70 2023, olume 26, issue 3, pp. 70–91, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-3-005
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
Has COVID-19 a ec ed he o ganisa ional
cul u e o non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions?
Ma ie Mikušo á1, Pe a Ryd alo á2, Naděžda Klabusayo á3,
F an išek Konečný4
1 Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Economics, Depa men o Managemen , Czech Republic, ORCID:
0000-0003-0183-806X, [email p o ec ed];
2 Technical Uni e si y o Libe ec, Facul y o Economics, Depa men o Business Adminis a ion and Managemen ,
Czech Republic, ORCID: 0000-0002-4816-208X, [email p o ec ed];
3 PRIGO Uni e si y, Depa men o Business Economics and Law, Czech Republic, ORCID: 0000-0003-1758-0729,
[email p o ec ed];
4 Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, Facul y o Economics, Depa men o Managemen , Czech Republic, ORCID:
0000-0002-1463-7147, [email p o ec ed].
Abs ac : O ganisa ional cul u e, as one o he key ea u es o any o ganisa ion, is ela ed o i s
pe o mance. This is also ue o non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions. The pu pose o his esea ch is
o iden i y changes in he dimensions o he o ganisa ional cul u e o hese o ganisa ions caused by
he pandemic. Da a om 586 esponden s, iden i ied h ough an online OCAI ques ionnai e, we e
collec ed o p e-COVID-19, cu en , and p e e ed s a e. S a is ically signi ican ep esen a ion
o he dimensions was iden i ied in he ypes o cul u e. I was ound ha hie a chy cul u e was
p e alen in p e-COVID-19. The hypo hesis o ying o inc ease compe i i eness in imes
o h ea was no con i med. A e COVID-19, clan cul u e p e ailed. I can be no ed ha indi idual
dimensions o o ganisa ional cul u e changed hei loca ion d ama ically du ing he epo ing pe iod.
Bu he dimensions in he p e e ed o ganisa ional cul u e e u ned mos ly o he p e-pandemic
s a e. Acco ding o McNema ’s es a an o e all signi icance le el o 0.05, he e was a di e ence
be ween he now and p e e ed pe iods o dominan cha ac e is ics in hie a chy ype, o ganisa ional
leade ship in ma ke and hie a chy ype, managemen o employees in clan and hie a chy, s a egic
emphases in adhoc acy ype. O he 24 op ions, a s a is ically signi ican di e ence was con i med
in six cases. The esponden s do no signi ican ly expe ience eelings o exhaus ion o dis up ion
o wo k-li e balance in a pos -pandemic si ua ion. The p ac ical indings emphasise he necessi y
o manage s o know he loca ion o dimensions, no only he ype o o ganisa ional cul u e.
Con i med ac s can help manage s, leade s, and policy make s in choosing s a egies o shaping
o ganisa ional cul u e in non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions o achie e he equi ed pe o mance.
Keywo ds: Non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions (NGOs), o ganisa ional cul u e, OCAI, COVID-19.
JEL Classi ica ion: M1, L31.
APA S yle Ci a ion: Mikušo á, M., Ryd alo á, P., Klabusayo á, N., & Konečný, F. (2023).
Has COVID-19 a ec ed he o ganisa ional cul u e o non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions?
E&M Economics and Managemen , 26(3), 70–91. h ps://doi.o g/10.15240/ ul/001/2023-3-005
In oduc ion
An impo an subsys em o any o ganisa ion is
i s cul u e. O ganisa ional cul u e (OC) is c ea ed
in all ypes o o ganisa ions, wha e e hei pu -
pose, no jus p o i making. Al hough in angible
and la gely in isible, i a ec s o ganisa ional pe -
o mance, employee (and he e o e cus ome )
sa is ac ion, and quali y o wo k li e (Came on
& Quinn, 1999; Mi anda-Wol , 2022; Schein, 1992;
Schein & Schein, 2016; T ice & Beye , 1990).
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Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
Thus, i can be said ha he ou come o
an o ganisa ion’s ac i i ies is in luenced no
only by he componen s ha can be quan i ied
bu also by cul u e as an unquan i iable compo-
nen , which acco ding o Denison (1990) con-
sis s o he basic alues, a i udes and belie s
ha exis in an o ganisa ion, he pa e ns o be-
ha iou ha esul om hese sha ed meanings,
and he symbols ha exp ess he connec ion
be ween he belie s, alues, and beha iou s
o o ganisa ional membe s.
The o ganisa ion’s cul u e is he esul o
a lea ning p ocess. I is he esul o he accu-
mula ion o expe iences passed on o indi idu-
als h ough he socialisa ion p ocess. By being
in o malised, OC can be mo e easily subjec
o in e nal and ex e nal in luences, whe he
nega i e o posi i e.
One o he las majo changes aced by in-
di iduals and o ganisa ions was he COVID-19
pandemic. I had (and s ill has) an impac on e -
e yone’s pe sonal and p o essional li e. Manage-
men mus be able o espond o changes and
adop new solu ions so ha , among o he hings,
he o ganisa ional cul u e as one o he p e eq-
uisi es o pe o mance, is no weakened.
The esea ch ques ion was o mula ed:
RQ: Was he e a change in he dimensions
o he o ganisa ional cul u e o non-go e nmen-
al o ganisa ions du ing he COVID-19 pe iod?
