World Ocean Assessment II, Chapter 21, Developments in renewable energy sources

WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II The Second World Ocean Assessment WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II Volume II The Second World Ocean Assessment WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II Volume II Cover photo: Yung-Sen Wu United Nations World Oceans Day Photo Competition United Nations publication Sales no.: E.21.V.5 ISBN: 978-92-1-1-130422-0 eISBN: 978-92-1-1-604006-2 Copyright © United Nations, 2021 All rights reserved Printed at the United Nations, New York iii Contents Volume I Page Foreword by the Secretary-General ............................................. iii Summary ................................................................. v Preface ................................................................. vii Part one: Summary ........................................................... 1 Chapter 1: Overall summary.................................................... 3 Keynote points ..................................................... 5 1. Introduction..................................................... 5 2. Drivers ......................................................... 6 3. Cleaning up the ocean............................................ 7 4. Protecting marine ecosystems..................................... 10 5. Understanding of the ocean for sustainable management ............. 13 6. Promoting safety from the ocean .................................. 15 7. Sustainable food from the ocean................................... 16 8. Sustainable economic use of the ocean ............................. 19 9. Effectiveimplementationofinternationallawasreflectedin the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea ................. 21 Part two: Introduction......................................................... 37 Chapter 2: Approach to the assessment ......................................... 39 Keynote points ..................................................... 41 1. Purpose of the second World Ocean Assessment ..................... 41 2. Primary audience and framework of the second World Ocean Assessment 42 3. Preparation of the second World Ocean Assessment .................. 43 4. Terminology .................................................... 44 5. Acknowledgements .............................................. 45 References......................................................... 45 Chapter 3: Scientific understanding ofthe ocean.................................. 47 Keynote points ..................................................... 49 1. Introduction..................................................... 49 2. Description of changes in data, technology and models since the firstWorld Ocean Assessment and their consequences for overall understanding, including socioeconomic consequences............... 50 iv WorldOceanAssessmentII: VolumeII Page 3. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 51 4. Outlookforscientificunderstandingoftheocean..................... 56 5. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 56 6. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 57 References......................................................... 58 Part three: Drivers of changes in themarine environment .......................... 63 Chapter 4: Drivers ............................................................ 65 Keynote points ..................................................... 67 1. Introduction..................................................... 67 2. Drivers of change in the marine environment......................... 69 3. Keyregion-specificissuesoraspectsassociatedwithdrivers .......... 73 4. Outlook ........................................................ 74 5. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps ................. 76 References......................................................... 77 Part four: Current state of the marine environment andits trends ................... 81 Chapter 5: Trends in the physical and chemical state ofthe ocean................... 83 Keynote points ..................................................... 85 1. Introduction..................................................... 85 2. Physical and chemical state of the ocean............................ 87 3. Knowledge gaps................................................. 100 4. Summary....................................................... 101 References......................................................... 103 Chapter 6: Trends in the biodiversity ofthemain taxa of marine biota ................ 111 Introduction........................................................ 113 Chapter6A:Plankton(phytoplankton,zooplankton,microbesandviruses)......... 115 Keynote points ..................................................... 117 1. Introduction..................................................... 117 2. Summaryofchapter6ofthefirstWorld Ocean Assessment ........... 118 3. Regions targeted in the present World Ocean Assessment ............. 119 4. Estimating plankton diversity ..................................... 120 5. Microbial plankton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 6. Metazoan zooplankton ........................................... 124 7. Documented trends .............................................. 125 8. Outlook ........................................................ 128 References......................................................... 130 v Contents Chapter 6B: Marine invertebrates ............................................ 141 Keynote points ..................................................... 143 1. Introduction..................................................... 143 2. SummaryofthesituationrecordedinthefirstWorld Ocean Assessment . 143 3. Descriptionofenvironmentalchanges(2010–2020)................... 144 4. International and governmental responses .......................... 