AIMS En i onmen al Science, 10(2): 287–312.
DOI: 10.3934/en i onsci.2023017
Recei ed: 01 Feb ua y 2023
Re ised: 3 Ap il 2023
Accep ed: 04 Ap il 2023
Published: 13 Ap il 2023
h p://www.aimsp ess.com/jou nal/en i onmen al
Resea ch a icle
Ad ancing owa ds a sus ainable ene gy model, unco e ing he
un apped po en ial o u al a eas
Vanessa Mi amon es-Viña1, Noelia Rome o-Cas o2,* and M. Ángeles López-Caba cos1
1 Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, Spain
2 Depa men o Finance and Accoun ing, Uni e si y o San iago de Compos ela, Spain
*Co espondence: Email: noe. ome [email p o ec ed]; Tel: +34881811627.
Abs ac : Ru al a eas a e essen ial o mo ing owa ds he necessa y sus ainable ene gy ansi ion and
clima e change mi iga ion h ough enewable ene gy (RE) echnologies. Howe e , RE planning and
decision-making in u al loca ions ha e no been de eloped o da e wi h a ocus on he local le el and
accompanied by a ca e ul and ho ough assessmen o he simul aneous a ailabili y o al e na i e RE
sou ces in a speci ic e i o y. Qui e di e en ly, RE in es men s in u al loca ions ha e been p ima ily
d i en by he in e es s o la ge powe u ili ies o exploi a pa icula RE sou ce, wi h bene i s escaping
om he u al economies o end up in he income s a emen s o hose la ge co po a ions. The e is a
need o app oach RE planning a he municipal scale conside ing he a ailabili y o al e na i e RE
sou ces. This s udy sugges s he de elopmen o a u al RE po en ial index ha could help in he
iden i ica ion o app op ia e loca ions o he implemen a ion o hyb id enewable ene gy sys ems
(HRESs). The cons uc ion o a composi e indica o o measu e u al RE po en ial is exempli ied
h ough a case s udy ha deals wi h en indica o s in he con ex o Galician u al municipali ies,
in ol ing di e en RE po en ials and some echnical o egula o y cons ain s. Equal weigh ing and
P incipal Componen Analysis a e conside ed al e na i e me hods o he index cons uc ion.
Municipali ies a e he ele an local decision le el whe e ene gy policy should be ocused in o de o
di e si y bo h he RE mix and he in es o base. The p oposed index could be he basis o u u e
analyses aimed a op imizing he design and implemen a ion o HRESs in u al en i onmen s a a
local- egional-na ional scale.
Keywo ds: sus ainable ene gy ansi ion; sus ainable u al de elopmen ; u al enewable ene gy
po en ial; composi e indica o ; P incipal Componen Analysis
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Abb e ia ions: SD: Sus ainable De elopmen ; SRD: Sus ainable Ru al De elopmen ; RE: Renewable
Ene gy; HRES: Hyb id Renewable Ene gy Sys em; LAU: Local Adminis a i e Uni ; CRE:
Communi y Renewable Ene gy; PCA: P incipal Componen Analysis; EW: Equal Weigh ing; AA:
A i hme ic Agg ega ion
1. In oduc ion
Sus ainable de elopmen (SD) and clima e change a e wo wo ldwide ecognized p io i ies [1]
ha equi e ac ions a bo h global and local le els [2]. The local sphe e is o pa amoun impo ance
since i is whe e he implemen a ion o global SD s a egies alls, as acknowledged by he man a
" hink globally, ac locally" [3]. Howe e , oo o en local au ho i ies ha e no been explici ly
conside ed in he design o global SD agendas [4], especially in he u al sphe e.
In Eu ope, u al a eas a e o conside able impo ance [5–7], since a ound 90% o he e i o y has
been classi ied as u al a he local adminis a i e uni s (LAUs) le el. These u al a eas ace challenges
ela ed o depopula ion, loss o economic ele ance and h ea s o he cul u al and na u al
he i age [5,8–10]. The need o e i alizing u al economies is a ac ing inc easing esea ch
in e es [11] and he EU has deployed a ious s a egies aimed a his end [6,12]. I is also ac i ely
in ol ed in p omo ing SD and leading ac ions o mi iga e clima e change and comply wi h he
ansi ion owa ds a sus ainable ene gy sys em [13,14], whe e enewable ene gies (REs) should
con ibu e o a mo e decen alized and low-ca bon ene gy sys em [15].
