World Ocean Assessment II, Chapter 23, Developments in the exploration for and use of marine genetic resources

The Second World Ocean Assessment WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II Volume II The Second World Ocean Assessment WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II Volume II Cover photo: Yung-Sen Wu United Nations World Oceans Day Photo Competition United Nations publication Sales no.: E.21.V.5 ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0 eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2 Copyright © United Nations, 2021 All rights reserved Printed at the United Nations, New York Ŵŵŵŵiii Contents Volume I Page Foreword by the Secretary-General ............................................. iii Summary ................................................................. v Preface ................................................................. vii Part one: Summary ........................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Overall summary.................................................... 3 Keynote points ..................................................... 5 1. Introduction..................................................... 5 2. Drivers ......................................................... 6 3. Cleaning up the ocean............................................ 7 4. Protecting marine ecosystems..................................... 10 5. Understanding of the ocean for sustainable management ............. 13 6. Promoting safety from the ocean .................................. 15 7. Sustainable food from the ocean................................... 16 8. Sustainable economic use of the ocean............................. 19 9. Effective implementation of international law as reƽected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ................. 21 Part two: Introduction......................................................... 37 Chapter 2: Approach to the assessment ......................................... 39 Keynote points ..................................................... 41 1. Purpose of the second World Ocean Assessment ..................... 41 2. Primary audience and framework of the second World Ocean Assessment 42 3. Preparation of the second World Ocean Assessment .................. 43 4. Terminology .................................................... 44 5. Acknowledgements.............................................. 45 References......................................................... 45 Chapter : ScientiƼc understandinK ofɸthe ocean.................................. 47 Keynote points ..................................................... 49 1. Introduction..................................................... 49 2. Description of changes in data, technology and models since the Ƽrst World Ocean Assessment and their consequences for overall understanding, including socioeconomic consequences............... 50 ivŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:ŴVolume II Page 3. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 51 4. Outlook for scientiƼc understanding of the ocean..................... 56 5. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 56 6. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 57 References......................................................... 58 Part three: (rivers of chanKes in theɸmarine environment .......................... 63 Chapter 4: Drivers ............................................................ 65 Keynote points ..................................................... 67 1. Introduction..................................................... 67 2. Drivers of change in the marine environment......................... 69 3. Key region-speciƼc issues or aspects associated with drivers .......... 73 4. Outlook ........................................................ 74 5. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps................. 76 References......................................................... 77 Part four: Current state of the marine environment andɸits trends ................... 81 Chapter : 8rends in the physical and chemical state ofɸthe ocean................... 83 Keynote points ..................................................... 85 1. Introduction..................................................... 85 2. Physical and chemical state of the ocean............................ 87 3. Knowledge gaps................................................. 100 4. Summary....................................................... 101 References......................................................... 103 Chapter : 8rends in the biodiversity ofɸtheɸmain ta\a of marine biota ................ 111 Introduction........................................................ 113 Chapter 6A: Plankton phytoplankton, ^ooplankton, microbes andɸviruses......... 115 Keynote points ..................................................... 117 1. Introduction..................................................... 117 2. Summary of chapter 6 of the Ƽrst World Ocean Assessment ........... 118 3. Regions targeted in the present World Ocean Assessment ............. 119 4. Estimating plankton diversity ..................................... 120 5. Microbial plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 6. Metazoan zooplankton ........................................... 124 7. Documented trends.............................................. 125 8. Outlook ........................................................ 128 References......................................................... 130 Ŵŵŵŵv Contents Chapter 6B: Marine invertebrates ............................................ 141 Keynote points ..................................................... 143 1. Introduction..................................................... 143 2. Summary of the situation recorded in the Ƽrst World Ocean Assessment . 143 3. Description of environmental changes 2010Ɓ2020................... 144 4. International and governmental responses .......................... 151 5. Achievement of relevant Sustainable Development Goals and contribution to Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 ..................................... 153 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps and capacity-building gaps ............ 153 References......................................................... 154 Addendum by the Group of Experts of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects.................................. 158 References......................................................... 