The p ocessing p ocedu e is as ollows.
Fi s ly, he issue o o ganisa ional cul u e is
elabo a ed, highligh ing i s impo ance o he o -
ganisa ions, including non-p o i o ganisa ions.
In he ollowing sec ion, he me hodology and
me hods used a e desc ibed. The s a is ically
p ocessed esul s ob ained om he ques ion-
nai e su ey in NGOs a e p esen ed and dis-
cussed. Finally, he key indings o he esea ch
a e summa ised and he limi a ions and con i-
bu ions o he esea ch a e discussed.
1. Theo e ical backg ound
O ganisa ional cul u e (OC) is he image o lead-
e ship and is seen as an impo an goal o lead-
e s. O ganisa ional cul u e is no jus abou
he indi idual o he o ganisa ion. In e pe sonal
ela ionships, en i onmen , human ealisa ion
and human pe sonali y de elopmen , employee
pe o mance and sa is ac ion, image, and b and
o he o ganisa ion a e all OC. I is associa ed
wi h he beha iou and a i ude o he manage-
men , he pe o mance o he o ga nisa ion and
he beha iou o he o ganisa ion and he em-
ployees. Wha e e poin o iew an o ganisa-
ion conside s mos impo an , unde s anding
he concep o OC is he key o unde s anding
he o ganisa ion and all ha comes wi h i .
The speci ic de ini ion o he con en o he e m
a ies, bu he amewo k o unde s anding
he concep o OC is simila (Denison, 1990;
D ennan, 1992; Hall, 1995; Kilmann e al.,
1985; Sackmann, 2006).
Fo he pu pose o his esea ch, he e m
o ganisa ional cul u e has been unde s ood as
a se o basic assump ions, alues, a i udes,
and no ms o beha iou ha a e sha ed wi hin
an o ganisa ion and ha a e mani es ed in
he hinking, eeling, and beha iou o o ganisa-
ional membe s and in a e ac s o ma e ial and
imma e ial na u e. I manage s wan o manage
he o ganisa ion wi h conside a ion o i s cul u-
al aspec s and pu pose ully shape he con en
o cul u e o suppo pe o mance, hey need
o know and unde s and he cul u e o hei
o ganisa ion (Lukášo á, 2015). Based on hei
knowledge o he con en o he cul u e, hey
can iden i y i s s eng hs and weaknesses, and
hey can pu pose ully choose e ec i e man-
agemen ac ics. He e he p ac ical ele ance
o he de eloped ypologies o OCs eme ges.
Typologies can help manage s compa e he
con en o hei o ganisa ion’s cul u e wi h ypi-
cal cases, and hus o know and unde s and i
be e (B idges, 1992; Ghinea, 2016; Handy,
1993; Ha ison, 1972; Ipiñaza e al., 2021; Lee
& Jang, 2019; S a inoudis & Kaka ougkas,
2019; Yaa i e al., 2016).
Fo he pu pose o he esea ch, he model
o Came on and Quinn (1999) was chosen.
The OCAI O ganiza ional Cul u e Assess-
men has been used in a numbe o s udies.
Fo example in in es iga ions o di e ences
in he success o business p ocess manage-
men ini ia i es (Š embe ge e al., 2017),
in iden i ying he success o in o ma ion sys em
implemen a ion (Ma diana e al., 2018; Samsie
e al., 2020), in de e mining OC ela ionships
wi h quali y pe o mance in cons uc ion indus-
y (Te ä äinen e al., 2018), o wi h employee
sa is ac ion (Čuček & Kač, 2020; Dob in e al.,
2021). OCAI was used also in he explo a ions
o he academic and high school en i onmen
(Caliskan & Zhu, 2019; Kun & Ujhelyi, 2018), in
he amily business esea ch ield (Ma ín e al.,
2017), o in public ins i u ions (And ianu, 2020).
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Each ype is cha ac e ised by he goals
he o ganisa ion is wo king owa ds and he
ools i uses o achie e hem. The au ho s o
he model desc ibe he ypes o o ganisa ional
cul u e as ollows.
The clan cul u e is cha ac e ised by
a iendly wo king en i onmen , sha ed alues
and goals, and eam hinking. I has mo e
cha a c e is ics o an ex ended amily han
an o ganisa ion en i y. The commi men o
he o ganisa ion is high. The bene i s o each
indi idual’s de elopmen a e emphasised, and
cus ome s a e seen as pa ne s. Teamwo k,
pa icipa ion, and consensus a e seen as pa a-
moun in he o ganisa ion. The hie a chy cul u e
ep esen s a s uc u ed and o malised wo k en-
i onmen , emphasising p ocedu es and egula-
ions, wi h o mal ules as he uni ying elemen .