Sus ainable u al de elopmen (SRD) has been ecognized as being o pa amoun impo ance o
achie ing global SD [12,16], and u al a eas can make a de ini e con ibu ion o clima e change
goals [7,17] and he ene gy ansi ion [18–20]. Ene gy decen aliza ion o dis ibu ed ene gy, ha is,
small-scale p oduc ion o elec ici y o hea close o consump ion si es, has been poin ed ou as a
necessa y s ep in his ene gy ansi ion [15,21], pa icula ly in u al a eas [22–24], and REs ha e been
iden i ied as an op imal sou ce o be exploi ed unde his model [25–27]. RE based on a decen alized
ene gy supply can posi i ely con ibu e o SRD [28,29]. Acco ding o he se en h Sus ainable
De elopmen Goal, access o eliable, a o dable, sus ainable, and mode n ene gy is an enabling ac o
o p omo ing social equi y and economic g ow h because i is closely associa ed wi h access o
educa ion, heal h ca e, income-gene a ing oppo uni ies, and o e all well-being and sa e y [22].
Ru al a eas a e anscenden al scena ios o p omo e a local de elopmen model ha has RE as
one o i s main pilla s [17,28,30]. Su p isingly, hey ha e no adi ionally been conside ed in ene gy
planning [31], and in he clima e change plans o many Eu opean egions, he e e ence o u al a eas
is mainly ela ed o he p ima y sec o s o he economy [32], wi hou conside ing he po en ial ole o
RE as d i e o SRD. Despi e acknowledging ha RE can be c ucial o SRD [33], a ecen EU audi
concludes ha hei syne gies emain la gely un ealized [34]. Clausen and Rudolph [35] poin ou ha
he poli ical a ionale o he planning and de elopmen o RE acili ies is p ima ily mo i a ed by he
deca bonisa ion o he ene gy sec o , a he han esponding o he ambi ions o SRD. Ka sap akakis
and Ch is akis [36] show how he lack o a s a egic design in he G eek RE legisla i e amewo k and
i s dis o ed in e p e a ion ha e led o an ana chic de elopmen o RE. The e o e, be e , mo e balanced,
and in eg a ed policies a e needed o encou age a subs an ial con ibu ion o RE o SRD.
Na ional ene gy planning has ended o a ou la ge co po a e de elopmen s wi hou
conside a ion o he wide economic e ec s o RE p ojec s, ea ed as non-ma e ial planning
conside a ions [35]. Ru al a eas ha e been ea ed as ene gy pe iphe ies ha depend on ex e nal
decisions abou echnologies and loca ions [37]. Howe e , he sus ainable ene gy ansi ion should be
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planned a he municipal scale [31,38]. Municipali ies a e c ucial in he de ini ion o s a egies o
ensu e e icien , balanced, and sus ainable enewable ene gy zoning in u al a eas [19]. Poggi e al. [31]
iden i y he municipali y as a sel - elian sys em which locally adap s o he ene gy ansi ion. The
municipal le el o analysis allows conside ing he no able egional he e ogenei y in he po en ial o
RE om al e na i e sou ces [39]. Sliz-Szklinia z [40] poin s ou ha be o e designing any egional o
local RE policy i is necessa y o explo e he RE po en ial.
This s udy is aimed a signalling his need, sugges ing he de elopmen o a composi e indica o
o measu e he RE po en ial in he municipali ies o a egion o coun y. This app oach is highly
ele an since explo ing he municipal RE po en ial and iden i ying u al a eas wi h highe supply
possibili ies can be a i s s ep in he p omo ion o decen alized RE p ojec s, educing hei pe cei ed
isk and suppo ing hei planning p ocesses. Coun ies need o design comp ehensi e u al ene gy
sys em planning schemes as an impo an pa o hei sus ainable ene gy ansi ion [30]. The
assessmen o he RE po en ial is a c ucial ini ial phase o ecognizing isks h oughou he planning,
implemen a ion, and ope a ional s ages [41] and p o ides help ul e e ences and sui able measu es o
ha es ing mo e RE sou ces in u u e ene gy in eg a ion policy and na ional ene gy planning [42].
Few p e ious s udies ha e app oached he analysis o ene gy planning and decision-making by
in eg a ing i e o mo e RE sou ces, aimed bo h a elec i ica ion and hea ing pu poses, such as wind,
sola , mic o-medium hyd o, geo he mal and biomass/biogas [43,44], o ha e p oposed his analysis
ac oss all he municipali ies o a whole egion [45]. This s udy con ibu es o he s a e o he a illing
hese gaps, assessing he RE po en ial o Galician municipali ies h ough a composi e indica o based
on he sum o he po en ials o six indi idual RE sou ces and he conside a ion o some ele an
cons ain s e ealed by p e ious li e a u e. Al e na i e weigh ing me hods (P incipal Componen s
Analysis and equal weigh ing) a e conside ed unde a anspa en and o de ed me hodological
app oach o building a obus and eliable index.
