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ORIGINAL RESEARCH
published: 12 Ap il 2021
doi: 10.3389/ educ.2021.606304
Edi ed by:
Che yl J. C aig,
Texas A&M Uni e si y, Uni ed S a es
Re iewed by:
Elisabe e dos San os F ei e,
Uni e sidade São Judas Tadeu, B azil
Rosa Ma ia Rod íguez Izquie do,
Uni e sidad Pablo de Ola ide, Spain
*Co espondence:
Miguel A. San os Rego
[email p o ec ed]
Special y sec ion:
This a icle was submi ed o
Teache Educa ion,
a sec ion o he jou nal
F on ie s in Educa ion
Recei ed: 14 Sep embe 2020
Accep ed: 22 Ma ch 2021
Published: 12 Ap il 2021
Ci a ion:
San os Rego MA, Mella Núñez Í,
Na al C and Vázquez Ve de a V
(2021) The E alua ion o Social and
P o essional Li e Compe ences
o Uni e si y S uden s Th ough
Se ice-Lea ning.
F on . Educ. 6:606304.
doi: 10.3389/ educ.2021.606304
The E alua ion o Social and
P o essional Li e Compe ences o
Uni e si y S uden s Th ough
Se ice-Lea ning
Miguel A. San os Rego1*, Ígo Mella Núñez1, Concepción Na al2and
Vic o ia Vázquez Ve de a3
1Resea ch G oup ESCULCA, Depa men o Pedagogy and Didac ics, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, San iago
de Compos ela, Spain, 2Cha ac e , Educa ion and Ci izenship Resea ch G oup, Depa men o Resea ch Theo y
and Me hods in Educa ion and Psychology, Uni e si y o Na a a, Pamplona, Spain, 3Resea ch G oup on Uni e si y
Pedagogy and Teaching-Lea ning S a egies (GIPU-EA), Depa men o Educa ion Theo y, Uni e si y o Valencia, Valencia,
Spain
The iew p e iously held in he uni e si y ega ding eaching-lea ning p ocesses has
changed signi ican ly o e he pas ew yea s. Undoub edly, in he case o Eu ope,
his change o pedagogical model has gone hand in hand wi h he c ea ion o he
Eu opean Highe Educa ion A ea (EHEA). Some o he pi o al a eas o EHEA a e
he independen wo k o he indi idual s uden , he social dimension o lea ning, and
he acqui ing o skills, which a e no educed o he me e echnical and/o subjec
ma e knowledge. Gene ic compe ences and he so-called “so skills” ha e also
become impo an , gi en hei signi ican con ibu ion o he s uden s’ academic,
pe sonal, social, and p o essional de elopmen . P edic ably, wi hin his amewo k, new
me hodologies appea , in line wi h his educa ional ocus on compe ences; among hese
new me hodologies include se ice-lea ning (SL). I basically consis s o in oducing a
communi y se ice in o he adi ional academic and cu icula asks he eby seeking a
be e ele ance and applicabili y in he lea ning p ocesses. This a icle analyzes he
way in which SL con ibu es o he acquisi ion, by uni e si y s uden s, o a ce ain
skill se which is use ul o hei social and p o essional li e. To his end, we used a
quasi-expe imen al design, which included p e es and pos es assessmen s based
on a o al sample o 1,153 s uden s (789 SL s uden s and 364 non-SL s uden s). The
used ques ionnai e e alua es h ee impo an componen s ele an o he pu pose o
he p esen a icle (pe cep ion o he uni e si y educa ion, social pa icipa ion and ci ic-
social compe ences). The conclusion is ha s uden s in ol ed in SL no only show a
mo e posi i e e olu ion, bu also ob ain be e esul s a e he p ojec s a e comple ed
( ega ding sa is ac ion wi h he aining, and social pa icipa ion). By he same oken,
no all s uden s included in he expe imen al g oup achie e homogeneous esul s; he
di e ences a e acco ding o a iables such as gende , he cycle/yea hey a e en olled in,
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
a ea o s udy o whe he o no hey p e iously pa icipa ed in uni e si y se ice ac i i ies.
Finally, we obse e ha his me hodology is capable o app oaching uni e si y educa ion
in a holis ic way by asse ing c oss-sec ion ype lea ning p ocesses likely o be use ul in
he ansi ion om he s uden s’ academic o hei p o essional li e.
Keywo ds: se ice-lea ning, highe educa ion, e alua ion, compe ences, so skills, employabili y, social capi al
INTRODUCTION
Since he ad en o he new cen u y, we ha e wi nessed a
con inuous appeal o a change o ocus, o o pa adigm, wi h
ega d o he op imiza ion o lea ning p ocesses, especially in
he case o s uden s in highe educa ion. This call, exp essed
mo e acu ely in academic o ums and ci il socie y ins ances
was no unconnec ed o he ac ha we li e in a knowledge
socie y, in which he impac o digi al echnology makes a
di e ence in p oduc i i y pa e ns and de elopmen indica o s
(E zkowi z e al., 2012).
Wi hin such a con ex , he uni e si y again lays claim o
being he mos eminen and na u al mo o o he p oduc ion,
ansmission, and ans e o knowledge. This is su icien
eason o s a gi ing p ope a en ion ( he eby co ec ing some
ine ias o he pas ) o he skills and capabili ies o one’s
s uden s in o de o ensu e a be e pe sonal de elopmen and
a p og essi e adap a ion o cons an ly changing p o essional
eali ies (Välimaa and Ho man, 2008).
Al hough he in e es in he pa icula dynamics o his socie y
o lea ning and/o knowledge is ela i ely ecen , he e lec ion
abou i and he e y eali y i e e s o a e no . In ac , he
o igin o he concep is asc ibed o P o esso Robe E. Lane om
Yale Uni e si y, in he 1960s (Lane, 1966;Välimaa and Ho man,
2008). The changes which ook place hen (la e 1960s and ea ly
1970s) led, acco ding o Delan y (2003), o he ansi ion om
wha can be labeled as a “p o essional socie y”, based upon
indus y and a u ili a ian ype o knowledge, o a pos -indus ial
socie y much mo e o ien ed owa d se ices.
Hence, as he in luence o he socie y o knowledge g ew,
highe educa ion also saw i s adi ional unc ioning pa e ns
edesigned, bo h in ma e s o i s social componen and a a
mo e s ic ly academic le el. I was he Commission o he
Eu opean Communi ies (2003) i sel , which poin ed o he
exis ing link be ween he new model o social o ganiza ion
and he su ging o new expec a ions om he uni e si y which
g adually ans o med in o di e en educa ional necessi ies. In
his pape we a gue ha , wi hou minimizing he impo ance o
he echnical domain in each deg ee o academic i le, one has
o place alue on he c oss-sec ion compe ences in he aining
o s uden s and o enhance he oppo uni ies o li elong lea ning.