The au ho s chose his model because i
cap u es he p e ailing o ganisa ional alues,
he associa ed s a egic p io i ies in each ype
o cul u e, cap u es he a mosphe e in he o -
ganisa ion, he leade ship s yle, and he suc-
cess c i e ia o he o ganisa ion. This ac is
p obably ela ed o he ac ha he model was
o mula ed in ela ion o he sea ch o he con-
di ions o o ganisa ional e ec i eness and ha
he deg ee o ep esen a ion o hese ypes in
he cul u e o he o ganisa ion allows an im-
plici assessmen o he s a egic o ien a ion
o he o ganisa ion. The basic dimensions o
he model a e lexibili y e sus con ol and in e -
nal e sus ex e nal ocus. The ypes o cul u e
de ined by he au ho s using hese dimensions
a e e e ed o as he cul u e o clan, hie a chy,
adhoc acy, and ma ke (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1: Compe ing alues o leade ship, e ec i eness, and o ganisa ional heo y
Sou ce: Came on and Quinn (1999)
Flexibili y and disc e ion
In e nal ocus and in eg a ion
Cul u e ype
Clan
Cul u e ype
Adhoc acy
Ex e nal ocus and di e en ia ion
O ien a ion
Collabo a i e
O ien a ion
C ea i e
Leade
Facili a o
Leade
Inno a o
Type
Men o
Team builde
Type
En ep eneu
Visiona y
Value
Commi men
Value
Inno a i e ou pu s
D i e s
Communica ion
De elopmen
D i e s
T ans o ma ion
Agili y
E ec i eness
Human de elopmen
Pa icipa ion
P oduce e ec i eness
E ec i eness
Inno a i eness, ision
New esou ces
P oduce e ec i eness
Cul u e ype
Hie a chy
Cul u e ype
Ma ke
O ien a ion
Con olling
O ien a ion
Compe ing
Leade
Coo dina o
Leade
Ha d d i e
Type
Moni o ,
O ganize
Type
Compe i o
P oduce
Value
E iciency
Value
Ma ke sha e
D i e s
Timeliness
Consis ency,
Uni o mi y
D i e s
Goal achie emen
P o i abili y
E ec i eness
Con ol, e iciency
Capable p ocesses
P oduce e ec i eness
E ec i eness
Ha d compe ing
Cus ome ocus
P oduce e ec i eness
S abili y and con ol
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The smoo h unning o he o ganisa ion is
conside ed pa amoun ; he goal is s abili y and
e iciency. Success is de ined as eliabili y
o deli e y, mee ing deadlines, and low cos s.
Employee managemen is p ima ily ocused on
ensu ing employee secu i y. In he adhoc acy
cul u e, he e is a wo kplace wi h a dynamic
business and c ea i e en i onmen . People a e
willing o ake isks, manage s a e isiona ies
and inno a o s. Inno a i e app oaches and ex-
pe imen a ion b ing he o ganisa ion oge he .
The emphasis is on being a leade in i s ield
o de eloping new p oduc s. Inno a ion and
he abili y o adap o a u bulen en i onmen
is seen as a sou ce o p o i abili y, and he suc-
cess o he o ganisa ion is judged in his sense.
The main ask o manage s is o encou age
indi idual ini ia i e and c ea i i y. The ma ke
cul u e is cha ac e is ic o a esul s-o ien ed o -
ganisa ion in which people a e compe i i e and
ocused on hei goals. The o ganisa ion is ied
by a win-win o ien a ion, wi h success de ined
by gaining ma ke sha e. Long- e m a en ion
is paid o compe i ion, ie ce compe i i eness
p e ails (Came on & Quinn, 1999).
1.1 O ganisa ional cul u e in NGOs
–Selec ed indings
NGOs add ess a wide ange o esponse and e-
co e y needs. NGOs alue hei independence
and neu ali y; hey end o be decen alised,
a e commi ed, and a e highly p ac ice-o ien ed
(Coppola, 2020). NGOs mus mos ly und aise
o apply o g an s o ope a e.
As Helmig e al. (2015) s a ed, esea che s
o en assume a unique non-p o i alue se , which
is a pa o OC as a non-p o i speci ic sou ce
o compe i i e ad an age. Thei indings ejec
he idea o a unique non-p o i alue p io i isa-
ion. NGOs do no di e in hei alue implemen-
a ion ei he , hough some implemen ed alue
se e as o ganisa ional sou ces and a e associ-
a ed wi h be e pe o mance. Pinho e al. (2014)
p o e ha o ganisa ional pe o mance is highe
in luenced in ma ke o ganisa ional cul u e ype.
The esea ch o Chen e al. (2019) demons a ed
he impo an ole o OC in shaping isk manage-
men p ac ices in NGOs and he c ucial ole
ha leade s play in c ea ing and nu u ing such
a cul u e wi hin hei o ganisa ions. The esul s
show ha he ma ke - ype and inno a ion a e
posi i ely associa ed wi h he ma u i y o he isk
managemen p ac ices. The inno a ion sys em
in luences he success o he whole sys em, and
he OC has in luence on he inno a ion capaci y
o he o ganisa ions (Oka an & Alankuş, 2017).
Also, Lange and LeRoux (2017) a gue ha OC,
cha ac e ised by inno a ion and isk- aking, may
help NGOs espond o change in hei en i on-
men s and be mo e e ec i e a hei ac i i ies.
Human esou ces a e he d i ing o ce behind
inno a ion p ocesses. Ronquillo e al. (2021)
ound ha job lexibili y, he quali y and epu a-
ion o he o ga nisa ion a e posi i ely ela ed
o non-p o i inno a ion clima es. Resea ch by
Chumg e al. (2016) suppo he no ion ha
employee sense o well-being is connec ed
wi h OC and employees’ knowledge-sha ing
beha iou . Knowledge and human capi al can
be seen as he mos impo an NGOs esou ces
(Zbuchea e al., 2020). Wang (2021) iden i ied
low o ganisa ional commi men om employees.