The emainde o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows: i s , a li e a u e e iew is conduc ed o
iden i y how p e ious esea ch has app oached he analysis o RE in u al a eas and he main ea u es
o he al e na i e RE sou ces ha could show di e en po en ials in he municipali ies o a egion; he
Me hod sec ion p esen s he case s udy a ea and speci ies he a iables and me hodological issues o
he cons uc ion o a composi e indica o in o ma i e o he RE po en ial o Galician municipali ies;
he Resul s sec ion de ails he de elopmen o he index and nume ically and g aphically p esen s he
dis ibu ion o ha po en ial; inally, a discussion and conclusion sec ion p esen s he main implica ions
o he s udy, as well as i s limi a ions and possible a enues o u u e esea ch.
2. Li e a u e e iew
The decen aliza ion o he ene gy sys em [15,21] and g ea e ene gy au onomy a he local
le el [46], in insically linked o communi y ene gy [47,48], ha e been ad oca ed as a necessa y s ep
in he ene gy ansi ion, whe e RE and u al a eas play an impo an ole. Poggi e al. [31] indica e
he ole o u al a eas as new places o expanding RE p oduc ion and a ac ing p i a e economic
in es men s o he sus ainable ene gy ansi ion. Mo eo e , RE has been ecognized as an impo an
enable o u al de elopmen [10,40].
P e ious li e a u e has also highligh ed some po en ial nega i e e ec s o RE [40,49,50] o
con lic s wi h o he economic, social, o en i onmen al p io i ies [27,51,52]. A balance is needed
be ween land occupa ion wi h RE acili ies, o he land uses, and he p ese a ion o he u al
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landscape [19]. Rega ding small-scale decen alized in as uc u e, Yildiz [53] and Lowi zsch and
Hanke [54] wa n abou he inancial di icul ies, since i is no a ac i e o la ge ene gy companies o
in es men unds, so al e na i e sou ces o unding a e needed. The main disad an ages o small-scale
p ojec s a e he lack o economies o scale, he highe ansac ion cos s (due o he la ge numbe o
people in ol ed) and he limi ed possibili y o di e si y isks ac oss mul iple p ojec s [55,56].
Al e na i e sou ces o inancing such as c owd unding ha e been p oposed as a solu ion [57,58], bu
he undamen al ole o public unds canno be dis ega ded. Klepacki e al. [29] acknowledge ha
wi hou he suppo o EU unds local uni s would no be able o in es in RE.
The mo e common RE sou ces a e sola (pho o ol aic and he mal), wind, biomass, (small-
medium) hyd opowe , and geo he mal [43]. Thei implemen a ion in bo h u ban and u al scena ios is
condi ioned by di e en se s o limi a ions, cons ain s, o ba ie s. Ga cía-Ma ínez e al. [22] iden i y
ou main ca ego ies o ba ie s: (1) echnical ba ie s (e iciency o componen s, powe quali y,
ope a ion, and p o ec ion); (2) egula o y ba ie s (legisla ion limi s); inancial ba ie s (high
in es men cos s and need o inancial assis ance in he implemen a ion s age); and (4) s akeholde
ba ie s (sel -in e es con lic s in a decision-making en i onmen ). In a simila ein, Rybe g e al. [59]
o ganize cons ain s a ound ou g oups: (1) social and poli ical; (2) physical; (3) conse a ion; and (4)
echnical-economic, acknowledging ha all hese cons ain s a e highly spa ially sensi i e. Medina-
San ana e al. [60] iden i y wo big se s o challenges posed by RE: (1) Non- echnical (Capi al cos s,
Economic and ma ke issues, Public conce n, Con lic s be ween s akeholde s, Poli ics, Regula ion);
and (2) Technical (Unp edic abili y, Real- ime sys em ope a ion, Requi ed size). Ra he su p isingly,
ew s udies a e add essing he d i e s and ba ie s o (collec i e) enewable ene gy pene a ion in u al
a eas [15]. Hyb id Renewable Ene gy Sys ems (HRESs) a e p oposed o o e come some o hese
limi a ions ( ela ed o he use o a single RE sou ce) by combining wo o mo e sou ces [61]. Li e
al. [44] acknowledge ha u al HRESs coupled wi h oo op pho o ol aics, wind powe , small
hyd opowe and biogas diges e s can e ec i ely d i e he u al ene gy ansi ion.