Only in his way can one ensu e ha s uden s will possess he
necessa y compe ences o an app op ia e pe sonal, p o essional,
and social de elopmen , in an en i onmen ma ked by change
and unce ain y (San os Rego, 2016).
Ha ing said all he abo e, we can con iden ly s a e ha
he ansmission o exclusi ely echnical lea ning, a icula ed
a ound heo e ical con en s and knowledge, becomes insu icien .
This has gi en ise o a new educa ional model wi hin he
uni e si y, made possible by he ocus on skill-based lea ning,
skills becoming he poin o e e ence mean o lead he
aining p ocesses. One mus con end, he e o e, wi h one o he
mos s ingen equi emen s aced by 21s cen u y uni e si ies,
e e ing, as s a ed by he Council o he Eu opean Union (2010)
o he impo ance o s uden s acqui ing he compe ences likely
o allow o he imp o emen o hei employmen p ospec s and
o con ibu e o hei pe sonal ul illmen , social inclusion and
ac i e ci izenship, wi hou o e looking hei capaci y o o ganize
hemsel es when aced wi h eali ies much less p edic able
han e e be o e.
We should emembe ha , in Eu ope, he g oundwo k
o he g adual isibiliza ion o he new ocus was laid by
he Tuning P ojec (González and Wagenaa , 2003), which
coincided wi h he p og essi e cons uc ion o he Eu opean
Highe Educa ion A ea and he adop ion o he Eu opean C edi
T ans e Sys em (ECTS). Wha one p oposed back hen was
ha , p agma ically speaking, he concep o compe ences had
o be unde s ood b oadly enough, as being acqui ed by he
s uden h oughou he lea ning p ocess and he esul o a
combina ion o knowledge, unde s anding, skills and abili ies.
A he same ime, a di e en ia ion was made be ween speci ic
compe ences ( hose ela ed o he knowledge o a pa icula
academic subjec ) and gene ic compe ences ( ans e able o any
academic i le) wi h he la e being hose necessa y o an
app op ia e p o essional de elopmen o s uden s and also hose
likely o os e a ype o lea ning which mus be ongoing and/o
li elong (Council o he Eu opean Union, 2010).
On he o he hand, one has o acknowledge ha he impo an
ole which mus be assigned o hose c oss-sec ion and li elong
compe ences does no only co espond o a enewed ision o
he uni e si y, gi en ha hose who employ uni e si y g adua es
(companies, o ganiza ions e c.) apa om he speci ic knowledge
o hei espec i e ield, alue ano he ype o compe ences,
bo h in ellec ual and pe sonal. Wi hou looking oo a , i
would be he case in communica ional o eamwo k skills
(Wye and Lim, 2009). I is undeniable ha he labo ma ke
equi es echnical knowledge wi hin a eal se ing, bu his is
no he only equi emen and some imes i is no e en c ucial.
Many o ganiza ions include in hei selec ion o p omo ion
g ids o he so skills, o c oss-sec ion na u e and linked,
o a e y la ge ex en , o he social dimension o lea ning
(Succi and Cano i, 2019).
I was p ecisely in he las decade ha a hea ed deba e
a ound he concep o so skills has been seen. The e can be
li le doub abou he need o hose skills o be p omo ed
and cul i a ed, e en i he p oblem, as usual, consis s o he
lack o an adequa e concep ualiza ion he eby esul ing in a
ce ain deg ee o ambigui y in i s signi icance. When speaking
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
abou so skills, one poin s o a a ie y o quali ies, ea u es,
alues, a ibu es which also include some emo ional aspec s.
They consis , ul ima ely, o a combina ion o pe sonali y ai s,
objec i es, p oposi ions, mo i a ions and p e e ences o he
pe sons and hey a e highly alued no only wi hin educa ional
con ex s, bu also on he labo ma ke , as well as in o he
segmen s o daily li e, e en becoming gua an o s o success
(Heckman and Kau z, 2012).
The o igin o he e m “so skills” da es back o
some Uni ed S a es A med Fo ces documen s om 1972
(Touloumakos, 2011). O e hese almos i e decades, he e m
has encompassed di e en aspec s, including: p o essionalism
and wo k e hic; capaci y o wo king and lea ning; decision
making; c ea i i y and inno a ion; in e pe sonal, social
and eamwo k abili ies; communica ion and con lic
esolu ion abili ies; capaci y o managing in o ma ion and
echnology; o leade ship skills (And ews and Higson, 2008;
Laza us, 2013).
Del ing mo e in o he exp ession i sel , i seems impo an
ha so skills a e conside ed ac ions, which en ail a look a
he pe son who ac s (Ma eson e al., 2016). These abili ies
a e p esen ed as gene ic p ope ies which can be acqui ed
and exe cised in a ious con ex s, ans e sally, and which
con inue o p esen di icul ies in hei analysis. Among hese
so skills, p e e ences a e gi en o hose ha a e use ul o social
and p o essional li e, he main axis a ound which he p esen
a icle e ol es. An indica i e sample is he impo ance o he
esea ch on he p omo ion o in e pe sonal, social and eam
skills (Bancino and Ze alkink, 2007). The same could be said
abou he s imula ion o communica ion skills (Mi chell e al.,
2010) as well as o he nego ia ion and con lic esolu ion skills
(Succi and Cano i, 2019).
The ole o his ype o lea ning p ocesses in uni e si y
educa ion is e en mo e ele an in he p esen -day socie y and
p o essional eali y (Na al and A bués, 2018), gi en, among o he
easons, he new unc ions which UNESCO (1998) asc ibed o
highe educa ion in he 21s cen u y, h ee o which we wish o
highligh he e:
– To ain highly quali ied g adua es and esponsible
ci izens who, h ough a se ies o heo e ical and p ac ical
compe ences, would a end o he needs o socie y and
ac i ely pa icipa e in social li e.
– To p o ec socie y’s alues, ensu ing ha hose alues,
which p omo e a democ a ic and c i ical ci izenship, a e
ins illed in he younges gene a ion.
– To con ibu e o he unde s anding, in e p e a ion,
p ese a ion, ein o cemen , p omo ion and ansmission
o egional, na ional and in e na ional, as well as his o ical
cul u es aking as a e e ence a plu al con ex , one o
cul u al di e si y.
These ideas make mo e sense, in a socioeconomic momen as
he p esen one (Na al and A bués, 2016); i seems logical ha he
uni e si ies’ collabo a ion should be eques ed in o de o ackle
his si ua ion while aking in o accoun he compe ences which
s uden s would need in hei pe sonal and p o essional li e. Mos
ce ainly, he mission o highe educa ion is social, cul u al and
ha o ans e ing knowledge.