151 5. Achievement of relevant Sustainable Development Goals and contribution to Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 ..................................... 153 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps and capacity-building gaps ............ 153 References......................................................... 154 Addendum by the Group of Experts of the Regular Process for Global Reporting and Assessment of the State of the Marine Environment, including Socioeconomic Aspects.................................. 158 References......................................................... 159 Chapter 6C: Fishes ........................................................ 161 Keynote points ..................................................... 163 1. Introduction..................................................... 163 2. Documentedchangeinthestateoffishbiodiversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 3. Consequences of biodiversity change on human communities, economiesandwell-being ........................................ 168 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 169 5. Outlook ........................................................ 171 References......................................................... 172 Chapter 6D: Marine mammals............................................... 177 Keynote points ..................................................... 179 1. Introduction..................................................... 179 2. Cetaceans ...................................................... 181 3. Pinnipeds....................................................... 184 4. Sirenians ....................................................... 186 5. Otters and polar bear............................................. 186 6. Consequences of changes on human communities, economies andwell-being................................................... 187 7. Outlook ........................................................ 188 8. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 189 9. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 189 References......................................................... 190 Page vi WorldOceanAssessmentII: VolumeII Chapter 6E: Marine reptiles ................................................. 195 Keynote points ..................................................... 197 1. Introduction..................................................... 197 2. Conservation status of marine reptiles .............................. 197 3. Regional trends.................................................. 199 4. Threats......................................................... 201 5. Economic and social consequences of the changes to marine reptile populations ..................................................... 203 6. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps .......................... 204 References......................................................... 205 Chapter 6F: Seabirds....................................................... 211 Keynote points ..................................................... 213 1. Introduction..................................................... 213 2. Description of environmental changes between 2010 and 2020......... 214 3. Consequences of changes in seabird populations on human communities,economiesandwell-being ............................ 217 4. Outlook ........................................................ 218 5. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 219 6. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 220 References......................................................... 220 Chapter 6G: Marine plants and macroalgae.................................... 225 Keynote points ..................................................... 227 1. Introduction..................................................... 227 2. Mangroves ..................................................... 227 3. Salt marsh plants ................................................ 229 4. Seagrasses ..................................................... 230 5. Macroalgae ..................................................... 232 6. Consequences of changes on human communities, economies andwell-being................................................... 240 7. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps ................. 241 8. Outlook ........................................................ 241 References......................................................... 242 Chapter 7: Trends in the state of biodiversity in marine habitats..................... 251 Introduction ....................................................... 253 Chapter 7A: Intertidal zone.................................................. 255 Keynote points ..................................................... 257 1. Introduction..................................................... 257 2. Description of the environmental changes between 2010 and 2020...... 260 Page vii Contents 3. Economic and social consequences ................................ 261 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 261 5. Outlook ........................................................ 262 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 263 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 263 References......................................................... 264 Chapter 7B: Biogenic reefs and sandy, muddy and rocky shore substrates ......... 267 Keynote points ..................................................... 269 1. Introduction..................................................... 269 2. Documented change in state of biogenic reefs and sandy, muddy and rocky shore substrates ....................................... 272 3. Consequences of the changes on human communities, economies andwell-being................................................... 275 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 277 5. Outlook ........................................................ 