His esea ch e ealed ha commi men was
posi i ely ela ed o engaged leade ship, com-
muni y engagemen e o , deg ee o o malisa-
ion in daily ope a ions, and in angible suppo
o employees. The commi men is linked o
he willingness o employees o p omo e hei
o ganisa ions (Ruge e al., 2020). O ganisa ional
cul u e shapes beha iou s and con lic handling
s yles (Roy & Pe in, 2021). O ganisa ional
cul u e in luences he use o media. Ihm and
Kim (2021) ound ha NGOs wi h au ho i a ian
cul u es used all possible medium, including
adi ional media, while amily-like NGOs lagged
in using new ICTs. T anspa en in o ma ion
p ac ices p edic ed mo e use o ICTs, whe eas
collabo a i e and democ a ic communica ion
p ac ices did no . O ganisa ional cul u e has
an impac on s a egic planning. Panda (2021)
ound ha he collabo a i e and e o manage-
men cul u e posi i ely impac ed he c ea ion and
concep ualisa ion o s a egic plans in NGOs.
This o e iew, al hough b ie , is su icien
o make manage s awa e ha OC does indeed
in e e e wi h all o he o ganisa ion’s ac i i ies.
The COVID-19 e a p esen s challenges o
bo h manage s and esea che s. The i s is
inding ou how esilien he o ganisa ional cul-
u e is. Which elemen s o i will be ans o med,
and which will be sus ained? Does he mo e
online lead o ise o decline o he symbolic
i uals o o ganisa ion li e? How will he ela-
ionships be ween people wo king om home
change? Wha is he impac o sepa a ion on
you well-being? Wha impac will change
in o ganisa ional cul u e ha e on o ganisa ional
pe o mance? (Spice , 2020). The COVID-19
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Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
c isis should be an incen i e o build a lea n-
ing capabili y o o ganisa ional esilience (O h
& Schuldis, 2021). Mo eo e , OC has a signi i-
can e ec on c isis managemen s a egies no
only in he COVID-19 c isis.
2. Resea ch me hodology
A esea ch ques ion was o mula ed:
RQ: Was he e a change in he dimensions
o he o ganisa ional cul u e o non-p o i o gan-
isa ions du ing he COVID-19 pe iod?
The hypo heses we e cons uc ed:
H1: The dominan ype o o ganisa ional
cul u e in he p e-COVID-19 is he clan.
Despi e he s udy o a la ge numbe
o sou ces, he au ho s a e no known o ha e
a s udy ha would ocus on he es ablished
hypo heses. The hypo heses a e es ablished
on he basis o in e iews wi h NGO employees
and discussions wi h expe s om he social
sphe e. The au ho s assume ha o ganisa ions
whose pu pose is no o make p o i s bu o help
people will c ea e a elaxed wo k en i onmen
mo e like an ex ended amily. They will no
pu p essu e on hei employees, hey will
no equi e hei employees o compe e wi h
each o he . This assump ion is ela ed o he ac
ha many ac i i ies a e p o ided by olun ee s.
H2: A e COVID-19, he e is a s a is ically
signi ican inc ease in he p e e ence o place
dimensions in he ma ke ype.
H3: A e COVID-19, he e is a s a is ically
signi ican inc ease in he p e e ence o place
dimensions in he adhoc acy ype.
NGOs ha e di e en goals han p o i o -
ganisa ions. Howe e , his does no mean ha
hey do no s i e o success, ha hey do no
compe e o ma ke posi ioning o o clien s. To
su i e and con inue o g ow, e en NGOs mus
beha e in ways ha make hem compe i i e.
H4: In he cu en and p e e ed si ua ion,
he p e e ences in each dimension ha e no
changed signi ican ly.
The changes o OC e lec he chal-
lenges o a changing en i onmen , o cing
o ganisa ions o be dynamic and lexible o
seek new solu ions. The au ho s sugges ha
employees ha e also unde s ood he need o
help hei o ganisa ion o be able o adap o
he apidly changing en i onmen .
A en ion is also paid o he pe sonal impac
o he pandemic on he wo ke s hemsel es,
i.e., on he a ea o well-being and wo k-li e
balance. This issue is add essed only ma gin-
ally. Howe e , o illus a e he pe sonal si ua ion
in which he esponden s e alua e he di e en
dimensions o OC, he au ho s also p oceed, al-
bei in a limi ed way, o he ollowing hypo heses.
H5: The e is a s a is ically signi ican ela-
ionship be ween o ganisa ional cul u e and
employees’ eelings o exhaus ion.
H6: The e is a s a is ically signi ican ela-
ionship be ween o ganisa ional cul u e and
he pe cep ions o wo k-li e balance.
The e o e, i is necessa y o ind he ype
o OC in p e-pandemic and cu en ime.
The p e e ed ype o OC will also be iden i ied.
Fo he p e e ed ype o o ganisa ional cul u e,
esponden s e lec on he ques ion: i you
o ganisa ion is o lou ish, o achie e d ama ic
success, in, say, i e yea s, wha kind o cul u e
will be equi ed?
