The sample consis ed o a o al o 166 i s -yea
unde g adua es on he Bachelo ’s deg ee in Physical
Ac i i y and Spo s Sciences a a Spanish s a e
Uni e si y, 127 men and 39 women; age ange 18 o
26 yea s, mean age 20.57 yea s, (SD = 2.24).
Pa icipan s we e egula exe cise s, exe cising 4
imes weekly, and p ac icing a b oad ange o spo s:
i ness, a hle ics, kayak, su , ennis, sailing, owing,
swimming, oo ball, ugby, and olleyball.
Ma e ials
The Spanish ansla ion o he Exe cise Image y
Ques ionnai e (EIQ; Hausenblas e al., 1999). The EIQ
consis s o 9 i ems ela ed o he equency o use o
men al images while exe cising. Pa icipan s mus
alue he equency o images on a 9-poin scale (1 =
ne e and 9 = always). The ques ionnai e is composed
o h ee subscales: echnique, ene gy, and appea ance.
The echnique subscale ep esen s a cogni i e unc ion
o images and is cen ed on execu ion skills and
co ec ly execu ed echniques. Fo example, “When I
hink abou exe cising, I imagine my o m and body
posi ion” is one i em ha assesses echnique image y.
The ene gy subscale is belie ed o play a mo i a ional
ole and linked o being exci ed o ene ge ic while
exe cising. An example o an i em is “To ake my
mind o wo k, I imagine exe cising”. The hi d
subscale, appea ance, is also ela ed o a mo i a ional
unc ion cen ed on i ness ha includes i ems such as
“I imagine a i e -me om exe cising”. The da a in
he p esen s udy ob ained a C onbach’s alpha o .78
o he h ee- ac o EIQ o al, and .70 o he wo-
ac o EIQ o al, as well as .78 o he echnique
scale, .75 o he ene gy scale, and .78 o he
appea ance scale. The C onbach’s alphas o he EIQ
subscales we e below he le els ound in p e ious
s udies: Hausenblas e al., 1999: echnique = .86,
ene gy = .90, and appea ance = .84; Rodge s e al.,
1999: echnique = .90, ene gy = .88, and appea ance
= .87; Gammage e al., 2000: echnique = .86, ene gy
= .85, and appea ance = .87; Gammage, Hall, & Ginis,
2004: echnique = .90, ene gy = .81, and appea ance
= .88; Roge s e al., 2002: echnique = .83, ene gy
= .87, and appea ance = .78; Wilson, Rodge s, Hall, &
Gammage, 2003: echnique = .85, ene gy = .87, and
appea ance = .88; and Hall e al., 2010: anging
om .74 o .89.
The Spanish e sion (Campos & González, 2010) o
he Mo emen Image y Ques ionnai e-Re ised (MIQ-
R; Hall & Ma in, 1997). The es comp ises 8 i ems,
4 on he isual scale and 4 on he kinaes he ic scale.
Each i em in ol es mo ing an a m, leg, o he whole
body. I akes ou s eps o comple e each i em: i s , a
posi ion o a mo emen is desc ibed and he
pa icipan is asked o ca y i ou . Secondly, a
mo emen is desc ibed and he pa icipan mus
pe o m i . Thi dly, he pa icipan is asked o go back
o he ini ial posi ion and hen o imagine he - o
himsel making he mo emen (o he i ems o he
isual scale), o o eel he mo emen she o he has jus
made (in he i ems o he kinaes he ic scale) wi hou
ac ually making he mo emen . Finally, he pa icipan
is asked o e alua e he di icul y wi h which she o he
imagined o el he mo emen on a 1–7-scale, 1 being
“ e y easy o imagine o eel” and 7 “ e y di icul o
imagine o eel”. In his s udy he C onbach’s alpha
was .86 o he o al scale, .84 o he isual subscale,
and .92 o he kines he ic subscale. Vadocz, Hall, and
Mo i z (1997) ound a C onbach’s alpha o .79 o he
isual scale, and .79 o he kines he ic scale. Campos
and González (2010) ob ained a C onbach’s alpha
o .84 o he o al scale, .80 o he isual scale,
and .84 o he kines he ic scale. Addi ionally, he
MIQ-R ende ed a co ela ion o -.34 (p < .001) wi h
he VMIQ, and -.26 (p < .001) wi h he VVIQ.