279 6. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps ................. 280 References......................................................... 281 Chapter 7C: Atoll and island lagoons ......................................... 289 Keynote points ..................................................... 291 1. Introduction..................................................... 291 2. Documented changes in state of atolls and island lagoons............. 292 3. Consequences of the changes on human communities, economies andwell-being................................................... 295 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences ..................... 296 5. Outlook ........................................................ 296 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 297 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 298 References......................................................... 299 Chapter7D:Tropicalandsubtropicalcoralreefs ............................... 305 Keynote points ..................................................... 307 1. Introduction..................................................... 307 2. Description of environmental changes between 2010 and 2020......... 308 3. Description of economic and social consequences and/or other economic or social changes ...................................... 309 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 310 5. Outlook ........................................................ 312 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 313 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 313 References......................................................... 314 Page viii WorldOceanAssessmentII: VolumeII Page Chapter 7E: Cold water corals ............................................... 321 Keynote points ..................................................... 323 1. IntroductionandsummaryofthefirstWorld Ocean Assessment ........ 323 2. Description of environmental changes between 2010 and 2020......... 324 3. Economic and social consequences ................................ 329 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 330 5. Outlook ........................................................ 330 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 331 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 332 References......................................................... 333 Chapter7F:Estuariesanddeltas............................................. 339 Keynote points ..................................................... 341 1. Introduction..................................................... 341 2. Documented changes in the state of estuaries and deltas.............. 342 3. Consequences of the changes for human communities, economies andwell-being................................................... 344 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 345 5. Outlook ........................................................ 346 6. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps ................. 347 References......................................................... 348 Chapter 7G: Seagrass meadows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Keynote points ..................................................... 355 1. Introduction..................................................... 355 2. Socioeconomic consequences .................................... 356 3. Region-specificchanges.......................................... 357 4. Outlook ........................................................ 358 5. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 358 6. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 359 References ........................................................ 362 Chapter 7H: Mangroves .................................................... 365 Keynote points ..................................................... 367 1. Introduction..................................................... 367 2. Documented change in state of mangroves between 2010 and 2020 .... 368 3. Consequences of the changes for human communities, economies andwell-being................................................... 370 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 372 5. Outlook ........................................................ 373 6. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps ................. 373 References......................................................... 374 xv Contents Page 2. Offshore hydrocarbon exploration, production and decommissioning ... 285 3. Economic, social, and environmental aspects of offshore hydrocarbon exploration, production and decommissioning ....................... 288 4. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps .......................... 290 5. Role of the offshore hydrocarbon industry in facilitating the marine renewable energy industry ........................................ 291 6. Conclusion ..................................................... 292 References ........................................................ 293 Chapter 20: Trends in inputs of anthropogenic noise into the marine environment ..... 297 Keynote points ..................................................... 299 1. Introduction..................................................... 299 2. Description of the environmental status ............................. 300 3. Description of economic and social consequences and other economic or social changes ............................................... 308 4. Keyregion-specificchangesandconsequences...................... 308 5. Outlook ........................................................ 310 6. Key remaining knowledge gaps .................................... 312 7. Key remaining capacity-building gaps............................... 313 References ........................................................ 313 Chapter 21: Developments in renewable energy sources ........................... 