159 Chapter 6C: Fishes ........................................................ 161 Keynote points ..................................................... 163 1. Introduction..................................................... 163 2. Documented change in the state of Ƽsh biodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 3. Consequences of biodiversity change on human communities, economies andɸwell-being ........................................ 168 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 169 5. Outlook ........................................................ 171 References......................................................... 172 Chapter 6D: Marine mammals............................................... 177 Keynote points ..................................................... 179 1. Introduction..................................................... 179 2. Cetaceans...................................................... 181 3. Pinnipeds....................................................... 184 4. Sirenians ....................................................... 186 5. Otters and polar bear............................................. 186 6. Consequences of changes on human communities, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 187 7. Outlook ........................................................ 188 8. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 189 9. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 189 References......................................................... 190 Page viŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:ŴVolume II Chapter 6E: Marine reptiles ................................................. 195 Keynote points ..................................................... 197 1. Introduction..................................................... 197 2. Conservation status of marine reptiles.............................. 197 3. Regional trends.................................................. 199 4. Threats......................................................... 201 5. Economic and social consequences of the changes to marine reptile populations..................................................... 203 6. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps .......................... 204 References......................................................... 205 Chapter 6F: Seabirds....................................................... 211 Keynote points ..................................................... 213 1. Introduction..................................................... 213 2. Description of environmental changes between 2010 and 2020......... 214 3. Consequences of changes in seabird populations on human communities, economies andɸwell-being ............................ 217 4. Outlook ........................................................ 218 5. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 219 6. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 220 References......................................................... 220 Chapter 6G: Marine plants and macroalgae.................................... 225 Keynote points ..................................................... 227 1. Introduction..................................................... 227 2. Mangroves ..................................................... 227 3. Salt marsh plants................................................ 229 4. Seagrasses ..................................................... 230 5. Macroalgae..................................................... 232 6. Consequences of changes on human communities, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 240 7. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps................. 241 8. Outlook ........................................................ 241 References......................................................... 242 Chapter 7: Trends in the state of biodiversity in marine habitats..................... 251 Introductionɸ ....................................................... 253 Chapter 7A: Intertidal zone.................................................. 255 Keynote points ..................................................... 257 1. Introduction..................................................... 257 2. Description of the environmental changes between 2010 and 2020...... 260 Page Ŵŵŵŵvii Contents 3. Economic and social consequences................................ 261 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 261 5. Outlook ........................................................ 262 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 263 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 263 References......................................................... 264 Chapter 7B: Biogenic reefs and sandy, muddy and rocky shore substrates ......... 267 Keynote points ..................................................... 269 1. Introduction..................................................... 269 2. Documented change in state of biogenic reefs and sandy, muddy and rocky shore substrates ....................................... 272 3. Consequences of the changes on human communities, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 275 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 277 5. Outlook ........................................................ 279 6. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps................. 280 References......................................................... 281 Chapter 7C: Atoll and island lagoons ......................................... 289 Keynote points ..................................................... 291 1. Introduction..................................................... 291 2. Documented changes in state of atolls and island lagoons............. 292 3. Consequences of the changes on human communities, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 295 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences ..................... 296 5. Outlook ........................................................ 296 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 297 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 298 References......................................................... 299 Chapter 7D: Tropical and subtropical coralɸreefs ............................... 305 Keynote points ..................................................... 307 1. Introduction..................................................... 307 2. Description of environmental changes between 2010 and 2020......... 