The Spanish e sion (Campos & Pé ez, 1990) o he
Vi idness o Mo emen Image y Ques ionnai e
(VMIQ; Isaac, Ma ks, & Russell, 1986). The VMIQ
consis s o 24 i ems designed o assess he abili y o
isually and kines he ically imagine an a ay o
mo emen s. When comple ing he VMIQ, pa icipan s
a e equi ed o imagine and e alua e (1 = pe ec ly
clea and as i id as no mal ision, and 5 = no image,
you only know ha you a e hinking o he skill) each
i em was e alua ed wice: i s , by imagining wa ching
somebody else pe o m he mo emen , and second, by
imagining pe o ming he mo emen hemsel es.
Thus, he e a e a o al o 48 esponses wi h low sco es
co esponding o mo e i id image y. The 24 i ems
all in o six g oups, wi h ou i ems in each g oup. The
g oups a e as ollows: i ems ela ing o basic body
mo emen s (I ems 1–4, o example, “Walking”);
i ems ela ing o basic mo emen s wi h mo e p ecision
(I ems 5–8, o example, “Reaching o some hing on
ip oe”); i ems ela ing o mo emen wi h con ol bu
some unplanned isk (I ems 9–12, o example,

Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Pé ez-Fabello, Ma ía José & Campos, Al edo
46
“Falling o wa ds”); i ems ela ing o mo emen
con olling an objec (I ems 13–16, o example,
“Ca ching a ball wi h wo hands”); i ems ela ing o
mo emen s ha cause imbalance and eco e y (I ems
17–20, o example, “Running downhill”); and i ems
ela ing o mo emen s demanding con ol in ae ial
si ua ions (I ems 21–24, o example, “Jumping in o
wa e ”). The C onbach’s alpha o he VMIQ was .98
o he ques ionnai e o al, .97 o imagining onesel
making he mo emen , and .97 imagining somebody
else making he mo emen . VMIQ es – e es
eliabili y has been demons a ed o e a 3-week pe iod
wi h a g oup o physical educa ion s uden s, = .76
(Isaac e al., 1986). The VMIQ has also demons a ed
adequa e concu en alidi y wi h he Vi idness o
Visual Image y Ques ionnai e wi h no ice,
expe ienced, and in e na ional-le el ampolinis s.
The co ela ions we e .75, .45, and .65 espec i ely
(Isaac e al., 1986).
The Spanish e sion (Campos e al., 2002) o he
Vi idness o Visual Image y Ques ionnai e (VVIQ;
Ma ks, 1973) is composed o 16 i ems ela ing o
di e en si ua ions, o example, “Visualise a ising
sun. Conside ca e ully he pic u e ha comes be o e
you mind’s eye”. Pa icipan s mus isualise and
e alua e he i idness o each gi en image, o
ins ance, in he p e ious si ua ion: “The sun is ising
abo e he ho izon in o a hazy sky”. Image i idness
mus be assessed on a 5-poin scale, 5 meaning “no
image, you only know wha you a e hinking o he
skill”, and 1 meaning “a pe ec ly clea image and as
i id as no mal ision”. Thus, high sco es in he VVIQ
indica e low image i idness. Pa icipan s comple e
he ques ionnai e i s wi h hei eyes open and hen
wi h hei eyes shu . The C onbach’s alpha o his
sample was .96. Campos e al. (2002) ob ained a
C onbach’s alpha o .88. Pé ez-Fabello and Campos
(2004) ound ha he Vi idness o Visual Image y
Ques ionnai e co ela ed om -.40 o -.24 wi h he
Go don Tes o Visual Image y Con ol (Go don es ;
Richa dson, 1969). In a ecen s udy, Pé ez-Fabello
and Campos (2020) ob ained a C onbach’s alpha
o .93.