Fo his eason, nume ous me hodologies ha e aken oo in
he educa ional dynamics o he uni e si y o e he pas ew
yea s, in o de o i in wi h a model in which he ac o o
in e es is cons i u ed by he s uden s’ e o and he cons uc ion
o lea ning p ocesses which would be use ul o he social and
p o essional con ex s in which one has o wo k. One o he
me hodologies which shows mo e po en ial in his ega d is
se ice-lea ning (SL). In he mos elemen a y sense, i means
in oducing communi y se ice in o he adi ional academic and
cu icula asks, including a s ong componen o con inuous
e lec ion which allows es ablishing mu ual ela ionships be ween
academic lea ning and ac ion wi hin communi y en i onmen .
Mo e speci ically, “i is concep ualized wi hin expe ience-based
educa ion and is cha ac e ized by: (a) s uden p o agonism; (b)
add essing a eal need; (c) connec ion o cu icula objec i es; (d)
execu ion o he se ice p ojec and (e) e lec ion” (Na al e al.,
2011, p. 88).
Gi en i s peculia pedagogical ea u es, we ag ee wi h Bu in
(2003) in sugges ing ha we a e dealing wi h a shi in he
pa e ns, om he passi e and ha o ecei e o in o ma ion o
he ac i e, whe e di ec con ac wi h he eal wo ld, as well as he
ela ionship es ablished be ween uni e si y and communi y allow
o he connec ion be ween heo y and p ac ice, mo ing away
om an ins umen al ision o educa ion. In his way, i di ec ly
a ec s he s uden s’ a i ude owa d he aining hey ecei e,
gi en ha he acquisi ion o p ac ical knowledge cons uc ed
a ound hei own expe ience shows clea epe cussions in hei
le els o sa is ac ion, especially gi en he pe cei ed use ulness o
hei lea ning p ocesses (Thamwipa e al., 2018). F om his poin
o iew, s uden s pa icipa ing in SL epo posi i e emo ions
such as in e es , en husiasm, inspi a ion and de e mina ion
(Opazo e al., 2018); hey also s a e ha he educa ional
expe ience p o ides hem wi h sa is ac ion, commi men and
g ow h (Wa son e al., 2018); and hey see hei mo i a ion and
pe cep ion o sel -e icacy anscend (Gonsal es e al., 2019).
The abo e is due, o a la ge ex en , o he connec ions
and ecip oci y ela ionships es ablished be ween uni e si y
and communi y, because, in he la e , he s uden s ind he
applicabili y o wha hey ha e lea ned, besides acqui ing
knowledge oo ed ou side o he class oom and he campus,
s ongly con ex ualized and loca ed wi hin he social dynamics
(McIl a h, 2012). A special men ion should be made o he
capaci y o de elop ci ic and social compe ences, conside ed o be
o g ea impo ance in o de o gua an ee a holis ic de elopmen
o he s uden s (Jagla and Tice, 2019;Succi and Cano i, 2019;
Cohen, 2020). Fu he mo e, as sugges ed by B ingle and Clay on
(2012), SL is di e en om o he me hodologies in ha , by
conside ing ci ic lea ning as a op-le el objec i e, i is di ec ly
connec ed o bo h he p o essional eali y and he deon ological
esponsibili ies and does no limi i sel o exclusi ely p omo ing
cogni i e- ype lea ning.
E idence o his is p o ided by he annual ques ionnai e
dis ibu ed in he Uni ed S a es by Campus Compac (2015), in
which he uni e si ies belonging o his ne wo k s a ed ha SL
allowed hem o achie e isible le els o ci ic commi men in
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
hei s uden s. In pa icula , hey acknowledge esul s in ields
such as ci ic and democ a ic lea ning (81% o he ins i u ions),
social commi men o di e si y (76%), o ien a ion owa d social
jus ice (64%) o global lea ning (64%). Fu he mo e, Moely e al.
(2002a) disco e ed ha s uden s pa icipa ing in SL sco ed highe
han hei pee s did in di e en dimensions o Ci ic A i udes
and Skills Ques ionnai e (CASQ): ci ic ac ions, in e pe sonal
and p oblem esolu ion skills, poli ical awa eness, leade ship
compe ences, and a i udes o social jus ice. Ano he example is
he s udy ca ied ou by Ein eld and Collins (2008), in which
e idence was p o ided o imp o emen in he sphe e o social
jus ice, especially wi h ega d o inequali y; de elopmen o
mul i-cul u al skills; and ci ic in ol emen , which is unde s ood
as he exe cise o an ac i e ci izenship and he commi men o
communi y se ice.
The p e ious a gumen s a e ce ainly s eng hened by aking
in o accoun he ision o Opazo e al. (2015), who insis ed on
he oppo uni ies p o ided by SL in pu ing di e en g oups
o pe sons who o he wise would no ha e he possibili y o
sha e ime, hough s o expe iences in o con ac wi h each
o he . The au ho s also emphasized ha hese p ojec s p o ided
oppo uni ies o know and acknowledge di e en social p oblems
and eal needs, he eby s imula ing social commi men s. Said
commi men s consequen ly lead o an impac in he le els
o poli ical and social pa icipa ion by young people, i s
con ibu ion being c ucial in e ms o mo i a ion, gi en ha i is
h ough one’s own in ol emen in social ma e s ha he in e es
o public li e is inc eased (Uga e and Na al, 2010).
Howe e , he conce n o public ma e s mus no be educed
o me e poli ical pa icipa ion, gi en ha i also includes
he a i udes, alues and in en ions o help and se e in he
de elopmen o he communi y. The e a e many s udies which
p o e he good con ibu ion o SL in his ega d and demons a e
an imp o emen in he s uden s’ p edisposi ion o ge in ol ed in
communi y se ice ini ia i es such as olun ee wo k, as well as
in he pe cep ion o hei own social esponsibili y (Ma kus e al.,
1993;Fenzel and Pey o , 2005).
All o he abo e shows SL as a me hodology capable o
coping wi h a new uni e si y model, in which he s uden ’s
independen wo k is he basis o he eaching-lea ning p ocesses
and con ac wi h day- o-day eali y allows o acqui ing skills
which would gua an ee an app op ia e pe sonal, social and
p o essional ansi ion o he g adua es. Howe e , wha we a e
aiming o is o demons a e his po en ial as pa o a igo ous
me hodological app oach, unde a s ongly con ex ualized iew
in he Spanish uni e si y sys em and, by ex ension, in he
Eu opean uni e si y sys em. I is also impo an he di e en
exis ing concep ions o he opics in o which his wo k was
o ganized, such as SL o so skills in uni e si y educa ion, as well
as hei alue on he labo ma ke and, mo eo e , in di e en
socie ies (San os Rego e al., 2020b). P ecisely o his eason,
ou esea ch ques ion was: Is SL a su icien ly adequa e and
epis emically sound me hodology o ensu e he de elopmen o
he ele an so skills ha can be use ul o uni e si y s uden s o
hei pe sonal and p o essional de elopmen ?