A big p opo ion o he ex an li e a u e dealing wi h RE in u al se ings is ocused on he op imal
design o HRESs in ol ing wo o mo e RE echnologies. C i e ia conside ed o he op imiza ion (in
e ms o loca ion and/o sizing) can include echnical, economical, physical, and social
aspec s [45,62,63]. Qui e equen ly hese s udies a e mainly ela ed o he p oblems o elec i ica ion
in emo e u al a eas o de eloping coun ies [41,61,64]. Few s udies conside also hea ing
possibili ies [43]. Some o he in e es ing condi ioning ac o s a e he in e es s o he di e en
s akeholde s [22]. Mo eo e , some s udies ha e in eg a ed he analysis o u al ene gy sys ems wi h
ha o wa e and ood sys ems [60].
Howe e , his p e ious esea ch ela ed o he op imal loca ion and sizing o HRES is mainly
ocused on how o enhance he pe o mance o an ene gy sys em by educing losses, gene a ion
capaci ies and cons uc ion cos s, while imp o ing se ice quali y and eliabili y [62], dis ega ding he
need o in eg a ed egional planning o he RE esou ce in u al se ings. Planning a a egional and
local le el is needed o balance he compe ing in e es s o land esou ces and manage he mul iple
uses o land [40], and should/could be ex ended o a mu i- egional sphe e [44]. This s udy pays
a en ion o his need, acknowledging ha , be o e sea ching o op imal designs o HRESs in speci ic
local uni s, egional ene gy planning is needed based on a mapping o he cu en RE po en ial a ailable
in all hei local uni s.
RE sou ces a e dis ibu ed h oughou di e en e i o ies and can be measu ed only in speci ic
loca ions. Like ossil uels, i is no possible o con e and exploi all he po en ially a ailable
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ene gy [65]. RE po en ial can be de ined in h ee di e en ways:
Po en ial ene gy: he g oss ene gy o he sou ce, e.g., he wind in a ce ain place.
Theo e ical ene gy: he ac ion ha can be collec ed by he ene gy con e sion sys em (e.g., he
sola adia ion collec ed by a ce ain su ace o sola panels).
Exploi able ene gy: he usable ac ion based on sus ainabili y c i e ia ela ed o logis ic,
en i onmen al, and economic issues.
The nex subsec ions explain which a e he main condi ioning ac o s o he po en ial o al e na i e
RE sou ces (sola , wind, biomass/biogas, geo he mal and small hyd o). O he REs, such as ma ine and
o -sho e wind, a e no conside ed due o hei di icul implemen a ion de i ed om bo h egula o y
and echnical ac o s. A inal subsec ion e e s o limi a ions o cons ain s o RE de elopmen s.
2.1. Sola esou ce po en ial
Pho o ol aic and he mal sys ems a e one o he mos common ways o use sola ene gy o bo h
elec ici y gene a ion and he mal use. One o he main ac o s in luencing sola po en ial is he
a ailabili y o sola ene gy on he g ound su ace ha can be con e ed in o hea o elec ici y [66].
The e o e, accu a e sola i adia ion da a is o pa amoun impo ance o he planning and success ul
ope a ion o sola ene gy sys ems.
The a ailable sola ene gy po en ial is he physically a ailable sola adia ion on he Ea h's
su ace, which is in luenced by se e al ac o s: geome y, he ansla ion and o a ion o he ea h,
ele a ion, inclina ion and o ien a ion o he su ace and shadows, as well as a mosphe ic a enua ion
due o pollu ing gases [66]. The es ima ed po en ial, ha can be ob ained based on in si u da a, sa elli e
da a, o a combina ion o he wo, is educed by conside ing con e sion e iciency ac o s [65].
The deploymen o pho o ol aic sys ems depends on se e al ac o s: i adia ion; sola
in e mi ency; capi al, echnological and ins i u ional suppo ; social accep ance; and obs acles o
a chi ec u al es ic ions [67]. The implemen a ion o pho o ol aic panels and sola collec o s on he
oo s o buildings is an oppo uni y wi h g ea po en ial in u al places o a oid land use con lic s [68],
while la ge-scale in es men s could ha e mo e signi ican impac s on he coun yside and i s na u al
alues and cul u al he i age [19].
2.2. Wind esou ce po en ial
The heo e ical ene gy po en ial may be limi ed by [65]: geog aphy (high al i ude a eas, s eep
slope a eas, e c.); socioeconomic condi ions (a eas close o ci ies, ai po s, o p o ec ed a eas); and
land uses (compe i ion wi h a eas o ag icul u e). O he ele an cons ain s a e ela ed o he numbe
o wind pa ks pe a ea and he a ious en i onmen al impac s in ol ing landscape, noise, bi d
collisions and “no in my backya d” opposi ion [19].
The es ima ion o wind ene gy can be e alua ed on a scale o he o de o a ew kilome es simply
by p ocessing he a ailable da a, ei he wi h s a is ical models o wi h in e pola ion echniques
( o ecas ing echniques, low modelling, mesoscale model). The heo e ical ene gy can be also limi ed
by he cha ac e is ics o he wind u bines a ailable in he ma ke (size, e iciency, ull load hou s) and
he limi a ions o he ins alla ion si e [65,67].