The Spanish e sion (Pé ez-Fabello, & Campos, 2004)
o he Go don Tes o Visual Image y Con ol (Go don
Tes , Richa dson, 1969) is comp ised o 12 i ems in
which pa icipan s a e asked o imagine a mo o ca
and hen asked o a e on a 3-poin scale (0 = no, 1 =
unsu e, 2 = yes) whe he hey can imagine i in a ious
di e en colou s, posi ions, and s a es o mo ion, o
example “Can you see a ca s anding in he oad in
on o a house?” To al sco es ange om 0 o 24,
whe e high sco es indica e be e image-con ol. The
C onbach’s alpha o his sample was .74. In s udies
p e ious, he C onbach’s coe icien o he Go don
Tes was es ima ed a .69 (Pé ez-Fabello & Campos,
2004). Pé ez-Fabello and Campos (2004) ob ained a
co ela ion o -.40 (p < .001) wi h he Vi idness o
Visual Image y Ques ionnai e (VVIQ; Ma ks, 1973).
P ocedu e
The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h e hical
ules con ained in he Decla a ion o Helsinki o 2000,
and was app o ed by he e hics commi ee o he
Uni e si y o he i s au ho . All unde g adua e
s uden s olun ee ed o pa icipa e in he s udy.
The ansla ion p ocess o he EIQ (Hausenblas e al.,
1999) was pe o med in ou s eps. Fi s , he i s
au ho , who is luen in English and Spanish,
ansla ed he EIQ in Spanish. Then, he second
au ho , who was also luen in English and Spanish
back- ansla ed he EIQ back o English wi hou
e e ing o he o iginal e sion. Thi d, he bo h
au ho s d a ed he inal e sion o he EIQ. Finally,
bo h au ho s and a p o essional English o Spanish
ansla o , who is an expe in psychology, edi ed he
syn ax o he i ems, spelling, and any g amma ical
e o s o he inal e sion o he EIQ (see Appendix I).
A he gym o he Facul y o Physical Ac i i y and
Spo s Sciences, he ollowing ques ionnai es we e
adminis e ed in g oups o app oxima ely 20
pa icipan s: he EIQ, MIQ-R, VMIQ, VVIQ, and he
Go don Tes . The o de o es s was coun e balanced.
Da a Analysis
S a is ical analysis was pe o med using he IBM
SPSS 20.0 so wa e p og am and IBM SPSS Amos 20
(2011). In he p elimina y analysis, a ypical alues on
he scale we e de e mined by he Mahalanobis
dis ance. The baseline o de ining a case as a ypical
was se a he e y conse a i e le el o .001,
conside ing he indica ions o Hai , Ande son,
Ta ham, Black (1999). The uni a ia e no mali y was
assessed wi h he skewness and ku osis whe e
indexes close o ze o and less han 2 indica e he
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Spanish e sion o he EIQ
47
simila i y wi h he no mal cu e o uni a ia e da a
(Bollen & Long, 1993; Nu iala e al., 2012). Ma dia's
coe icien was used o mul i a ia e no mali y.
Acco ding o Bollen (1989), mul i a ia y no mali y
exis s when Ma dia’s coe icien is less han p (p + 2),
whe e p is he numbe o a iables obse ed.
To assess, i he hypo hesis gene a ed o he o iginal
s udies was con i med, we pe o med a con i ma o y
ac o analysis (CFA) ha gi es model- i ing
indica o s (Jö eskog & Sö bom, 1993, 1999). Global
i o models we e assessed using six indexes: he χ2
o i s deg ees o eedom (d ) a io—because his index
alone is e y sensi i e o sample size (Jö eskog &
Sö bom, 1993)— he goodness o i index (GFI), he
compa a i e i index (CFI), he non-no med i index
(NNFI), he oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion
(RMSEA), and he s anda dized oo mean squa e
esidual (SRMR). Values o he χ2 o d a io be ween
0 and 3 a e ecommended o a good i (Bollen &
Long, 1993). GFI alues highe han .90 a e
ecommended, whe eas alues equal o .95 o highe
a e ecommended o CFI and NNFI (Hu & Ben le ,
1999; Jö eskog & Sö bom, 1993, 1999). Values equal
o .08 o lowe a e ecommended o RMSEA and
SRMR (B owne & Cudeck, 1993).