To iden i y he ype o o ganisa ional cul u e,
he esea che s chose he Came on and Quinn
(1999) model, which c ea ed he O ganisa-
ional Cul u e Assessmen Ins umen (OCAI).
The con en o he o ganisa ional cul u e o
he su eyed o ganisa ions is de e mined by
six con en componen s on which he ques ion-
nai e is based. They a e as ollows:
 Dominan ea u es o he o ganisa ion
(cha ac e is ics o he en i onmen and
a mosphe e p e ailing in he o ganisa ion);
 The way o leade ship in he o ganisa ion
(wha is unde s ood as leade ship in he o -
ganisa ion, wha is conside ed as leade -
ship skills);
 The way employees a e managed (wha
cha ac e ises he managemen s yle, wha
me hods a e used);
 O ganisa ional cohesion (which ensu es
o ganisa ional cohesion);
 P io i y s a egic ac o s (wha is empha-
sised in he o ganisa ion, wha is he ocus
o he o ganisa ion);
 Success c i e ia (how success is de ined
in he o ganisa ion).
Fo each o he six dimensions, ou
s a emen s a e p esen ed, each o which
cha ac e ises one o he ou ypes o cul u e
lis ed abo e. Responden s a e asked o di-
ide he 100 poin s among he s a emen s o
cap u e he si ua ion in hei o ganisa ion, in
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Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
he p e-pandemic pe iod, in he cu en pe iod,
and also hei p e e ed ype.
Fo he selec ion o esponden s, he au-
ho s used he classi ica ion o NI se ices
acco ding o he pu pose o which he NGOs
spen unds (CZ-COPNI). Social wel a e se -
ices appea ed o be he mos sui able a ea,
which is also cha ac e ised by olun ee ing
(o he a eas a e public uni e si ies, ec ea ional
and spo s se ices, o he s).
Responden s a e o dina y employees
o NGOs ac oss he Czech Republic iden i ied
om The Regis e o Social Se ice P o ide s
(mps .cz), whe e 5,500 NGOs a e egis e ed.
The si ua ion wi h NGOs is comple ely di e en
han, o example, wi h business en i ies. Mos
NGOs in social se ices ha e a small numbe
o employees (shel e s, day ca e cen e s,
homes o he elde ly, homes o people wi h
disabili ies, shel e ed housing, nu sing se ices,
ehabili a ion, e c.). Fo his eason he selec ion
included NGOs ope a ing in he social sec o
wi h mo e han 20 employees. Manage s we e
asked o dis ibu e he link o he ques ionnai e
o hei employees. 586 alid esponses we e
ecei ed. The su ey was conduc ed online o
h ee weeks in Ap il 2022 (CAWI). The da a
was p ocessed by a s a is ical p og am SPSS.
The means o he dimensions in each ype
o o ganisa ional cul u e in he p e-pandemic,
cu en , and p e e ed s a e a e summa ised
in ables and g aphs (Appendix; Tab. A1 and
Fig. A1). To p oceed u he and as a condi-
ion o ind ela ionships, i was necessa y o
de e mine he ep esen a ion o he ou ypes
o OCs. To his end, he λ2 goodness-o - i es
was applied. The McNema es was used
o iden i y ends be ween he dimensions
o he ypes o OC in he s udy pe iods, and
he Holm-Bon e oni signi icance le el co -
ec ion was applied. In he las pa , λ2 es
and Mann-Whi ney es we e used o iden i y
po en ial ela ionships be ween dimensions o
he ypes o cul u e and in luenced ac o s.
A signi icance le el o 5% was chosen.
3. Resea ch esul s and discussion
I is impo an o he manage ’s decision-mak-
ing o know in which ypes he di e en dimen-
sions o o ganisa ional cul u e a e loca ed.
3.1 Types o o ganisa ional cul u e
(OC) and changes in he loca ion
o dimensions in OC ypes o e
hepe iodsunde  e iew
By calcula ing means om he ela i e alues
o he dimensions, he p e e ences o he ypes
in he pe iods o in e es can be de e mined
Fig. 2: Types o o ganisa ional cul u es in he pe iods unde e iew
Sou ce: own
0.00
10.00
20.00
30.00
40.00
Clan
Adhoc acy
Ma ke
Hie a chy
P e-Co id-19 Cu en P e e ed
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76 2023, olume 26, issue 3, pp. 70–91, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-3-005
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
(Appendix; Tab. A1). This is he way in which
he ep esen a ion o OC ypes in he pe iods
unde s udy is ound. Fu he mo e, i can be
seen ha o ganisa ions end mo e owa ds in-
e nal ocus and owa ds s abili y (Fig. 2).
A i s iew, one could deduce he s a us o
he di e en ypes o o ganisa ional cul u e. How-
e e , gi en he di e en s a is ical signi icance,
he conclusion could be misleading. I is neces-
sa y o p oceed o he nex s eps. We examine
he ypes and hei dimensions, hei s a is ical
signi icance, and he s a is ically signi ican di -
e ences be ween hem. Such con i med ac s
can help manage s, leade s, and policy make s
in choosing s a egies o shaping OC in NGOs
o achie e he equi ed pe o mance. No o gan-
isa ions we e cha ac e ised only by one cul u e
(i.e., none ga e all 100 poin s o he same cul-
u e ype on all ques ions).