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2.3. Biomass/biogas esou ce po en ial
Biomass is a adi ional uel locally a ailable ha enables widesp ead ene gy p oduc ion a
easonable cos s and can con ibu e o mi iga ing clima e change, de eloping u al economies, and
inc easing ene gy secu i y [65]. Th ough chemical and biochemical p ocesses, biomass can be
ans o med in o seconda y ene gy, such as elec ici y, hea o bio uels [69], some imes equi ing
addi ional p ocessing i he aw ma e ials a e no homogeneous [67].
Biomass po en ials a e classi ied acco ding o hei heo e ical, echno-economic, and sus ainable
a ailabili y. The heo e ical biomass po en ial can be es ima ed based on biophysical and
ag oecological ac o s ha de e mine biomass g ow h. The echno-economic po en ial is es ima ed by
conside ing accessibili y, compe i ion o esou ces, biomass logis ics, p oduc ion cos s, and all he
ac o s ha limi he heo e ical po en ial. The sus ainable po en ial aims o assess he amoun o
biomass ha can be ob ained conside ing he socioeconomic and ecological epe cussions o his ype
o RE.
2.4. Geo he mal esou ce po en ial
Geo he mal ene gy is he hea ha could be ex ac ed wi hin he subsu ace o he ea h o be used
o a wide a ie y o pu poses such as hea ing and cooling, in indus y, g eenhouses, ish a ms and
spas [70].
In gene al, he geo he mal po en ial accoun s o he amoun and o m o ene gy s o ed in he
subsoil, which will es ic he ype o applica ion and he ex ac ion me hod [71]. No mally, he
p ocedu e o de e mining geo he mal po en ial consis s o ou phases: ini ial phase, p e- easibili y
phase, easibili y phase, and inal phase. The ini ial phase is based on he selec ion o p omising a eas.
The p e- easibili y phase consis s o su ace in es iga ions in selec ed a eas. The easibili y phase
consis s o explo a o y d illing and es ing o he ese oi s. Finally, he inal phase consis s o he
de elopmen and exploi a ion o he ene gy esou ce [65].
2.5. Small hyd o esou ce po en ial
Acco ding o he Eu opean Small Hyd opowe Associa ion [72], he e is no consensus among he
membe s a es o he Eu opean Union o de ine mini and small hyd o. In Spain, i includes powe
plan s up o 10 MW [73]. Hyd oelec ic powe is ob ained by ha nessing he po en ial ene gy o a mass
o wa e loca ed in he channel o a i e o con e i i s in o mechanical ene gy and hen in o
elec ical ene gy [74]. I is highly condi ioned by he peculia i ies and cha ac e is ics o he loca ion,
wi h opog aphy in luencing bo h he ci il wo ks and he selec ion o machine y [75]. Run-o - i e
plan s depend di ec ly on hyd ology, as hey ha e no capaci y o egula e he low ha is passed h ough
he u bine, which is highly a iable, while s o age plan s wi h a dam o s o e wa e in a ese oi ha e
he capaci y o egula e he lows [73]. The e a e limi a ions o he building o a ious small plan s in
cascade in he same ca chmen due o echnical and en i onmen al easons [76].
2.6. RE cons ain s
The i s se o cons ain s is ela ed o public a i udes owa ds RE. Acco ding o p e ious
li e a u e [77–79] he main easons why ci izens oppose o no he cons uc ion o RE p ojec s a e
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ela ed o conce ns o he en i onmen and biodi e si y. High conce n o he en i onmen o p o-
en i onmen al beha iou [78] equi es minimizing he impac s on exis ing land uses and human
ac i i ies [36].
Boon and Diepe ink [80] and Loomis e al. [81] show he posi i e e ec o en i onmen al
awa eness in suppo ing RE p ojec s. Simila ly, he need o educe g eenhouse gas emissions has led
o inc eased in es men s in RE and ene gy e iciency [82]. Indi iduals can join ini ia i es ha ca e
abou he en i onmen , hus gene a ing a posi i e e ec on he willingness o pa icipa e in RE
p ojec s [78,83,84].
Ano he ele an limi a ion is ela ed o he con lic s in land use. Economic and demog aphic
g ow h has led o an inc ease in he demand o land use [85]. The limi ed a ailabili y o land means
ha a balanced po olio o social, economic, and en i onmen al se ices is needed [86]. Consequen ly,
he di e en RE sou ces compe e wi h each o he o land, as well as wi h o he land uses, such as
ag icul u e, ec ea ion, and ecological conse a ion [40].