The impo ance o e alua ing he ela ionship be ween SL
and he de elopmen o social and p o essional compe ences has
o do wi h he uniqueness o his me hodology. In his ega d,
B ingle and Clay on (2012) s a ed ha , while o he educa ional
s a egies sough o p omo e academic lea ning (wi h a ocus on
con en ) and cogni i e de elopmen , SL also aimed a achie ing
g ea e ci ic lea ning. I also p omo es and s eng hens he links
o his ci ic lea ning wi h p o essional educa ion, especially in
ela ion o he e hical esponsibili ies o p ac ice (B ingle and
Clay on, 2012). In sho , i is a me hodology ha enables a mo e
si ua ed lea ning expe ience by linking uni e si y s uden s wi h
communi y en i onmen s, beyond academic de elopmen , and
in luencing on o he gene ic and ans e sal lea nings.
In he case o he Spanish uni e si y sys em, we should
s udy he way in which s uden s de elop social and p o essional
compe ences, especially when ac i e me hodologies such as SL
a e used. In e ms o social compe ences, he in ol emen o
Spanish you h in associa ions and o ganiza ions can be g ea ly
imp o ed (Jo e , 2016;San os Rego e al., 2018). Mo eo e ,
i we ocus on p o essional compe ences, he da a on you h
unemploymen in Spain a e ala ming (39.9% acco ding o he
Eu os a ba ome e , 20211).
Ou mo i a ion in ol es he in en ion o add essing a gap ha
pe sis s in esea ch and ha , pa icula ly in Eu ope, ansla es
in o a lack o a en ion o he links be ween SL and he
new aining models ha ha e eme ged wi h he consolida ion
o he EHEA, as is he case o he gene ic compe ences
p oposed by he Tuning P ojec (González and Wagenaa ,
2003). The s udy is he e o e aimed a analyzing he di e ences
be ween uni e si y s uden s pa icipa ing in SL p ojec s and
hose ollowing an usual o ma i e p ocess, while add essing
issues such as how uni e si y o ma ion is iewed (in e ms o
mo i a ion, sa is ac ion and unce ain y abou one’s p o essional
u u e) as well as social pa icipa ion, and he de elopmen o
ci ic and social compe ences.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The su ey ca ied ou aims o es ablish whe he he e a e
di e ences ega ding he de elopmen o ce ain compe ences,
which a e conside ed o be o in e es o an adequa e pe sonal
and p o essional p og ess o uni e si y s uden s, aking in o
accoun hei pa icipa ion in SL cou ses. In o de o achie e
his aim, we p oceeded in acco dance wi h a quasi-expe imen al
design, in which he independen a iable was gi en by he
pa icipa ion in he a ious SL expe iences. Mo e speci ically,
s uden s pa icipa ing in hese p ojec s made up he expe imen al
g oup (EG), whils hose who ollowed a mo e con en ional
me hodology ac ed as a con ol g oup (CG).
A he same ime, ano he objec i e was o know he p o ile
o s uden s who we e ollowing he SL me hodology whe e he
impac was a i s g ea es , o which pu pose we analyzed he
di e ences wi hin he EG acco ding o some a iables: gende ,
cycle o s udies, a ea o s udy (g ouping oge he , on he one
hand, s uden s o Social and Legal Sciences, and A s and
Humani ies; and, on he o he hand, s uden s o Heal h Sciences,
1h ps://ec.eu opa.eu/eu os a /da ab owse / iew/UNE_RT_M__cus om_676480/
de aul / able?lang=en
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
and Enginee ing and A chi ec u e) as well as p io pa icipa ion
o o he communi y se ice ac i i ies p omo ed by he uni e si y.
Pa icipan s
The sample was made up o 1,153 uni e si y s uden s, ou
o whom 789 (68.4%) pa icipa ed in SL p ojec s, whils he
emaining 364 (31.6%) ollowed a con en ional me hodology.
In pa icula , he da a was collec ed wi hin he amewo k o
he subjec s augh a he Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela,
which implemen ed SL p ojec s du ing he 2016–2017 and 2017–
2018 academic yea s. The esul s o 32 SL p ojec s we e e alua ed
(19 in he i s yea o he s udy; 13 in he second yea ); hey
we e de eloped in di e en uni e si y deg ee p og ams unde an
ins i u ional call o suppo o he implemen a ion o SL.
F om hese subjec s, s uden s in ol ed in SL p ojec s made
up he EG, whe eas he CG was made up o hose engaged in
he mo e con en ional academic asks. This is he di e ence
be ween he wo g oups: hose who pa icipa e in SL lea n he
basic con en s o he subjec while being in ol ed in add essing
a social need in he uni e si y en i onmen . On he o he hand,
he CG ollowed he no mal class oom dynamics, i.e., exposi o y
and in e ac i e classes o labo a o y sessions. In sho : in bo h
cases he same con en s o he subjec s a e wo ked on, bu in
SL he heo y-p ac ice link is mo e explici , gi en he connec ion
be ween lea ning and a social o communi y p oblem.
The s uden s’ ages anged be ween 19 and 51 yea s, al hough
88.4% o hem we e in he 18–24 age segmen , wi h an a e age age
o 21.84 yea s. Ou o hem, 75% a e women and 25% men. As
a as academic yea s a e conce ned, hey we e homogeneously
dis ibu ed ac oss he 4 yea s o g adua e s udy: 28.4% we e
in he i s yea , 21.9% in he second, 25.3% in he hi d, and
24.4% in he ou h. The majo i y we e en olled in Social and
Legal Sciences (80.4%), ollowed by Heal h Sciences (15.8%),
A s and Humani ies (2.8%), and Enginee ing and A chi ec u e
(0.8%). Finally, only 18 s uden s (1.6%) indica ed ha hey
we e pa o a mobili y ag eemen (E asmus, SICUE-Séneca and
bila e al ag eemen s).
Ins umen
This s udy made use o he Ques ionnai e on Uni e si y S uden s’
Ci ic and Social Compe ences and Sel -E icacy (CUCOCSA)
(San os Rego and Lo enzo, 2018). I is a ques ionnai e consis ing
o h ee open and 10 closed ques ions. The closed ques ions, o
hei pa , a e di ided in o dicho omic i ems, mul iple choice
single selec ques ions, and scala i ems. As a as hei con en
is conce ned, he e a e ques ions e e ing o he pe sonal
and academic biog aphy o he s uden : age, gende , deg ee
and academic yea o en ollmen , acul y, campus, pa icipa ion
in mobili y p og ams, in p ojec s in ol ing some o m o
communi y se ice and in SL cou ses. The eupon ou scales
a e p esen ed on: uni e si y aining, social pa icipa ion, ci ic-
social compe ences, and pe cei ed sel -e icacy. The esul s o
he p esen s udy come om he i s h ee scale. The pe cei ed
sel -e icacy was no used.