321 Keynote points ..................................................... 323 1. Introduction..................................................... 323 2. State of marine renewable energy at the global level .................. 324 3. Potential environmental impacts of marine renewable energy development ................................................... 329 4. Socioeconomicbenefitsandimpactsfrommarinerenewableenergy deployment ..................................................... 332 5. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps ................. 333 6. Anticipated future trends.......................................... 335 References......................................................... 336 Chapter 22: Invasive species ................................................... 343 Keynote points ..................................................... 345 1. Introduction .................................................... 345 2. Documented baseline and changes in non-indigenous species ......... 347 3. Consequencesforhumancommunities,economiesandwell-being..... 348 4. Keyregion-specificbaselines,changesandconsequences............. 350 5. Outlook ........................................................ 354 6. Other .......................................................... 356 References......................................................... 356 xvi WorldOceanAssessmentII: VolumeII Page Chapter 23: Developments in the exploration for and use of marine genetic resources . 363 Keynote points ..................................................... 365 1. Introduction..................................................... 365 2. Trends between 2010 and 2020 .................................... 366 3. Economic and social consequences and changes .................... 370 4. Keyregion-specificdevelopmentsinknowledgeandtheirconsequences 371 5. Capacity-building gaps ........................................... 371 6. Methodological challenges and future trends ........................ 373 7. Marine genetic resources and the Sustainable Development Goals ...... 374 References......................................................... 376 Chapter 24: Marine hydrates– a potentially emerging issue ........................ 381 Keynote points ..................................................... 383 1. Introduction..................................................... 383 2. What are marine hydrates? ........................................ 383 3. Potential risks from marine methane hydrates ....................... 386 4. Marine hydrates as a source of energy .............................. 388 5. Key knowledge and capacity-building gaps .......................... 390 6. Outlook ........................................................ 390 References......................................................... 390 Chapter 25: Cumulative effects................................................. 395 Keynote points ..................................................... 397 1. Introduction..................................................... 397 2. Cumulative effects assessments................................... 398 3. Regional applications of cumulative effects assessments on the marine environment: distribution and approaches ................. 402 4. Outlook ........................................................ 406 References......................................................... 413 Part six: Trends in management approaches to the marine environment ............. 421 Chapter 26: Developments in marine spatial planning.............................. 423 Keynote points ..................................................... 425 1. Introduction..................................................... 425 2. Types of marine spatial planning ................................... 426 3. Marine spatial planning: a step-by-step approach toward ecosystem-based management.................................... 427 4. Tools for marine spatial planning................................... 428 5. Progress in implementing marine spatial planning .................... 430 References......................................................... 436 xvii Contents Page Chapter 27: Developments in management approaches............................ 441 Keynote points ..................................................... 443 1. Introduction..................................................... 443 2. Management approaches......................................... 444 3. Advances in ocean management approaches ........................ 448 4. Management tools to support mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, including building resilience................................ 458 5. Keyregion-specificissues ........................................ 460 6. Capacity-building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461 7. Gaps and future perspectives...................................... 462 8. Outlook ........................................................ 463 References......................................................... 465 Chapter 28: Developmentsin the understanding of overall benefits from the ocean to humans ..................................................... 471 Keynote points ..................................................... 473 1. Introduction..................................................... 473 2. Benefitsandtheirdistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 3. Disbenefitstohumans............................................ 478 4. Threats to ocean ecosystem services............................... 479 5. Safeguardingoceanbenefitsthroughregionalandinternational cooperation and improved implementation of international law as reflectedintheUnitedNationsConventionontheLawoftheSea ....... 480 References......................................................... 483 Annexes ................................................................. 487 Annex I: Original members of the writing teams approved by the Bureau ............. 