Wind powe has highe land use e iciency (ene gy yield pe uni o land used) han biomass and
sola powe . Also, unlike he p oduc ion o ene gy c ops o sola a ms, he land unde a wind a m
can be used o o he pu poses, such as ag icul u e, because wind u bines occupy only a ac ion o
he a ea o a a m [40]. Howe e , his ype o powe gene a ion can ha e ad e se e ec s on ecologically
sensi i e a eas and landscape aes he ics, a ec ing conse a ion and ameni y [87].
Unlike wind a ms, sola sys ems deployed as sola a ms ha e only small nega i e impac s on
ecosys ems bu a e incompa ible wi h mos o he land uses [88,89], wi h an e iden educ ion o a able
land. Chiab ando e al. [88] sugges ha sola a ms should only be allowed i a building-in eg a ed
ins alla ion is no economically iable o ene gy e icien . Acco ding o Dijkman and Bende s [90],
compe i ion o a able land could be educed i la ge pho o ol aic pa ks we e loca ed on ma ginal land,
unsui able o ag icul u al p oduc ion. This would ensu e ha he e is no compe i ion wi h ood and
biomass p oduc ion. Howe e , o he compe ing needs o land use canno be excluded.
Simila ly, biomass ene gy p oduc ion can a ec land use, equi ing land o cul i a ion, s o age,
and c op gene a ion [90,91]. In addi ion, in ensi e biomass p oduc ion can deple e soil nu ien s, hus
a ec ing i s p oduc i i y, and can con ibu e o biodi e si y loss [92,93]. Biomass p oduc ion is no
only in con lic wi h ood and odde p oduc ion bu also wi h o he ene gy c ops. Fo example,
biomass can be used in di e en echnologies ha gi e ise o elec ici y, hea , o bio uels. Annual and
pe ennial c ops o p oduce ene gy compe e o space wi h con en ional plan s.
Landscapes a e also di ec ly a ec ed by ene gy sys ems [79]. The de elopmen o RE p ojec s
poses many ele an challenges, pa icula ly conce ning he isual impac and noise pe cei ed by
inhabi an s [94], o he in e e ence wi h lo a and auna [88]. Pe cep ions abou hese impac s a y
ac oss u al and u ban se ings and a e also ela ed o economic issues such as job c ea ion
oppo uni ies [77].
3. Me hodology
This sec ion i s p esen s he case s udy a ea, jus i ying i s sui abili y o exempli y he
cons uc ion o a u al RE po en ial index ac oss he municipali ies o a egion. The a iables o
indica o s conside ed o build he composi e indica o a e explained, as well as he main
me hodological issues ela ed o i s ma hema ical con igu a ion.
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3.1. Case s udy a ea
We explo e he design o a u al RE po en ial index in a Spanish p o ince. Spain is an in e es ing
con ex o his s udy because i ep esen s a so o ene gy island, due o he limi ed in e connec ions
wi h o he coun ies, which makes i di icul o impo and expo ene gy [95]. The de elopmen o
RE in Spain was d i en by a suppo i e legisla i e en i onmen un il 2015, when i en e ed a kind o
pa alysis [58,96], and only ecen ly new egula ion has been en o ced o suppo decen alized ene gy
and dis ibu ed gene a ion [97,98]. The e a e ew communi y ini ia i es, mainly cons i u ed as
coope a i es [99–101].
To adequa ely cha ac e ize he u al scena io, he le el o municipal disagg ega ion is chosen. This
is he lowes le el o disagg ega ion wi h s a is ical da a a ailable om o icial sou ces. In Spain, he
municipali ies a e he smalles LAUs. The municipali ies a e g ouped in o p o inces and he p o inces
in o au onomous communi ies. Wi hin each municipali y, he e may be se e al popula ion g oups
(ci ies, owns, subu bs, illages, and sca e ed buildings). The Spanish municipal s uc u e is highly
agmen ed, wi h a no h-sou h dicho omy ha shows smalle municipali ies in he no h [102]. The
au onomous communi y o Galicia shows an ex eme dispe sion o i s popula ion, wi h mo e han
30,000 popula ion cen es dis ibu ed in i s 313 municipali ies, which ep esen s almos hal o he o al
popula ion cen es in Spain. These popula ion cen es a e di ided in o cen es whe e a leas 10
buildings o m an u ban space (10,400) and popula ion cen es wi h less han 10 sca e ed buildings
(20,711). Acco ding o he Eu os a me hodology, 240 municipali ies a e classi ied as u al and,
he e o e, conside ed in his s udy o analyze hei RE po en ial.