The C onbach’s alpha (α) and composi e eliabili y
(CR) we e calcula ed o e alua e he in e nal
consis ency o he ac o s, and a cu -o alue o .70
was applied as ecommended by Nunnaly (1978) and
Hai , Black, Babin, and Ande son (2014). As o
con e gen alidi y analysis ( o con i m he i ems
we e ela ed o hei espec i e ac o ), he a e age
a iance ex ac ed (AVE) was calcula ed using he
ecommended (AVE ≥.50) e e ence alue (Hai e al.,
2014). In ela ion o disc iminan alidi y ( o
de e mine he ac o s we e no ela ed o each o he
a e), he squa e o he ac o s co ela ions we e
con i med o be below he AVE o he same (Hai e
al., 2014). As a measu e o concu en c i e ion
alidi y, he Pea son p oduc –momen co ela ion
coe icien was used o co ela e he EIQ o he o he
image y es s o compa able measu es. Finally, he
pe cen iles o he EIQ Subscales in bo h models (2-
ac o and he 3- ac o EIQ) a e shown.
RESULTS
In he p elimina y s udy, alues o .001 we e ound
du ing he calcula ion o he Mahalanobis dis ance,
and in acco dance wi h he conse a i e c i e ion o
Hai e al. (1999), a baseline alue o .001 was
es ablished o de ining cases as ou lie , wi h he
emo al o 11 obse a ions.
As o uni a ia e no mali y, he skewness and ku osis
indexes o he ques ionnai es we e nea ze o and
below he alue o 2. In addi ion, he uni a ia e
no mali y was calcula ed by he skewness and ku osis
o each i em on he EIQ, ob aining alues ha in mos
i ems we e close o ze o o less han he 2, which was
abo e he ecommended alues (Bollen & Long, 1993;
Nu iala e al., 2012). Mul i a ia e no mali y was
con i med by Ma dia's coe icien 17.26 o he h ee-
ac o e sion, and 6.51 o he wo- ac o e sion o
he EIQ (Bollen, 1989). The da a no mali y ob ained
jus i ied he use o he maximum likelihood me hod.
Figu e 1 shows s anda dized coe icien s o he
p oposed model, wi h alues anging om .55 (I em
2) o .94 (I em 8). All alues we e s a is ically
signi ican (p < .001). As es ima ed by he model, he
ela ions among he h ee ac o s we e .29 be ween
echnique and ene gy, .43 be ween ene gy and
appea ance, and .44 be ween echnique and
appea ance.
Figu e 1. Th ee- ac o model o Exe cise Image y Ques ionnai e (EIQ)
The ini ial model did no adjus sa is ac o ily o he
da a χ2 (68.65) and d (24), and he a io was 2.86 (p
< .001). As he esul o a Chi-squa e is pa icula ly
sensi i e o sample size, i is usually accompanied by
he a io be ween he alue and he deg ees o
eedom. This esul was be ween 0 o 3 ha can be
conside ed a good model i o da a (Jö eskog &
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Pé ez-Fabello, Ma ía José & Campos, Al edo
48
Sö bom, 1993, 1999). The o he Index alues we e:
GFI (.91), CFI (.90), and NNFI (.86). The RMSEA and
SRMR alues we e .11 and .08. Though he da a in he
p esen s udy ailed o each he ecommended alues
abo e .95 o CFI and NNFI (Hu & Ben le , 1999;
Jö eskog & Sö bom, 1993, 1999), he GFI ob ained a
alue highe han he ecommended .90 (Hu &
Ben le , 1999; Jö eskog & Sö bom, 1993, 1999).
Whils he SRMR was wi hin ecommended alues,
he RMSEA ailed o ul il he ecommenda ions o
B owne and Cudeck (1993) as i exceeded he
ecommended alue o .08 o lowe o RMSEA and
SRMR. As i em 2 explained only 30% o he la en
ac o , and conside ing each dimension had 3 i ems, a
model wi hou he appea ance ac o was assessed
wi h a sho wo- ac o e sion o he EIQ o model
imp o emen .