489 Annex II: Peer reviewers nominated for each chapter .............................. 497 321 Chapter 21 Developments in renewable energy sources Contributors: Takvor Soukissian (convener), Joan Bondareff, Valerie Cummins, Amardeep Dhanju, Carlos Garcia-Soto (co-lead member), Lars Golmen, Osman Keh Kamara (co-lead member), Jimmy Murphy, Eric Mwangi Njoroge, Anastasia Strati (lead member) and Georges Vougioukalakis. 323 Chapter 21: Developments in renewable energy sources Keynote points 1 Enerdata, “Consumption”, Global Energy Statistical Yearbook 2020. Available at https://yearbook.enerdata.net/ total-energy/world-consumption-statistics.html. •The offshore wind sector is expanding globally to regions with no utility-scale (grid) installations at present. The use of floating platforms is a step change enabling the industry to open up large areas with deeper waters. •In 2019, 28.3 gigawatts (GW) of installed capacity from the offshore wind sector was deployed globally, with 22 GW off Europe, primarily in the North Sea, 5.9 GW off China and 0.4 GW in other markets. •In the next decade, Asia and the United States of America could be major growth drivers for the development and installation of offshore wind power. •Wave and ocean current energy projects have not yet achieved full commercialization at utility scale, and tidal energy projects are still rare. •Progress in energy storage could make a significant contribution to the development of offshore wind power and other marine renewable energy (MRE) technologies. •Proper siting of MRE projects could minimize conflicts with other ocean uses and potential impacts on the marine environment. 1. Introduction The present chapter covers advances in knowledge and capacity made in recent years for the various types of marine renewable energy (MRE) at the global level. For the purpose of the present chapter, MRE as a category includes offshore wind energy, tidal and ocean current energy, wave energy, ocean thermal energy, osmotic power, marine biomass energy and offshore solar and geothermal energy. The chapter has linkages with chapters 6F, 8A, 9, 19, 20, 26, 27 and 28 of the present Assessment. 1.1. Climate change and the clean energy challenge Fossil fuel energy use accounts for a large proportion of global anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. In 2019, global energy consumption increased by 0.6percent,1 while total emissions of energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) fell by 3.2percent (International Energy Agency (IEA), 2020). However, global average atmospheric CO2 was 409.8 parts per million, the highest level for 800,000 years (Dlugokencky and Tans, 2020), while the global average temperature was about 1.1°C, with a standard error of 0.1°C, above pre-industrial levels (World Meteorological Organization (WMO), 2020). In view of the current status of greenhouse gas emissions, it is very likely that the agreed temperature thresholds of 1.5°C or 2°C above pre-industrial levels will be exceeded. As clearly highlighted in the special report entitled Global Warming of 1.5°C of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2018), for global warming not to exceed 1.5°C, global net anthropogenic emissions of CO2 would need to fall by about 45percent from 2010 levels by 2030, reaching “net zero” around 2050. That means that any remaining emissions would need to be balanced by removing CO2 from the air. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is therefore an important step towards climate change mitigation. In order to move in that 324 World Ocean Assessment II: Volume II direction, many States are taking measures to increase the development of renewable energy sources such as MRE in order to meet national clean energy and climate change goals. MRE 2 See General Assembly resolution 70/1. 3 See European Commission, “New technologies in the ocean energy sector”, 29 October 2018. 4 See Global Wind Energy Council, “The growth of the global offshore wind market will be driven by Asia”, 23 September 2019. 5 See GE, “GE Renewable Energy unveils the first Haliade-X 12 MW, the world’s most powerful offshore wind turbine”, 22 July 2019. is also linked to Sustainable Development Goal 7, in which affordable and clean energy is recognized as a key driver for development.2 2. State of marine renewable energy at the global level 2.1. Advances in knowledge and capacity between 2010 and 2020 The ocean has the potential to be a major source of renewable energy. In addition to climate change mitigation, MRE can contribute to socioeconomic development, energy security and energy access in remote coastal regions (Edenhofer and others, 2011). In 2019, global installed offshore wind capacity increased by 4.7 GW, a 19.8percent increase on 2018, to a total of 28.3 GW. The global capacity of other types of MRE reached 531 megawatts (MW), 90 per cent of which came from two tidal barrages in France and the Republic of Korea (International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), 2020a). The various types of MRE technologies are evolving and developing at different speeds: bottom-fixed offshore wind technology is mature and technically advanced, floating offshore wind technology is on the cusp of being commercialized and tidal energy converters have reached the commercial stage, while other MRE technologies are currently at the development stage.3 The emerging offshore wind markets include India, Japan, the Republic of Korea and the United States.4 There has been a significant increase in wind turbine rated capacities, with turbines of up to 12 MW capacity expected to be on the market in 2021.5 2.2. Regional advances 2.2.1. Offshore wind energy The global technical potential for offshore wind energy is estimated by IEA (in collaboration with Imperial College London) at more than 120,000 GW (IEA, 2019). Europe, with cumulative capacity of 21.98 GW in 2019, dominates the sector. The main countries developing offshore