As a as he alidi y o he ins umen ’s con en is conce ned,
we used an ex e nal alida ion p ocedu e, ca ied ou by i e
judges, expe s in he a eas o knowledge which we e ele an
o he s udy. Subsequen ly, in o de o es he eliabili y
and alidi y o he scales, we ca ied ou an explo a o y and
hen a con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA) (Mella, 2019). The
psychome ic analysis o he scales was ca ied ou wi h a o al
o 996 uni e si y s uden s, which was andomly dis ibu ed
in wo sub-samples ( he i s made up o 500 s uden s and
he second o 496).
Wi h sub-sample 1 (calib a ion sample), we pe o med an
explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA) as well as he calcula ion
o he ac o s’ eliabili y by means o C onbach’s α, he eby
es ablishing he dimensionali y o he scales, using he P incipal
Componen s ex ac ion me hod and a Va imax o a ion. The
KMO es s = 0.846 and χ2(190) = 2,833.81, p<0.001, epo ed
good sampling adequacy and a signi ican co ela ion be ween
i ems, espec i ely.
Wi h sub-sample 2 ( alida ion sample), we ca ied ou a CFA
using he AMOS 20 S a is ics Package, wi h he pu pose o
checking whe he he ac o ial s uc u e p e iously ob ained in
he EFA adequa ely ep esen ed he in o ma ion p o ided by he
da a, ob aining a good i in all he cases. We will now go on o
explain he ac o ial s uc u e o each one o he scales:
Uni e si y T aining Scale
I s objec i e was o analyze he s uden s’ mo i a ion and
pe cep ion wi h ega d o he aining hey ecei e in he
uni e si y. In o de o build i , we used as a basis he E alua ion
Sys em o Expe ien ial Educa ional P og ams (ESEE) designed
by Fu co (1995), a p o ocol o he e alua ion o expe ien ial
educa ion and, mo e speci ically o SL p ojec s. The scale is made
up o se en i ems ( om s ongly disag ee o s ongly ag ee)
ou o which he EFA dis inguishes h ee signi ican ac o s:
link be ween he subjec s and eal li e (α= 0.79), sa is ac ion
wi h he aining (α= 0.70), and unce ain y abou he u u e
(α= 0.50), which explained a a iance o 66.11% and showed a
good in e nal consis ency.
Social Pa icipa ion Scale
I seeks o measu e he s uden s’ social in ol emen . They a e
asked o assess hei deg ee o pa icipa ion in ci ic ma e s, be
hey pe aining o he uni e si y o wha is ex e io o i . In o de
o build i , we ook as a e e ence he Ci ic-Minded G adua e
Scale o he Indiana Uni e si y—Pu due Uni e si y Indianapolis
(S einbe g e al., 2011;Pike e al., 2014). I consis s o i e i ems
( om ne e o on a weekly basis) which, upon applying he EFA,
we e g ouped in o a ac o ha explained a a iance o 42.39%,
showing a good in e nal consis ency (α= 0.60).
Ci ic and Social Compe ence Scale
This hi d scale includes a se o i ems whose ocus is he
analysis o he deg ee o which s uden s belie e hey possess a
se ies o compe ences connec ed o ci ic and social ma e s. Fou
we e he ins umen s se ing as a e e ence o i s cons uc ion:
he CASQ (Moely e al., 2002b); a sel -e alua ion scale on
he de elopmen o gene ic compe ences (San os Rego e al.,
2018); he Public A ai s Scale-Sho Su ey (PAS-SS) (Le esque-
B is ol and Richa ds, 2014); and he E alua ion Sys em o
Expe ien ial Educa ional P og ams (ESEE) by Fu co (1995). I
consis s o a o al o 20 i ems which, ollowing he ini ial
ex ac ion, a e o ganized in o ou signi ican ac o s ha explain
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
a a iance o 50.96%: pe sonal beha io (α= 0.79), leade ship
(α= 0.72), in e cul u al compe ence (α= 0.73), and eamwo k
and ela ionship wi h o he s α= 0.70).
P ocedu e
The ins umen was dis ibu ed du ing he 2016–2017 and
2017–2018 academic yea s. This ques ionnai e was applied in
a p e es si ua ion, be o e he s a o he SL p ojec s, as
well as a hei end (pos es ), in each case be o e he inal
exam o he subjec . Gi en i s es ima ed answe ing ime
o 10–15 min, i was ca ied on on-si e, gua an eeing he
con iden iali y o he collec ed da a (anonymi y, sys em o
codi ica ion and cus odianship).
A he beginning o he s udy, he go e ning eam o he
Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela was also in o med o he
aim o he esea ch p ojec and o he p ocedu e which was
o be ollowed. In applying he ins umen , we ollowed he
ecommenda ions o he Uni e si y o Compos ela’s Bioe hics
Commi ee and o he Helsinki Decla a ion, complying wi h he
s ipula ions which, in he case o Spain, a e laid down in he
O ganic Law 3/2018, o Decembe 5, on Da a P o ec ion and
Gua an ee o Digi al Righ s.
Da a Analysis
To begin wi h, in o de o calcula e he dimensionali y o he
h ee scales, an EFA was ca ied ou , in o de o ob ain he
s uc u al alidi y and he eliabili y o each one o hem. The
in o ma ion s emming om he EFA was subsequen ly e i ied
by ca ying ou a CFA, as p esen ed in he p e ious sec ion
(Mella, 2019). This p ocedu e is known as “c oss- alida ion”
(Cudeck and B owne, 1983).
Subsequen ly, compa ison es s we e ca ied ou be ween he
p e es and pos es , bo h o hose s uden s who we e in ol ed
in a SL cou se du ing he academic yea (EG) and o hose who
we e no (CG). The dependen a iables aken in o accoun we e
he ac o s ob ained in he EFA and alida ed in he CFA. The
aim was o know he impac gene a ed by he in ol emen in
SL in he de elopmen o h ee o he dimensions making up
he ins umen (pe cep ion o he uni e si y educa ion, social
pa icipa ion, and ci ic-social compe ences). Subsequen ly, by
means o a compa ison es , we s udied he di e ences be ween
bo h g oups in he ac o sco es ob ained a he end o he
academic yea , in o de o ind ou whe he any o hem showed
a highe le el o de elopmen .