To answe he hypo heses, i is necessa y i s
o ind ou wha changes ha e occu ed in each
dimension. No all changes will be s a is ically
signi ican . The compa ison is done in wo s eps:
i s , he chi-squa ed goodness-o - i es is cal-
cula ed o es whe he he ep esen a ion o all
ou ypes o cul u e is he same. I i s p- alue
is less han 0.05, i is shown a he 0.05 signi i-
cance le el ha he ep esen a ion o he ou
cul u e ypes is no equal. This ac is con i med
in he p esen in es iga ion in all dimensions.
In he second s ep, pos -hoc es ing ollows,
in which all pai s o cul u es a e compa ed using
chi-squa ed es s o goodness-o - i wi h Holm-
Bon e oni co ec ion o he signi icance le el.
S a is ically signi ican di e ences a e indica ed
by an as e isk and s a is ically non-signi ican
di e ences by n.s. (no signi ican ). The num-
be o esponden s is always 586. Tab. 1 shows
he da a in absolu e and ela i e equencies
and he esul s o he es s wi h he signi icance
ma ke s. Fo he o he dimensions, o simplic-
i y, he da a a e lis ed in Appendix (Tab. A1) and
e e ence is made only o - es s o s a is ical
signi icance o changes in he mean alue a
he signi icance le el o 5%.
3.2 Dominan cha ac e is ic
How do esponden s cha ac e ise hei o gani-
sa ion? (Tab. 1; Appendix – Fig. A1).
In he p e-pandemic e a, esponden s clea ly
cha ac e ise hei o ganisa ion as a e y con-
olled and s uc u ed place (hie a chy 33 poin s).
The o mal p ocedu es and ules se he ules
o achie ing he goals in an in e nal compe i i e
en i onmen (ma ke 30 poin s). A highe em-
phasis on in e nal compe i ion is associa ed wi h
low knowledge sha ing and a iendly wo kplace
en i onmen (clan 19 poin s). The willingness o
ake isks (adhoc acy 18 poin s) con as s wi h
he compe i i e en i onmen (ma ke 30 poin s).
The pandemic has b ough abou wo
majo changes. Two ypes o OC a e he mos
P e-COVID-19 Cu en P e e ed
CA M H C A M H C A M H
Cul u e ype
Abs 111 105 176 194 194 134 194 64 170 111 141 164
Rel 19 18 30 33 33 23 33 11 29 19 24 28
p- alue 0.00 0.00 0.00
Pos -hoc
Clan – n.s. n.s. * – n.s. – * – n.s. n.s. n.s.
Adhoc acy – – n.s. * – – * * – – n.s. n.s.
Ma ke – – – n.s. – – – * – – – n.s.
Hie a chy ––––––––––––
No e: *S a is ically signi ican a 5% signi icance le el; n.s. – s a is ically non-signi ican (no signi ican ); C – clan cul u e;
A – adhoc acy cul u e; M – ma ke cul u e; H – hie a chy cul u e.
Sou ce: own
Tab. 1: Dominan cha ac e is ic
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2023, olume 26, issue 3, pp. 70–91, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-3-005
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
commonly iden i ied. Achie emen o ien a ion
has inc eased sligh ly (ma ke +3 poin s) and
now has he same alue as a e he signi ican
inc ease in clan ype (+14 poin s). The o gan-
isa ion is now seen no only as a e y pe sonal
place bu also as a dynamic place (adhoc a-
cy +5 poin s). The inc eased ep esen a ion o
he h ee ypes is e lec ed in a sha p dec ease
o he hie a chy (−22 poin s). Du ing he pan-
demic, ules and bu eauc acy we e eplaced
mainly by sha ing knowledge and expe ience.
The esponden s do no conside he now
iden i ied in o mal en i onmen wi h elaxed
ules desi able. They p e e he same le el o
se ules (hie a chy +17 poin s) and a iendly
en i onmen (clan −4 poin s). Willingness o
compe e wi h each o he has declined (ma ke
−9 poin s) as has willingness o ake isks,
which has d opped o p e-pandemic le els (ad-
hoc acy −4 poin s). The p esen ed indings can
be suppo ed by s a is ical signi icance.
In he second pa o Tab. 1, s a is ically
signi ican posi ions o he dimension in he OC
ypes can be iden i ied. In he si ua ions p e-
COVID-19, he ep esen a ion o he dimension
in hie a chy is s a is ically signi ican ly highe ,
bu no di e ence om he o he ypes was con-
i med. Cu en ly, he dimension has he same
s a us in clan and ma ke ype. I is s a is ically
signi ican ly highe han in hie a chy, bu no
di e ence om he adhoc acy was con i med.
No s a is ically signi ican di e ences in he p e-
e ed ype a e iden i ied.
Summa y. A e y signi ican di e ence be-
ween cu en and p e e ed alues, 17 poin s,
is iden i ied o he cul u e hie a chy. This a ea is
de ini ely a poin o in e es . Also no ewo hy is
he 9 poin s dec ease in alues o ma ke ype,
al hough no s a is ically signi ican .
3.3 O ganisa ional leade ship
How do employees pe cei e he leade s o
he o ganisa ion, how do hey beha e? (Appen-
dix; Tab. A1 and Fig. A1).