Galicia is among he Eu opean egions mos a ec ed by he depopula ion o i s u al
a eas [103,104]. His o ically i has lagged behind Spain in e ms o popula ion and GDP
g ow h [105,106]. Depopula ion poses se ious isks o he sus ainabili y o i s u al a eas, wi h ele an
h ea s such as o es i es [107,108]. I also has a ich capi al o RE sou ces [109]. RE gene a ion
ep esen s app oxima ely 7% o he Spanish one and comes om wo main sou ces, hyd o and wind
ene gy [110]. The de elopmen o wind ene gy in u al a eas expe ienced apid g ow h [111], bu
wi hou communi y pa icipa ion [108]. Conce ning sola ene gy, despi e he absence o high adia ion
le els in Galicia, he e is a high e iciency compa ed o o he egions wi h g ea e sola exposu e [112].
Biomass is he hi d sou ce o RE in Galicia [110], al hough i s use is no he mos ad an ageous [113].
Rega ding limi a ions o cons ain s o RE deploymen , Galicia shows a simila dis ibu ion o o he
Eu opean egions whe e moun ain anges gi e ise o conse a ion, echnical-economic, and physically
mo i a ed exclusions, su ounded by la ge a eas whe e social and poli ical exclusion a eas
domina e [59].
3.2. Va iables
10 indica o s (Table 1) a e conside ed o g asp he po en ial deploymen in Galicia o six RE
echnologies: sola , onsho e wind, geo he mal, small hyd o, biogas, and biomass. The six indica o s
used o measu e he gene a ion po en ial o RE wi h hese six echnologies a e ex ac ed om
ins i u ional da abases wi h he suppo o GIS so wa e, being he echnical calcula ions simila o
hose applied in p e ious li e a u e [27,40,114,115]. Appendix A p o ides mo e de ailed in o ma ion.
Fou addi ional indica o s a e included as acili a ing o limi ing ac o s o he di e en RE po en ials.
Simila o Benedek e al. [114], he p opo ion o land su ace included in Red Na u a 2000 should be
inco po a ed as a limi ing ac o o any o he RE echnologies conside ed. In addi ion, he p e iously
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ins alled capaci y o small hyd o is also conside ed a es ic ion o he deploymen o new ins alla ions
o small hyd oelec ic plan s, since he exis ing ones ha e al e ed he wa e low [116]. On he con a y,
he exis ence o p e iously ins alled capaci y o wind and sola ene gy is conside ed a acili a ing ac o ,
since he e a e no ob ious es ic ions on he ins alla ion o mo e u bines o sola panels and, ins ead,
a posi i e p edisposi ion o he popula ion is assumed [117]. Table 2 shows he desc ip i e s a is ics
o he a iables conside ed.
Table 1. De ini ion o indica o s.
RE po en ial Code
Indica o
Pe iod
Sign
Re e ences
POT_SUN
Sola Po en ial (in kWh /m2 /day,
see Appendix A)
2022
(+)
[40,114]
POT_WIN
Wind Po en ial (in W/m2, see
Appendix A)
2022
(+)
[40,114]
POT_GEO
Geo he mal Po en ial (in
MW/m
2
, see Appendix A)
2022
(+)
[118,119]
POT_BGS
Biogas Po en ial (in m3, see
Appendix A)
2020
(+)
[40,114,115]
POT_BMS
Biomass po en ial (in
ons/ha/yea , see Appendix A)
2022
(+)
[27,114]
POT_SHY
Small hyd o po en ial (in km2,
see Appendix A)
2022
(+)
[116]
PRO_LAN_RN2000
Pe cen age o a ea included in
Red Na u a 2000
2018
(–)
[114]
ICP_WIN
Ins alled capaci y o wind a ms
2022
(+)
Own p oposal based on
Lange e al. [117]
ICP_SOL
Sola ene gy ins alled capaci y
2022
(+)
Own p oposal based on
Lange e al. [117]
ICP_SHY
Small hyd o ins alled capaci y
2022
(–)
Own p oposal based on
Co co an e al. [116]
3.3. Me hod
Composi e indica o s a e powe ul ools o de ining complex mul idimensional concep s ha
canno be easily desc ibed by a single indica o . Al hough hei use is no wi hou c i icism [120], hey
can help o isualize o demand a en ion o impo an issues ha equi e social o poli ical
in e en ion [121,122] and acili a e communica ion be ween esea che s, policy make s, and he
public [123]. Building a composi e indica o is a me hodological challenge, as combining many
indica o s in o one is no easy and equi es igo ous and anspa en da a and p ocess managemen ,
in ol ing se e al s eps [124]. The OECD handbook on cons uc ing composi e indica o s [125]
p o ides a de ailed explana ion o hese common s eps. The i s is he selec ion o indi idual indica o s,
which should be placed in he con ex o a obus and in-dep h li e a u e e iew. The nex s ep in ol es
da a collec ion, analysis, and p epa a ion (no maliza ion and/o s anda diza ion). Resea che s a e hen