Finally, o each one o he ac o s, he p o ile o he s uden s
pa icipa ing in SL ac i i ies we e compa ed. Fo his pu pose,
he sco es ob ained by hese s uden s in he pos es phase we e
con as ed acco ding o gende , cycle o s udies, a ea o s udy,
and p e ious pa icipa ion in se ice ac i i ies p omo ed by he
uni e si y. The signi icance le el chosen o all he es s was
α= 0.05, and all he analyses we e ca ied ou wi h he SPSS . 24.
RESULTS
In o de o p esen he esul s ob ained in each one o he scales,
one s a s by p esen ing he sco es ob ained (EG and CG) in
p e es and pos es , so as o analyze he e olu ion o bo h g oups
du ing he SL p ojec s. Then, he di e ences be ween he wo
g oups in he pos es a e iden i ied, he in ended pu pose being
o assess he possible impac o he ac o pa icipa ing o no in
SL on he measu ed a iables. Finally, we p esen he di e ences
occu ing wi hin he EG’s sco es in he pos es s age.
Uni e si y T aining
Wi h ega d o he s uden s’ pe cep ion o he aining ecei ed a
uni e si y (Tables 1,2), we no ed signi ican imp o emen s in he
EG, whe e, a e he conclusions o he SL p ojec , a g ea e deg ee
o sa is ac ion conce ning he connec ion be ween he s udied
subjec and eal li e was e iden . This sa is ac ion also ex ends o
he aining hey ecei e. In he case o he CG, no only he lack
o imp o emen in he s udies is s iking, bu also he ac ha
hese s uden s show highe le els o unce ain y abou he u u e.
Besides a be e e olu ion be ween he p e es and pos es
s ages, he EG is signi ican ly di e en om he CG in ma e s o
hei sa is ac ion wi h hei uni e si y educa ion (Table 3). Wha
his indica es is ha s uden s who pa icipa e in he SL p ojec s
conclude hei s udies wi h a g ea e sa is ac ion wi h he aining
hey ecei ed in he uni e si y, bo h in e ms o i s use ulness o
hei li e and o hei u u e p o ession.
Ne e heless, no all s uden s in ol ed in SL sco ed
homogeneously on his scale. Looking a he p o ile o he
TABLE 1 | P e es /pos es di e ences in he expe imen al g oup’s (EG’s)
pe cep ion o he uni e si y aining.
Fac o Expe imen al g oup
P e es Pos es d p
Mean SD Mean SD
Connec ion
be ween he
s udied subjec and
eal li e
4.62 0.489 4.69 0.476 −3.725 778 0.000
Sa is ac ion wi h
he aining
3.37 0.834 3.43 0.850 −2.278 779 0.023
Unce ain y abou
he u u e
3.06 0.940 3.12 0.988 −1.480 771 0.139
TABLE 2 | P e es /pos es di e ences in he con ol g oup’s (CG’s) pe cep ion o
he uni e si y aining.
Fac o Con ol g oup
P e es Pos es Td p
Mean SD Mean SD
Connec ion
be ween he
s udied subjec and
eal li e
4.69 0.393 4.69 0.514 −0.102 358 0.919
Sa is ac ion wi h
he aining
3.16 0.854 3.23 0.882 −1.777 357 0.076
Unce ain y abou
he u u e
3.06 0.916 3.16 1.001 −2.026 351 0.044
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
TABLE 3 | Di e ences be ween he EG and he CG in he pe cep ion o he
uni e si y aining (pos es ).
Fac o Le ene’s es o
equali y o a iances
d Bila e al
sig.
FSig.
Connec ion be ween he
s udied subjec and eal li e
1.112 0.292 −0.207 1,145 0.836
Sa is ac ion wi h he
aining
0.589 0.443 −3.672 1,143 0.000
Unce ain y abou he u u e 0.390 0.532 0.600 1,131 0.548
s uden s, we obse ed wi hin he EG some a ia ions in he
sco es ob ained. Fi s ly, he women di e en ia ed om men
in ha hey had a mo e posi i e app aisal o he connec ion
be ween academic subjec and eal li e (MWomen −MMen = 0.17,
p= 0.000). In he same ac o , he s uden s who had al eady
pa icipa ed in uni e si y se ice ac i i ies sco ed highe , ma king
di e ences om hose who had ne e been in ol ed in his ype
o ini ia i es (MP e ious se ice −MNo P e ious se ice = 0.10,
p= 0.005).
Finally, in ma e s o he a ea o s udy, he e a e di e ences
conce ning he sa is ac ion wi h aining. S uden s o Heal h
Sciences and Enginee ing-A chi ec u e who go in ol ed
in SL ended hei pa icipa ion in hese p ojec s ma kedly
mo e sa is ied wi h he aining hey ecei ed in he uni e si y
(MHeal h Sciences and Enginee ing−A chi ec u e −MSocial−Legal Sciences and
A s−Humani ies = 0.59, p= 0.000).
Social Pa icipa ion
In he second o he scales, when measu ing he le els o
pa icipa ions in ac i i ies o social ou each and olun ee ing,
bo h in and ou o he uni e si y, bo h g oups sha ed a signi ican
e olu ion be ween he wo applica ions o he ins umen
(Tables 4,5). Howe e , we mus pay due a en ion in he means
ob ained he e, which a e qui e low, e lec ing a a he spo adic
pa icipa ion o he uni e si y s uden s in olun ee wo k o
communi y se ice ac i i y.
Besides he e olu ion wi nessed by all he s uden s h oughou
he e alua ed pe iod, we also ound di e ences be ween hem
in ma e s o hei pa icipa ion in SL p ojec s (Table 6). Thus,
in pos es s age, hose who we e in ol ed in hese expe iences
showed highe le els o pa icipa ion in o he se ice a eas.
Again, he e we e signi ican di e ences wi hin he EG a
he end o he p ojec s. In his case, he a iables which had
an in luence we e he cycle o s udies and he a ea o s udy.
As a as he cycle is conce ned, s uden s o he i s wo
academic yea s showed highe le els o social pa icipa ion
and in ol emen in olun ee ing when hey end he SL
p ojec (MFi s cycle −MSecond cycle = 0.10, p= 0.027). The
Social-Legal Sciences and A s-Humani ies s uden s also
inished hei in ol emen in SL showing a highe le el o
pa icipa ion in social ou each ac i i ies han s uden s om
he a eas o Heal h Sciences and Enginee ing-A chi ec u e
(MSocial−Legal Sciences and A s−Humani ies −MHeal h and
Enginee ing−A chi ec u e = 0.21, p= 0.000).
TABLE 4 | P e es /pos es di e ences wi hin he expe imen al g oup in ma e s o
social pa icipa ion.