Be o e he pandemic, leade s a e i s and
o emos conside ed o be ha d d i e s, and
com pe i o s (ma ke 31), hen coo dina o s
and o ganise s (hie a chy 27). Only hen do
hey occupy he posi ion o men o and pa en
igu es (clan 24) and leas o all inno a o s and
isk ake s (adhoc acy 18).
A s a is ically signi ican change was
b ough abou by he pandemic in he ype
o hie a chy. Leade s cease o be o ganise s
and coo dina o s (hie a chy −12) and app oach
he le el o inno a o s, whose posi ion has no
changed. The change in classi ica ion is simila
o he dimension o dominan cha ac e is ics.
This means highe a ings in he clan ype,
whe e leade s become men o s (clan +8).
Leade s wi h a ocus on achie ing esul s
ha e he highes a ings in he cu en si ua ion
(ma ke +4). The equi emen o iendly, sup-
po i e, and nu u ing beha iou o leade s has
inc eased e en mo e as p e e ed (clan +4),
whe e i clea ly occupies he mos p ominen
posi ion. Simila ly o he dimension o dominan
cha ac e is ics, esponden s equi e inc eased
leade ship skills as coo dina o s and o ganise s
(hie a chy +11).
Responden s demand a ca ing leade and
a he same ime a good o ganise , who is
complemen ed o a lesse ex en by he skills o
a compe i o (ma ke −11) and o an e en lesse
ex en by an inno a o (adhoc acy −4).
Summa y. The hie a chy ype dimension
dese es inc eased a en ion, wi h an inc ease
o 11 poin s. This b ings i o p e-pandemic le -
els. The ma ke ype dimension also dese es
inc eased a en ion, wi h an 11-poin educ ion,
e en below p e-pandemic le els. A 2- ailed
pai ed - es o he means o o he alues (cu -
en and p e e ed) shows ha he change in
he mean alue is no s a is ically signi ican a
he signi icance le el o 5%. This s a emen is
also alid o he ollowing dimensions.
3.4 Managemen o employees
How a e employees managed? Wha me hods
a e used? Wha cha ac e ises he managemen
s yle? (Appendix; Tab. A1 and Fig. A1).
Secu i y o employmen , con o mi y, p e-
dic abili y, and s abili y in ela ionships a e
he cha ac e is ic ea u es o managemen
(hie a chy 36), which a e a supe io o o he
ypes. Teamwo k, consensus, and pa icipa ion
(clan 27) is as impo an as ha d-d i ing com-
pe i i eness, high demands, and achie emen
(ma ke 26). Indi idual isk aking, inno a ion,
eedom, and uniqueness a e he leas iden i-
ied managemen s yle (adhoc acy 11).
The pandemic has caused signi ican
changes in he ep esen a ion o he dimension
in wo ypes, namely clan and hie a chy. Team-
wo k, consensus, and pa icipa ion inc eased
signi ican ly in he manage ial s yle (clan +10).
On he con a y, he s abili y and p edic abil-
i y o he ela ionship dec eased signi ican ly
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78 2023, olume 26, issue 3, pp. 70–91, DOI: 10.15240/ ul/001/2023-3-005
Business Adminis a ion and Managemen
(hie a chy −10). Manage s ha e e en g ea e
demands (+5). In e es ingly, inno a ion and
eedom, which was leas ep esen ed be o e
he pandemic, has now dec eased e en u -
he (−5). The ela ionship be ween clan and
hie a chy is simila o he p e ious dimensions.
Responden s clea ly p e e secu i y o
employ men , p edic abili y, and s abili y (hie-
a chy +13). They also expec pa icipa ion, con-
sensus seeking, and eamwo k, bu o a lesse
ex en han now (clan −10). This is accompanied
by compe i ion, mee ing demands (ma ke −9),
bu wi hou indi idual isk aking o seeking
and implemen ing inno a ion (adhoc acy −6).
All alues a e essen ially e u ning o p e-pan-
demic le els.
Summa y. Clea ly, a en ion should be
paid o he ep esen a ion in hie a chy and clan
ypes. The ype o ma ke also equi es a en-
ion. How do manage s wan o ensu e he su -
i al o he o ganisa ion? Why do no hey look
o new app oaches?
3.5 O ganisa ion glue
Wha binds he o ganisa ion oge he ? (Appen-
dix; Tab. A1 and Fig. A1).
Be o e he pandemic, he glue ha holds
he o ganisa ion oge he is o mal ules and
policies (hie a chy 48) and an emphasis on goal
achie emen (ma ke 31). Loyal y and mu ual
us (clan 14) and especially a commi men o
inno a ion and de elopmen (adhoc acy 7) a e
iden i ied o a much lowe ex en .
In his dimension, as in he p e ious ones,
we can see ha he pandemic has caused a e-
laxa ion in o mal policies (hie a chy −16) and
a s eng hening o loyal y and us (clan +12).
O ganisa ions ha e ceased o be associa ed o
a g ea e ex en wi h an emphasis on mee ing
objec i es (ma ke −9). On he con a y, he em-
phasis on being on he cu ing edge inc eased
signi ican ly (adhoc acy +11).