Figu e 2 shows s anda dized coe icien s o he
p oposed model, wi h alues anging om .65 (I em
1) o .81 (I em 5). All alues we e s a is ically
signi ican (p < .001). As es ima ed by he model, he
ela ion be ween bo h ac o s was .43 be ween
echnique and ene gy.
Figu e 2. Two- ac o model o Exe cise Image y Ques ionnai e (EIQ).
These alues sugges ed a good i o he model χ2
(14.95) and d (8), a io was 1.87 (p = .06). Index
alues we e: GFI (.97), CFI (.97), and NNFI (.94). The
RMSEA and SRMR alues we e .07 and .04.
In e nal consis ency as measu ed by he C onbach’s
alpha, and composi e eliabili y a e shown in Table 1.
Mos o he C onbach’s alphas we e abo e .70 as
sugges ed by Nunnaly (1978), and Hai e al. (2014).
Howe e , composi e eliabili y was below
ecommended alues.
Table 1
C onbach’s Alpha, Composi e Reliabili y o he h ee-Fac o EIQ, and
wo-Fac o EIQ
EIQ h ee
ac o s
EIQ echniqu
e
EIQene g
y
EIQappea anc
e
EIQ o a
l
C onbach’
s alpha
.78
.75
.78
.78
Composi e
Reliabili y
CR)
.64
.34
.59
.73
EIQ wo
ac o s
C onbach’
s alpha
.70
Composi e
Reliabili y
(CR)
.41
.30
.34
The analysis o con e gen alidi y e alua ed se e al
c i e ia. Fi s , all o he s anda dized ac o ial loads
we e abo e .6, excep o i em 2 o he h ee- ac o
model. The alues in bo h o he EIQ models
p oposed we e abo e 1.96, con i ming he alidi y o
he indica o s used o measu ing he cons uc s.
Second, he esul s indica ed ha all he ac o s
eached he ecommended cu -o alues (AVE ≥.50)
(Hai e al., 2014). The disc iminan alidi y o bo h o
he models p oposed showed he AVE alue ( igu es
in bold) o each ac o we e highe han he squa e o
he co ela ion be ween he cons uc and each o he
o he s (Hai e al., 2014) (see Table 2).
Table 2
Con e gen and Disc iminan Validi y o he h ee-Fac o EIQ, and wo-
Fac o EIQ
EIQ h ee
ac o s
EIQ echnique
EIQene gy
EIQappea ance
EIQ echnique
.54
EIQene gy
.08
.50
EIQappea ance
.19
.18
.80
EIQ wo
ac o s
EIQ echnique
.53
EIQene gy
.18
.50
AVE = numbe s in bold
Among he co ela ions be ween he EIQ scales and
he o he image y es s, i is wo h no ing he
co ela ion be ween he EIQ echnique and he Go don
Tes (.26, p < .01). The EIQ ene gy subscale also
co ela ed signi ican ly -.16 wi h he isual MIQR (p
< .05), bu he co ela ion was small as shown in see
Table 3. The pe cen iles a e included in Table 4.