308 3. Description of economic and social consequences and/or other economic or social changes ...................................... 309 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 310 5. Outlook ........................................................ 312 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 313 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 313 References......................................................... 314 Page viiiŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:ŴVolume II Page Chapter 7E: Cold water corals ............................................... 321 Keynote points ..................................................... 323 1. Introduction and summary of the Ƽrst World Ocean Assessment ........ 323 2. Description of environmental changes between 2010 and 2020......... 324 3. Economic and social consequences................................ 329 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 330 5. Outlook ........................................................ 330 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 331 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 332 References......................................................... 333 Chapter 7F: Estuaries andɸdeltas............................................. 339 Keynote points ..................................................... 341 1. Introduction..................................................... 341 2. Documented changes in the state of estuaries and deltas.............. 342 3. Consequences of the changes for human communities, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 344 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 345 5. Outlook ........................................................ 346 6. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps................. 347 References......................................................... 348 Chapter 7G: Seagrass meadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Keynote points ..................................................... 355 1. Introduction..................................................... 355 2. Socioeconomic consequences .................................... 356 3. Region-speciƼc changes.......................................... 357 4. Outlook ........................................................ 358 5. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 358 6. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 359 References ........................................................ 362 Chapter 7H: Mangroves .................................................... 365 Keynote points ..................................................... 367 1. Introduction..................................................... 367 2. Documented change in state of mangroves between 2010 and 2020 .... 368 3. Consequences of the changes for human communities, economies andɸwell-being................................................... 370 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 372 5. Outlook ........................................................ 373 6. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps................. 373 References......................................................... 374 Ŵŵŵŵxv Contents Page 2. Offshore hydrocarbon exploration, production and decommissioning . . . 285 3. Economic, social, and environmental aspects of offshore hydrocarbon exploration, production and decommissioning ....................... 288 4. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps .......................... 290 5. Role of the offshore hydrocarbon industry in facilitating the marine renewable energy industry ........................................ 291 6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292 References ........................................................ 293 Chapter 2: Trends in inputs of anthropoKenic noise into the marine environment ..... 297 Keynote points ..................................................... 299 1. Introduction..................................................... 299 2. Description of the environmental status............................. 300 3. Description of economic and social consequences and other economic or social changes ............................................... 308 4. Key region-speciƼc changes and consequences...................... 308 5. Outlook ........................................................ 310 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 313 References ........................................................ 313 Chapter 21: Developments in renewable enerKy sources ........................... 321 Keynote points ..................................................... 323 1. Introduction..................................................... 323 2. State of marine renewable energy at the global level .................. 324 3. Potential environmental impacts of marine renewable energy development ................................................... 329 4. Socioeconomic beneƼts and impacts from marine renewable energy deployment..................................................... 332 5. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps................. 333 6. Anticipated future trends.......................................... 335 References......................................................... 336 Chapter 22: Invasive species................................................... 343 Keynote points ..................................................... 345 1. Introduction .................................................... 345 2. Documented baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347 3. Consequences for human communities, economies andɸwell-being ..... 348 4. Key region-speciƼc baselines, changes and consequences............. 350 5. Outlook ........................................................ 354 6. Other .......................................................... 356 References......................................................... 356 xviŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:ŴVolume II Page Chapter 2: Developments in the e\ploration for and use of marine Kenetic resources . 363 Keynote points ..................................................... 365 1. Introduction..................................................... 365 2. Trends between 2010 and 2020.................................... 366 3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370 4. Key region-speciƼc developments in knowledge and their consequences 371 5. Capacity-building gaps ........................................... 