Fac o Expe imen al g oup
P e es Pos es d p
Mean SD Mean SD
Social pa icipa ion 1.31 0.463 1.47 0.634 −7.757 777 0.000
TABLE 5 | P e es /pos es di e ences wi hin he con ol g oup in ma e s o
social pa icipa ion.
Fac o Con ol g oup
P e es Pos es d p
Mean SD Mean SD
Social pa icipa ion 1.29 0.469 1.34 0.543 −2.658 357 0.008
TABLE 6 | Di e ences be ween he EG and he CG in ma e s o social
pa icipa ion (pos es ).
Fac o Le ene’s es o
equali y o a iances
Td Bila e al
sig.
FSig.
Social pa icipa ion 6.123 0.013 −3.600 809.18 0.000
Ci ic and Social Compe ences
Finally, ega ding he e olu ion in he s uden s’ pe cep ion
on he le el o de elopmen o a se o ci ic and social
compe ences, bo h g oups expe ienced signi ican imp o emen
(Tables 7,8). Whe eas all s uden s inc eased hei sco es ob ained
in leade ship, whe e a he s a he numbe s we e a hei lowes ,
hose who pa icipa ed in se ice lea ning, also imp o ed hei
eamwo k skills and he ela ionship wi h o he s.
In his scale no signi ican di e ences we e ound be ween
he wo g oups a he end o he p ojec s (Table 9). Howe e ,
wi hin he EG, he e we e nume ous di e ences acco ding o he
s uden s’ p o ile and he e we may lis some ele an aspec s in
he ou a iables o ou analysis:
– Rega ding gende , women sco ed highe in mos
ac o s. Mo e speci ically, hey di e en ia ed hemsel es
posi i ely om he men wi h ega d o p o-social
beha io (MWomen −MMen = 0.23, p= 0.000),
in e cul u al compe ence (MWomen −MMen = 0.29,
p= 0.000), and eamwo k and ela ionship wi h o he s
(MWomen −MMen = 0.12, p= 0.017). Ne e heless,
in ma e s o leade ship, i is men who sco ed highe
(MMen −MWomen = 0.12, p= 0.011).
– Wi h ega d o he cycle o s udies, jus as in he
case o he social pa icipa ion scale, i is again he
s uden s in he i s 2 yea s who had he ad an age o e
hei colleagues in ma e s o in e cul u al compe ence
(MFi s cycle −MSecond cycle = 0.13, p= 0.004).
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
TABLE 7 | P e es /pos es di e ences wi hin he expe imen al g oup in ma e s o
ci ic and social compe ences.
Fac o Expe imen al g oup
P e es Pos es d p
Mean SD Mean SD
P osocial beha io 4.39 0.419 4.41 0.430 −1.409 754 0.159
Leade ship 3.69 0.557 3.82 0.599 −7.440 774 0.000
In e cul u al
compe ence
4.26 0.594 4.27 0.625 −0.926 775 0.355
Teamwo k and
ela ionship wi h o he s
4.20 0.549 4.23 0.583 −2.267 780 0.024
TABLE 8 | P e es /pos es di e ences wi hin he con ol g oup in ma e s o ci ic
and social compe ences.
Fac o Con ol g oup
P e es Pos es Td p
Mean SD Mean SD
P osocial beha io 4.39 0.395 4.40 0.390 −0.565 348 0.572
Leade ship 3.63 0.575 3.76 0.558 −5.025 354 0.000
In e cul u al
compe ence
4.25 0.593 4.22 0.616 0.945 360 0.345
Teamwo k and
ela ionship wi h o he s
4.21 0.517 4.20 0.571 0.141 357 0.888
TABLE 9 | Di e ences be ween he EG and he CG in ma e s o ci ic and social
compe ences (pos es ).
Fac o Le ene’s es o
equali y o a iances
Td Bila e al
sig.
FSig.
P osocial beha io 0.854 0.356 −0.387 1,117 0.699
Leade ship 0.774 0.379 −1.655 1,136 0.098
In e cul u al
compe ence
0.953 0.329 −1.453 1,141 0.147
Teamwo k and
ela ionship wi h o he s
0.288 0.592 −0.807 1,142 0.420
– Rega ding he a ea o s udy, i is he s uden s o Social-
Legal Sciences and A s-Humani ies who sco ed highe
on in e cul u al compe ence (MSocial−Legal Sciences and
A s−Humani ies −MHeal h and Enginee ing−A chi ec u e = 0.20,
p= 0.003).
– Finally, he e we e also di e ences wi hin he EG
acco ding o he p e ious pa icipa ion in se ice ac i i ies
p omo ed by he uni e si y. Speci ically, hose who
had pa icipa ed in such ac i i ies we e he ones who
achie ed be e esul s in ma e s o p o-social beha io
(MP e ious se ice −MNo p e ious se ice = 0.08, p= 0.038).
To inish wi h he in e p e a ion o he esul s, Figu e 1
is p esen ed below wi h he in en ion o acili a ing he
unde s anding o he esul s ob ained by bo h g oups in he wo
applica ions o he ques ionnai e.
DISCUSSION
The s udy was based on he s uden s’ pe cep ion o he ex en
o which hey hink hey ha e de eloped a ce ain se o
compe ences which would be use ul in e ms o li e de elopmen
and employabili y. Le us hen s a by assessing he way in which
hey pe cei e hei aining in he uni e si y.
The i s inding has o do wi h he posi i e app aisal
he s uden s, ha ing pa icipa ed in SL cou ses, make o he
connec ion be ween hei subjec con en s and eal li e. A his
poin , he esul s a e close o wha we ound in he enowned
wo k by Eyle and Giles (1999). The e as well possibili ies o
apply he heo e ical knowledge in eal li e ansla ed in o a
g ea e mo i a ion o he s uden s in ol ed in SL. This bea s
close simila i y o he indings o Alonso e al. (2013), since
he s uden s s a ed ha pa icipa ion in SL in luenced hei
mo i a ion, gi en i s p ac ical cha ac e and he possibili ies o
es ablish ela ionships wi h eal li e in a simila p o essional
en i onmen . Nei he should we o ge he s udies in which
i is he eaching s a who gi e a posi i e app aisal o he
possibili y o applying he concep s o he ins uc ed ma e ial in
eal con ex s, esul ing in an inc ease in he s uden s’ sa is ac ion
(Wegla z and Seybe , 2004).
Wha we a e showing in his s udy is p ecisely he ac ha
hose s uden s who pa icipa ed in SL no only e ol ed posi i ely
in hei own sa is ac ion wi h he aining ha hey ecei ed, bu
also inished he p ojec s di e en ia ing hemsel es om hei
colleagues in his dimension. In his way, we gi e a solid backing
o esul s coming om s udies as he one ca ied ou by As in and
Sax (1998), in which a g oup o s uden s pa icipa ing in SL also
epo ed highe le els o sa is ac ion wi h he aining ecei ed,
explained in e ms o ele ance o eal li e and o p o essional
exe cise, which a e aspec s iden ical o hose we ha e conside ed
in ou own s udy.