Cuade nos de Psicología del Depo e, 20, 3 (julio)
Spanish e sion o he EIQ
49
Table 3
Pea son Co ela ions be ween he Ques ionnai es and he EIQ Subscales
Ques ionnai es
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1
VVIQ
2
Con ol Tes
-.34**
3
VMIQ
.37**
-.13**
4
MIQR isual
-.19**
.03
-.29**
5
MIQRkines he ic
-.31**
.08
-.16*
.51**
6
MIQR o al
-.30**
.07
-.24**
.81**
.92**
7
EIQ echnique
-.11
.26**
-.10
.15
.13
.16*
8
EIQene gy
.03
.06
-.08
-.16*
.02
.06
.21**
9
EIQappea ance
.05
-.03
-.06
-.04
.07
.03
.42**
.36**
10
EIQ o al
.06
.13
-.10
-.05
.09
.04
.80**
.65**
.77**
*p < .05, **p < .01
Table 4
Pe cen iles, S anda d Sco es, and Di ec Sco es o he EIQ Subscales and
he wo- ac o EIQ o al, and he h ee- ac o EIQ o al
EIQ echnique
EIQene gy
EIQappea ance
EIQ o al
(2- ac o )
EIQ o al
(3- ac o )
P
Z
DS
Z
DS
Z
DS
Z
DS
Z
DS
5
-1.81
13
-1.69
5
-1.74
12.5
-1.54
24
-1.52
41.5
10
-1.11
16
-1.19
8
-1.20
15
-1.16
27
-1.28
44
20
-.65
18
-.70
11
-.77
17
-.78
30
-.71
50
30
-.42
19
-.38
13
-.34
19
-.40
33
-.42
53
40
.05
21
-.05
15
.09
21
-.15
35
-.14
56
50
.28
22
.28
17
.31
22
.10
37
.24
60
60
.51
23
.44
18
.53
23
.48
40
.43
62
70
.74
24
.77
20
.745
24
.73
42
.82
66
80
.97
25
.09
22
.96
25
1.23
46
1.10
69
90
1.44
27
1.42
24
1.40
27
1.49
48
1.48
73
P = Pe cen iles, Z = S anda d sco es, DS = Di ec sco es
DISCUSSION
The p ima y aim o his s udy was o alida e he
Spanish e sion o he Exe cise Image y
Ques ionnai e (EIQ, Hausenblas e al., 1999) in a
sample o Spanish unde g adua es on he Bachelo ’s
deg ee in Physical Ac i i y and Spo s Sciences, he
esul s e ealed he ini ial model, simila o he
o iginal s udy (3- ac o / 9 i ems), ailed o
sa is ac o ily adjus o he da a. Howe e , as
p e iously men ioned abo e, he model was adjus ed
by elimina ing he ac o appea ance (wi h h ee
i ems), and he new wo- ac o model was adequa e.
The C onbach’s alphas o he wo p oposed EIQ
models we e accep able, abo e .70. Howe e ,
composi e eliabili y was weak, no eaching he
abo e .70 c i e ion (Hai e al., 2014), bu mos o
hese sco es came close o .50, conside ed by
He nández Mendo, Mo ales Sánchez and T igue o
Molido (2013) as a eliable cons uc indices. The
AVE in mos cases was highe han he .50, abo e he
ecommended alue (Hai e al., 2014), indica ing he
cons uc explained mo e han hal o he a iance o
all o i s own indica o s. In ela ion o disc iminan
alidi y, he esul s indica ed he cons uc s we e
su icien ly independen among each o he , gi en ha
in each ac o he squa e o he ac o s co ela ions was
below he AVE o he same (Hai e al., 2014).
Ou esul s subs an ia ed a h ee- ac o model, simila
o he model o he o iginal s udy (Hausenblas e . al.,
1999), and an imp o ed adjus ed wo- ac o model
gi en ha he h ee- ac o model should be imp o ed.
A possible explana ion o he disc epancies be ween
he esul s o model in he p esen s udy and he model
o he s udy o iginal may by he di e ence in he
sample popula ions unde s udy. Hansenblas e al.’s
(1999) s udy analysed wo samples, 89 % and 97.6%,
espec i ely, o women ae obic p ac i ione s, in
compa ison o he p esen s udy wi h 77% male
unde g adua es o he Bachelo o Physical Ac i i y
and Spo s Sciences deg ee who egula ly p ac ised an
a ay o spo s. Hall (1995) asse ed men al image y
was ela ed o he ype o exe cise, and may e en be
ela ed o excessi e exe cise beha iou such as
exe cise dependence. Mo eo e , expe ience ( he
leng h o ime one has been exe cising) may also
impac he unc ions o image y (Mun oe-Chandle &
Gammage, 2005).
The sco es o he Spanish e sion o he EIQ scales
we e simila o hose p e iously ob ained by
Gammage e al. (2004), who ound signi ican
co ela ions (p < .01) among he h ee EIQ scales:
echnique image y .52 wi h appea ance image y
and .56 wi h ene gy image y; and ene gy image y .48
wi h appea ance image y. Besides, Gammage e al.,
(2004) ob ained signi ican co ela ions be ween he
EIQ scales and o he scales ela ed o exe cise.
Technique image y co ela ed .21 (p < .01) wi h he
Sel -P esen a ion in Exe cise Ques ionnai e (SPEQ,