371 6. Methodological challenges and future trends ........................ 373 7. Marine genetic resources and the Sustainable Development Goals...... 374 References......................................................... 376 Chapter 24: 1arine hydratesɸƁ a potentially emerKinK issue ........................ 381 Keynote points ..................................................... 383 1. Introduction..................................................... 383 2. What are marine hydrates? ........................................ 383 3. Potential risks from marine methane hydrates ....................... 386 4. Marine hydrates as a source of energy.............................. 388 5. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps .......................... 390 6. Outlook ........................................................ 390 References......................................................... 390 Chapter 25: Cumulative effects................................................. 395 Keynote points ..................................................... 397 1. Introduction..................................................... 397 2. Cumulative effects assessments................................... 398 3. Regional applications of cumulative effects assessments on the marine environment: distribution and approaches ................. 402 4. Outlook ........................................................ 406 References......................................................... 413 Part si\: Trends in manaKement approaches to the marine environment ............. 421 Chapter 2: Developments in marine spatial planninK.............................. 423 Keynote points ..................................................... 425 1. Introduction..................................................... 425 2. Types of marine spatial planning ................................... 426 3. Marine spatial planning: a step-by-step approach toward ecosystem-based management.................................... 427 4. Tools for marine spatial planning................................... 428 5. Progress in implementing marine spatial planning .................... 430 References......................................................... 436 Ŵŵŵŵxvii Contents Page Chapter 27: Developments in manaKement approaches............................ 441 Keynote points ..................................................... 443 1. Introduction..................................................... 443 2. Management approaches......................................... 444 3. Advances in ocean management approaches........................ 448 4. Management tools to support mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, including building resilience................................ 458 5. Key region-speciƼc issues ........................................ 460 6. Capacity-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 7. Gaps and future perspectives...................................... 462 8. Outlook ........................................................ 463 References......................................................... 465 Chapter 28: Developmentsɸin the understandinK of overall beneƼts from the ocean to humans ..................................................... 471 Keynote points ..................................................... 473 1. Introduction..................................................... 473 2. BeneƼts and their distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 3. DisbeneƼts to humans............................................ 478 4. Threats to ocean ecosystem services............................... 479 5. Safeguarding ocean beneƼts through regional and international cooperation and improved implementation of international law as reƽected in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ....... 480 References......................................................... 483 Anne\es ................................................................. 487 Anne\ I: OriKinal members of the writinK teams approved by the &ureau ............. 489 Anne\ II: Peer reviewers nominated for each chapter .............................. 497 363 Chapter 23 Developments in the exploration for and use of marine genetic resources Contributors: Robert Blasiak and Ellen Kenchington (joint conveners), Jesús M. Arrieta, Jorge Rafael Bermúdez-Monsalve, Hilconida Calumpong (co-lead member), Shao Changwei, Sanae Chiba (lead member), Hebe (ionisi, Carlos +arcia-Soto (co-lead member), Helena :ieira and Boris Wawrik. Ŵŵŵŵ365 Chapter 23: Developments in the exploration for and use of marine genetic resources Keynote points 1 See General Assembly resolution 70/1. 2 United Nations Environment Programme, document UNEP/CBD/COP/10/27, annex, decision X/1. 3 United Nations, Treaty Series, vol.ɸ133, No.ɸ3133. 4 See General Assembly resolution 72/249. 5 See Midwestern University, “Clinical Pipeline, Marine Pharmacology”. xMarine genetic resources continue to be the focus of an expanding range of commercial and non-commercial applications. xRapidly decreasing sequencing and gene synthesis costs and swift advances in the metabolic engineering and synthetic biology Ƽelds within the biotechnology sector have rendered scientists less reliant on physical samples and increasingly dependent on the exponentially expanding public databases of genetic sequence data. xSponges and algae continue to attract substantial interest for the bioactive properties of their natural compounds. xWithin the context of the Sustainable Development Goals,1 capacity-building issues persist, with entities in a handful of countries conducting the majority of research and development associated with marine genetic resources. xInternational processes and agreements with relevance to marine genetic resources include the Nagoya Protocol2 on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of BeneƼts Arising from Their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity, and the intergovernmental conference on an international legally binding instrument under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea3 on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction.4 1. Introduction The ocean is home to a vast diversity of life forms constituting a rich source of marine genetic resources, that is, genetic material of marine origin containing functional units of heredity of actual or potential value, characterized by high biological and chemical diversity (Appeltans and others, 2012; United Nations, 2017). Over 