I was also demons a ed, ha no only we e he s uden s
in ol ed in SL mo e sa is ied wi h he educa ion hey ecei e in
he uni e si y, bu ha hei pee s in he CG seem o educe hei
le els o op imism—ini ially highe —wi h ega d o said aining
(Moely e al., 2002a). I shouldn’ come as a su p ise, he e o e,
ha he e a e s udies in which mo e han 90% o he s uden s
decla e ha hey would like o pa icipa e again in SL cou ses
and would also ecommend ha hei colleagues do he same
(Folguei as e al., 2013).
The las elemen a ound which s uden s’ pe cep ion o he
uni e si y educa ion e ol ed was he unce ain y abou he
u u e. In pa icula , ou da a showed ha hose who pa icipa ed
in SL did no mani es signi ican changes in his espec ,
al hough hei colleagues in ol ed in a mo e adi ional lea ning
dynamic, seemed o ha e mo e acu e le els o unce ain y when
he end o hei s udies was d awing nea .
In his sense, e en i hey a ied in he magni ude o
he di e ence shown, he esul s we p esen he e back hose
gi en by s udies which demons a e ha SL does in luence he
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San os Rego e al. Social-P o essional Compe ences and Se ice-Lea ning
FIGURE 1 | Expe imen al g oup (EG) and con ol g oup (CG) sco es in p e es and pos es . Sou ce: own elabo a ion.
oca ional de elopmen o s uden s, seeming o con ibu e o
hei p o essional g ow h in e ms o skill de elopmen (Weiss
e al., 2016), wi h an o ien a i e bias owa d p o essional ca ee s
ocused on se ice o he communi y (As in e al., 2000). The
mos signi ican aspec is ha i gene a es in he s uden s
some possibly mo e posi i e expec a ions ega ding hei u u e
p o essional exe cise (A ambu uzabala and Ga cía, 2012).
Once we ha e asce ained he deg ee o pe cep i e in luence
on he uni e si y aining o s uden s, we will app oach he
le els o social pa icipa ion and o commi men o olun ee ing.
Tha which is mos clea in his pa icula aspec is ha all
s uden s inc eased hei le els o in ol emen in such ac i i ies,
al hough hose who pa icipa ed in SL ended up doing i
mo e assiduously.
This ac would, he e o e, allow us o conside SL a
me hodology likely o connec he s uden s wi h me hods and
issues oo ed in communi y li e, which p omises some impac
in he le els o social pa icipa ion (So elino e al., 2019). The
ac ha i was shown ha g adua es who, du ing hei s uden
days, we e in ol ed in SL p ojec s main ained non-negligible
le els o pa icipa ion in olun ee wo k is e y signi ican
(Fenzel and Pey o , 2005;Moely and Ilus e, 2019). Howe e ,
we canno o e look he ac ha ou esul s poin o a a he
educed in ol emen in social ma e s, which is mo e o less in
keeping wi h wha was al eady known abou he Spanish s uden
popula ion (Jo e , 2016).
Finally, changes ha e been obse ed in he le els o
de elopmen o ce ain ci ic and social compe ences. The i s
o hese is leade ship, in which all s uden s inc eased hei
sco es, which does no allow us o associa e his imp o emen
wi h he pa icipa ion in SL p ojec s (Deeley, 2014;Moely and
Ilus e, 2014). This is exac ly he opposi e o wha was seen
in he case o eamwo k and ela ionship o o he s, whe e
only he subjec s om he EG signi ican ly aised hei sco es.
Wha becomes e iden once mo e is ha we a e dealing wi h
a me hodology, wi h a ma ked in e pe sonal and ela ional
componen , gi en he ei e a ion o gains al eady obse ed
in ma e s o eamwo k (Hébe and Hau , 2015), capaci y o
main aining good ela ionships wi h o he s (Ga cía Ga cía and
Sánchez Calleja, 2017), ela ional quali y be ween p o esso s and
s uden s (Alonso e al., 2013;Folguei as e al., 2013) and ce ainly
in he de elopmen o social capi al (D’Agos ino, 2010).
Howe e , in he s udy we did no obse e any signi ican
esul s wi h ega d o p o-social beha io and in e cul u al
compe ence. This is in spi e o he al eady ecognized po en ial
o SL o wo k on he p o-social disposi ion and ci ic compe ence
o he s uden s (Moely e al., 2002a;Celio e al., 2011), as well
as on hei in e cul u al compe ence and accep ance o di e si y
(Ein eld and Collins, 2008;Holsapple, 2012). I is, he e o e, clea
ha on his scale no di e ences we e de ec ed be ween he wo
g oups o s uden s. Le us hen go on o he las o he analyses
ca ied ou , ha o he di e ences wi hin he EG i sel .
The i s aspec is ha his analysis e ealed signi ican ly
be e esul s in he case o women. Mo e speci ically, women
sco ed highe in ma e s o how hey app ecia ed he connec ion
be ween subjec con en s and eal li e, he p o-social beha io ,
he in e cul u al compe ence, as well as eamwo k and he
ela ionship wi h o he s. As o men, hey sco ed be e in
leade ship. I is, he e o e, clea ha women a e be e when i
comes o skills ha a e mo e s ic ly social; his is in line wi h he
wo ks conduc ed by McCa hy and Tucke (1999) and Moely and
Ilus e (2019).
When conside ing he cycle o s udies as a iable o g ouping
he s uden s who we e in ol ed in SL p ojec s, we ound ha
s uden s o he i s 2 yea s we e he ones showing be e
le els o social pa icipa ion in olun ee wo k as well as o
in e cul u al compe ence. These da a ce ainly did no suppo
he idea exp essed by Deeley (2015), who s a ed ha SL could be
a me hodology mo e app op ia e o s uden s in he la e yea s,
in oking hei be e p epa a ion o en olling in his ype o
ini ia i es. In any case, he in luence o SL on s uden s in he
ea lie yea s was con i med by o he s udies; hey e en showed
ha SL in luenced decision making ega ding he con inua ion o
hei uni e si y s udies (B ingle e al., 2010;Reed e al., 2015).
We we e also able o p o e he app op ia eness o de o ing
speci ic esea ch e o s and ini ia i es o he di e en a eas
o s udy. In his ega d, s uden s o Social and Legal Sciences
as well as s uden s o A s and Humani ies sco ed a
be e in s ic ly social ma e s (social pa icipa ion and
in e cul u al compe ence), while hose s udying Heal h Sciences
F on ie s in Educa ion | www. on ie sin.o g 9Ap il 2021 | Volume 6 | A icle 606304