In p e e ed, wo o he achie ed alues a e
a p e y much he same le el as in he cu en
si ua ion. Responden s ask ha commi men o
hei o ganisa ion uns high (clan −3) as does
an emphasis on goal accomplishmen (ma -
ke +1). Howe e , he idea o a o malised en i-
onmen wi h well-de ined ules has he highes
p e e ence (hie a chy +9). On he o he hand,
commi men o inno a ion and de elopmen
has he lowes p e e ence (adhoc acy −7).
Summa y. I we compa e he cu en
and p e e ed alues, we ind ha he e is no
p essing p oblem. Howe e , i may be ad is-
able o ocus a en ion on he hie a chy a ea.
3.6 S a egic emphases
Wha is he ocus o he o ganisa ion? (Appen-
dix; Tab. A1 and Fig. A1).
In he pe iod be o e he pandemic, espon-
den s iden i ied he s a egic emphasis o hei
o ganisa ion on hi ing a ge s and winning
in he ma ke as dominan (ma ke 35). Pe -
manence and s abili y (hie a chy 26) is pa a-
doxically anked equally wi h ying new hings
and p ospec ing o oppo uni ies (adhoc-
acy 25). The o ganisa ion’s ocus on human
de elopmen is iden i ied leas (clan 14).
Howe e , in he cu en pe iod, o ganisa ions
a e paying mo e a en ion o he de elopmen
o hei employees (clan +18). This pu s he clan
ype on a pa wi h acqui ing new esou ces
and c ea ing new challenges in he adhoc-
acy ype (+7). E iciency, con ol, and smoo h
ope a ions lose g ound (−5), bu no as much
as he emphasis on compe i i e ac ions and
achie emen (ma ke −20).
Responden s ask ha hei o ganisa ions
s a egically ocus on building high us ,
openness, and pa icipa ion (clan +8). Only
hen do you ensu e pe manence and s abil-
i y (hie a chy +3). Consis en wi h he o he
dimensions, while accep ing he possibili y
o in e nal compe i ion, he esponden s do no
ule ou he impo ance o compe i i e ac ions
as a s a egic ocus (ma ke +6). Howe e , i s
p e e ed ep esen a ion is 14 poin s lowe
han be o e COVID-19. Responden s leas
alue he sea ch o new oppo uni ies (ad-
hoc acy −17). The p e e ed le el is lowe han
be o e COVID-19.
Summa y. I is desi able o e lec on he e-
sponden s’ assessmen o he adhoc acy ype.
Mode n o ganisa ions, including NGOs, mus
be lexible, adap ing o new di ec ions. This
means looking o new ways. Why do espon-
den s esis his? Thei a i ude is ce ainly e-
la ed o he ac i i ies o he o ganisa ion. The e
a e o ganisa ions ha do no need o ha e
inno a i e ideas a all cos s. Bu , on he o he
hand, no o ganisa ion can be s agnan in i s
de elopmen . Employees mus accep his ac
because i a ec s hei exis ence.
3.7 C i e ia o success
How is success de ined in he o ganisa ion?
(Appendix; Tab. A1 and Fig. A1).
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Appendix
Clan Adhoc acy Ma ke Hie a chy
P e-COVID-19
1. Dominan cha ac e is ic Abs 111 105 176 194
% 19 18 30 33
2. Leade ship Abs 141 105 182 158
% 24 18 31 27
3. Managemen o employees Abs 158 64 152 212
% 27 11 26 36
4. O ganisa ional glue Abs 82 41 182 281
% 14 7 31 48
5. S a egic emphases Abs 82 147 205 152
% 14 25 35 26
6. C i e ia o success Abs 123 88 199 176
% 21 15 34 30
Mean 19.80 15.70 31.20 33.30
Cu en
1. Dominan cha ac e is ic Abs 194 134 194 64
% 33 23 33 11
2. Leade ship Abs 187 105 206 88
% 32 18 35 15
3. Managemen o employees Abs 217 35 182 152
% 37 6 31 26
4. O ganisa ional glue Abs 164 105 129 187
%28 18 22 32
5. S a egic emphases Abs 187 187 88 123
% 32 32 15 21
6. C i e ia o success Abs 164 99 212 111
%28 17 36 19
Mean 31.70 19.00 28.70 20.70
Tab. A1: Dimensions in ypes o o ganisa ional cul u e – Pa 1
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Clan Adhoc acy Ma ke Hie a chy
P e e ed
1. Dominan cha ac e is ic Abs 170 111 141 164
% 29 19 24 28
2. Leade ship Abs 212 82 141 152
% 36 14 24 26
3. Managemen o employees Abs 158 71 129 228
% 27 12 22 39
4. O ganisa ional glue Abs 147 64 134 241
% 25 11 23 41
5. S a egic emphases Abs 234 88 123 141
% 40 15 21 24
6. C i e ia o success Abs 111 141 170 164
% 19 24 29 28
Mean 29.30 15.80 20.70 31.60
Sou ce: own
Tab. A1: Dimensions in ypes o o ganisa ional cul u e – Pa 2
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Fig. A1: Dimensions in ypes o o ganisa ional cul u e – g aphical ep esen a ion – Pa 1
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Fig. A1: Dimensions in ypes o o ganisa ional cul u e – g aphical ep esen a ion – Pa 2
Sou ce: own
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Fig. A2: Types o o ganisa ional cul u e and dimensions
Sou ce: own
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