34,000 marine natural products have been described, with recent discovery rates reaching more than 1,000 compounds each year (Lindequist, 2016; Carroll and others, 2019). A total of 188 new marine natural products from deep-sea organisms (Bryozoa, Chordata, Cnidaria, Echinodermata, Mollusca, Porifera and microbes) have been described since 2008 (Skropeta and Wei, 2014). Approximately 7ɸ perɸcent of those novel products have remarkable bioactivity, with 0ɸperɸcent exhibiting moderate to high cytotoxicity towards a range of human cancer cell lines. Although the bioactivity of many marine natural products suggests high potential for drug discovery, only 13 marine-derived drugs have gained market approval to date (Liang and others, 2019; Mayer and others, 2010).5 However, at the time of writing, 28 candidates were in clinical trials (Alves and others, 2018). Marine antifoulant research is currently focused on identifying viable non-toxic substances, and a recent review has estimated that more than 198 antifouling compounds have been obtained from marine invertebrates, speciƼcally sponges, gorgonians and soft corals (Qi and Ma, 2017), in addition to the products derived from macroalgae and microalgae highlighted in the Ƽrst World Ocean Assessment (United 366ŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:Ŵ:olume II Nations, 2017). Innovative research has also identiƼed ingredients from discarded Ƽsh that are suitable for use in high-end cosmetics and a number of other products (Young, 2014). As of 2018, a total of 76 publicly available cosmeceutical ingredients from marine natural products had been marketed, reƽecting a new growth sector (Calado and others, 2018). At the same time, consumer demand for nutraceuticals has increased rapidly, as foreseen in the Ƽrst Assessment. The global nutraceutical market is expected to reach $580 billion by 2025, more than triple the $180 billion projected for 2017 in the Ƽrst Assessment, and market growth has been linked to increased innovation and consumer awareness (Grand 6 See Midwestern University, “Clinical Pipeline, Marine Pharmacology”. :iew Research, 2017). Marine nutraceutical products such as Ƽsh oil and collagen represent a large portion of the global market, and demand for those products is expected to grow in the Asia-PaciƼc region, in particular in China and India (Suleria and others, 2015). While marine genetic resources are of growing importance to the global blue economy, most commercial activity is concentrated in a comparatively small number of countries, suggesting that there is potential for technology transfer and capacity-building (Thompson and others, 2017; Blasiak and others, 2018). Several international processes addressing genetic resources, including marine genetic resources, are currently under way. 2. Trends between 2010 and 2020 Technological innovations have been key to the recent advances in the exploration for and exploitation of marine genetic resources. The discovery of new marine molecules, and their sources, has been increasing rapidly, especially since the 1970s (Ƽgure I). By November 2019, a total of 34,197 marine natural products had been documented (Carroll and others, 2019). Such growth is most likely to have been driven by modern sampling and analytical techniques that have allowed the collection of novel marine genetic resources from deeper environments and covering a wider range of chemical diversity. Approximately 11ɸperɸcent of marine genetic resources associated with patent applications are found in deep-sea and hydrothermal vent communities, reƽecting increased research in remote and extreme ocean environments (Blasiak and others, 2018). However, the number of marine genetic resources collected at depths of more than 50ɸm remains insigniƼcant when compared with the whole library of marine natural products (Skropeta and Wei, 2014). The discovery of enzymes from marine organisms is also accelerating thanks to the development of innovative screening methodologies (Ferrer and others, 2019). Enzymes from microorganisms adapted to extreme conditions are of particular interest for their application in industrial processes, as they are often active under challenging operational conditions (Birolli and others, 2019). 2.1. Commercial application highlights 2.1.1. Pharmaceutical applications Thirteen drugs of marine origin have received market approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency, six of them since 2010. The majority of drugs of marine origin have been developed for anticancer chemotherapy (Calado and others, 2018; Liang and others, 2019; Mayer and others, 2010).6 Since the approval of cytarabine as an anticancer agent in 1969, Ŵŵŵŵ367 Chapter 23: Developments in the exploration for and use of marine genetic resources sponges have been regarded as one of the most promising sources of anticancer drugs (Hu and others, 2015; see sect. 2.3 below). Other marine invertebrates, such as tunicate and cone snail species, are also very important sources of marine natural products, as are Ƽshes. Trabectedin (ET-743) gained United States Food and Drug Administration approval in 2015 for the treatment of soft tissue sarcoma and ovarian cancer, while Plitidepsin was approved by the Australian Therapeutic Goods Administration in 2018 for the treatment of multiple myeloma, leukemia and lymphoma (see Mayer and others, 2010).7 Most recently, in 2020, Lurbinectedin was approved for the treatment of metastatic small cell lung cancer (see Mayer and others, 2010).8 In all three cases, the relevant compounds were derived from tunicates. Macroalgae are also a source of pharmaceutical products. For example, OligoG, an oligoalginate with a deƼned structure produced from brown algae, is currently in a phase II clinical trial for the treatment of cystic Ƽbrosis (Rye and others, 2018), and the red algae biopolymer Carragelose, which has broad anti-viral properties, is used for treating respiratory diseases (Hackl, 2017). 2.1.2. Cosmeceutical applications Cosmeceuticals (cosmetics with pharmaceutical properties) are one of the fastest growing markets for the commercialization of marine natural products. They have a shorter development cycle than pharmaceutical and nutraceutical products, resulting in more rapid growth (Rampelotto and Trincone, 2018). Those emerging novel products with biologically 7 See Midwestern University, “Clinical Pipeline, Marine Pharmacology”. 