aced wi h wo c ucial s eps, ela ed o deciding on he indi idual con ibu ion o each o he o e all
index (weigh ing), and how o agg ega e hose indi idual indica o s o ob ain he inal index
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con ex wi hou losing sigh o he possibili ies o he o he . Policy make s can in eg a e his
in o ma ion in he design o indi idualized s a egies ha add ess he po en ial o a municipali y and
o in eg al s a egies ha deal wi h he RE po en ial o he whole egion. Fo esea che s, he p oposed
index opens many a enues o u he ad ance in he analysis o he p econdi ions o he u al
sus ainable ene gy ansi ion, as well as o sugges al e na i e con igu a ions o he index, i.e,
conside ing eme ging RE echnologies such as concen a ing sola pho o ol aics, enhanced geo he mal
powe , cellulosic e hanol, o a i icial pho osyn hesis [142]. O he possible expansions would consis
o also in eg a ing economic iabili y conside a ions, as sugges ed by Sliz-Szklinia z [40], conside ing
incompa ible a eas o RE acili ies [13], o e alua ing whe he he RE po en ial can sa is y a speci ic
pe cen age o ene gy demand [143]. The assessmen o he RE po en ial could also be complemen ed
wi h an analysis o he esou ces a ailable no only o powe gene a ion, bu also o s o age,
ansmission, and dis ibu ion [41]. Fu he , i would be in e es ing o in eg a e, besides elec ici y and
hea ing demands, hose om cooling, indus y, and anspo sec o s [42], o acili a e he gene a ion
o la ge-scale ene gy planning s a egies.
The main limi a ions o ou p oposal a e he una oidable ones in he cons uc ion o a composi e
indica o . I hey a e no backed by a obus and anspa en me hodology, hey can p o ide misleading
in o ma ion [144]. Al hough in he cons uc ion o he u al RE po en ial index an a emp has been
made o minimize he p esence o subjec i e and disc e iona y choices, he e is s ill a ce ain deg ee
o subjec i i y in he indica o selec ion p ocess and he decision on he sign o hei expec ed
ela ionship wi h he index. Fu he mo e, he accu a e cha ac e iza ion o complex concep s such as
RE po en ial is always a challenge, and i is o en a ec ed by limi a ions in da a a ailabili y. Mo e
e o s could be made o imp o e da a collec ion o iden i y new da a sou ces. Al hough he
conside a ion o only some RE echnologies and enabling o cons aining ac o s could also be
conside ed a limi a ion, i should be no ed ha composi e indica o s a e aimed a se ing speci ic
pu poses ha depend on who and wha is cons uc ing he index o , unde a i ness- o -pu pose
basis [125]. As men ioned be o e, esea che s, p ojec p omo e s, and policy make s can easily adap
he index o hei own needs by adding o emo ing indica o s. This s udy has signalled he need o
measu e he hyb id RE po en ial o u al loca ions and sugges ed he way o do i . F om his poin ,
esea che s, p ojec p omo e s, and policy make s can ‘ ake up he gaun le ’.
Despi e hese d awbacks, he combina ion o he use o an index such as he one sugges ed in his
s udy, he con ibu ion o suppo policies and app op ia e inancing channels, and he es ablishmen
o solid collabo a i e ela ionships be ween di e en agen s, can p omo e he de elopmen o REs in
u al a eas and make hem a key ac o in he ansi ion owa ds a sus ainable ene gy sys em and he
achie emen o SRD.
Un o una ely, in he con ex o Galicia, he la es planning amewo ks ela ed o u al
de elopmen and clima e change do no add ess ene gy planning issues bu a e mainly ocused on
p oposing ac ions in he ag icul u al and o es y sec o s [32, con i m he same eali y in Sco land].
Al hough he posi i e impac s o REs canno be aken o g an ed [33–35] and i is no e iden ha
REs au oma ically con ibu e o u al de elopmen [145,146], we hope ha he egional adminis a ion
becomes awa e o he need o p omo e an ene gy ansi ion in u al a eas ha , based on adap a ion o
local esou ces and needs, and ci izen pa icipa ion, con ibu es o hei sus ainable de elopmen .
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Acknowledgmen s
N. Rome o-Cas o acknowledges inancial suppo by Agencia Es a al de In es igación
(Minis e io de Ciencia, Inno ación y Uni e sidades) unde esea ch p ojec wi h e e ence PID2021-
124336OB-I00.
Con lic o in e es
All au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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