8 Ibid. active ingredients constitute an entirely new type of beauty care that will be a hallmark of coming decades. The majority of cosmeceuticals are derived from macroalgae and microalgae, but an increasing number are being generated through marine biotechnology processes based on microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi (Calado and others, 2018). There are, however, environmental concerns associated with certain cosmetic ingredients (Juliano and Magrini, 2017). 2.1.3. Food and feed applications The consumption of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids is linked to multiple positive health outcomes (Ruxton and others, 2007). However, the production of aquaculture species rich in those fatty acids remains reliant on Ƽsh-based feeds. The development of algal oils and alternative transgenic crops of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids has consequently attracted substantial interest. Initial efforts have focused on oilseed crops, with reliance on enzymes from marine species (i.e., marine algae) (Ruiz-Lopez and others, 2014; Zhao and Qiu, 2018). Agro-industrial corporations have Ƽled for patents associated with those innovations and large-scale production is envisaged by 2020 (Sprague and others, 2017). Furthermore, in addition to the direct use of macroalgae as human food, their application as feed additives is showing potential for biological methane mitigation in the cattle industry (Roque and others, 2019; Costello and others, 2019). Microalgae are also emerging as important biofuels (Fedder, 2013). 368ŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:Ŵ:olume II Figure I 6IGIRXXVIRHWVIPEXIHXSQEVMRIKIRIXMGVIWSYVGIW 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Figure I.A Number of new marine natural products (cumulative) Source: Carroll and others, 2019. 0 5 x 1011 1 x 1012 1.5 x 1012 2 x 1012 2.5 x 1012 3 x 1012 3.5 x 1012 4 x 1012 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Figure I.B Number of sequences deposited in GenBank (cumulative number of base pairs) Source: United States National Institutes of Health (Wetterstrand, 2018; National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI), 2018). 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00 1,000.00 10,000.00 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Figure I.C Cost of sequencing (dollars per base pair) Source: National Human Genome Research Institute. Figure I.D Number of marine sequences associated witL patent Ƽlings (cumulative) 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 14,000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Source: Blasiak and others, 2018. Ŵŵŵŵ369 Chapter 23: Developments in the exploration for and use of marine genetic resources 2.2. Growth in public databases of genetic sequence data Public data archives are integral to modern biological research (Ellenberg and others, 2018; Rigden and Fernandez, 2019), in large part because rapid technological developments over the past two decades have substantially democratized the availability of nucleic acid sequencing technology. The cost per base of sequencing has fallen by more than four orders of magnitude over the past decade alone (Wetterstrand, 2018), in parallel with exponential growth in the size of publicly available repositories (see Ƽgure I). Overall, the number of bases in GenBank has doubled approximately every 18 months since 1982 (NCBI, 2018). Although the size of public databases has grown substantially, there is good reason to believe that there are still signiƼcant gaps in the current state of knowledge regarding the extant genetic diversity in the ocean. Omics-based studies provide the best evidence for that interpretation. The most recent and comprehensive survey of marine eukaryotic genetic diversity identiƼed approximately 53 million genes (Carradec and others, 2018), about half of which s h o we d n o s i m i l a r ity t o e x i s t i n g p r o te i n s (d e :argas and others, 2015). Furthermore, estimates for oceanic plankton suggest the presence of about 150,000 eukaryotic species, which is far greater than the approximately 11,200 species that have been formally described (de :argas and others, 2015). Large-scale initiatives such as Tara Oceans (Sunagawa and others, 2015) and Ocean Sampling Day (Kopf and others, 2015) are generating vast quantities of information that are increasing understanding of the microbial diversity that exists in the ocean at the global scale (Coutinho and others, 2018). The resulting public data sets available represent an important source of information for sequence-based research efforts (Kamble and others, 2019) and enable new directions in research, such as the use of environmental DNA 9 See www.deepseasponges.org. in molecular ecology and in diversity assessments (Seymour, 2019). 2.3. Highlighted research Two comprehensive volumes focused on marine biotechnology were published in 2018. The Ƽrst systematically describes recent developments in the marine biotechnology sector and seeks to deƼne its current and future economic potential (Rampelotto and Trincone, 2018), while the second goes beyond research and development aspects to delve into intellectual property law and the protections offered through patent claims (Guilloux, 2018). Previous studies on patents associated with marine genetic resources (Arrieta and others, 2010; Arnaud-Haond and others, 2011) were updated with an analysis identifying the patent Ƽlings associated with 12,998 genetic sequences from 862 marine species (Blasiak and others, 2018). Actors located or headquartered in 10 countries were responsible for patent Ƽlings covering 98ɸperɸcent of those sequences, while 165 countries were unrepresented (Blasiak and others, 2018). SponGES,9 a four-year project funded since 2016 through the European Union research and innovation programme Horizon 2020, is aimed at coupling exploration with bioprospecting for industrial applications, namely, drug discovery and tissue engineering. Sponges and their associated microorganisms are the richest and most proliƼc source of new marine natural products, accounting for nearly 30ɸperɸcent (almost 5,000) of the compounds described to date (Mehbub and others, 2014). From 2001 to 2010, more than 2,400 natural products were discovered from 671 species of sponges (Mehbub and others, 2014). SponGES research has already identiƼed unexpected microbial diversity and resulting biotechnological potential, including unconventional C30 sterols and new barrettides with potential for antifouling activity (Lauritano and Ianora, 2018). 376ŵŵŵ World Ocean Assessment II:Ŵ:olume II References Alves, Celso, and others (2018). 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