wind energy are the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (1.7 GW installed in 2019 and 9.9 GW in total), Germany (1.1 GW installed in 2019 and 7.5 GW in total), and China (1.3 GW installed in 2019 and 5.9 GW in total) (IRENA, 2020a). There have been significant developments in the sector. The largest offshore wind farm in the world, the Hornsea One Project in the United Kingdom, was completed in 2020 with an installed capacity of 1.2 GW. In 2019, the Haliade-X 12 MW prototype developed by the United States wind turbine manufacturer GE became the largest wind turbine ever built. As the size of both offshore wind turbines and offshore wind farms continues to increase, concerns about potential environmental impacts, impacts on fisheries and issues related to human use of areas near or within wind farms are becoming more important. Offshore wind energy is demonstrating the viability, both technical and economic, of 325 Chapter 21: Developments in renewable energy sources utility-scale projects in different marine environments. The globally weighted levelized cost of energy (LCOE)6 for utility-scale projects has fallen by 28.6percent since 2010, thus driving installation around the world (IRENA, 2020b). Moreover, the sector estimates that LCOE values in the order of €50/MWh are achievable by 2030.7 The main drivers for cost reduction include the use of larger, more efficient turbines in bigger offshore wind farm developments, the reduced capital cost of financing projects, and the certainty of a long pipeline of projects, which has allowed the supply chain to invest and innovate. Fixed platforms are viable for water depths up to 60 m, but the industry also plans to operate in deeper waters using floating platforms within the next decade. Many coastal countries worldwide see floating wind 6 The levelized cost of energy is the present value of the average minimum price of produced electrical energy required to offset the total cost of its production (construction, operation and maintenance, and fuel costs). It is levelized over the lifetime of a generating plant. 7 See also Kerry Chamberlain, “Offshore wind opex set to fall 40% by 2030 as suppliers dig deep”, Reuters Events, 25 October 2017. power as a future major contributor to the achievement of renewable energy production targets. The world’s first utility-scale floating offshore wind farm began production in 2017 (off the coast of Peterhead, Scotland, United Kingdom) using the Hywind concept developed by the Norwegian company Equinor (Musial and others, 2019; see figurebelow). This marks an important milestone for the offshore wind industry in the development of projects in deeper water and further from the coast. The success of offshore wind power in reducing installation and production costs, combined with existing expertise in onshore wind energy, has made offshore wind the leading MRE technology. World’s first commercial wind farm comprising floating wind turbines Photographer: Øyvind Gravås/Woldcam; image provided by Equinor. 326 World Ocean Assessment II: Volume II 2.2.2. Tidal and ocean current energy Global tidal energy capacity (combined theoretical tidal range and stream resource) is estimated at 3 terawatt (TW) (Lewis and others, 2011; Scottish Enterprise, 2018), while the worldwide potential of ocean currents is estimated at 450 GW.8 Tidal stream energy requires flow speeds greater than 2.0 m/s to be exploitable (Encarnacion and others, 2019). The funnelling effects of bays, estuaries and inlets can provide a viable tidal or current energy resource. Such locations as the Bay of Fundy in Canada, Cook Strait in New Zealand and the Pentland Firth in Scotland are known for their significant potential and have been targeted for development. Early commercial ventures, such as the 240-MW La Rance tidal energy station in France and the 254-MW Sihwa Lake tidal power station in the Republic of Korea, harnessed tidal energy by impoundment through the construction of barrages. Although various tidal projects have been proposed, in particular on the west coast of the United Kingdom, progress with regard to construction has been slow, mainly because tidal barrages can affect ecosystems and water quality (Kadiri and others, 2012). Very high capital costs are another deterrent. The tidal energy industry has therefore focused primarily on extracting energy from fast-flowing tidal streams using horizontal axis tidal turbines, which have progressed from single prototype deployments to small-scale arrays (Encarnacion and others, 2019). The environmental monitoring programme implemented for the deployment of the first large-scale commercial tidal stream generator (SeaGen) became the road map for future tidal projects (Savidge and others, 2014). The first grid-connected tidal array with three 8 See Ocean Energy Council, “Ocean Current Energy”. Available at www.oceanenergycouncil.com/ocean-energy/ ocean-current-energy. 9 See Yasmin Ali, “World’s first grid connected baseload tidal power station”, Microgrid Knowledge, 27 November 2018. 10 See Simec Atlantis Energy, “MeyGen”. 11 See Offshore Energy, “OpenHydro another casualty of innovation ‘valley of death’, EMEC says”, 27 July 2018. 100 kW turbines has been operating successfully in the Shetland Islands since 2016,9 while the MeyGen project, also in Scotland, is the largest tidal energy array currently deployed, with 6 MW.10 However, since 2016, the industry has largely stalled, in particular in the United Kingdom. In addition, the high-profile collapse of OpenHydro created significant negative publicity for the industry.11 As of 2020, tidal energy has yet to make a significant leap towards the installation of utility-scale projects. 2.2.3. Wave energy The world’s theoretical wave power resource is estimated at 2.11 TW, and sites with values around 30 kW/m (or even lower) are usually considered to be commercially viable for wave energy extraction, depending on the technology (Sandberg and others, 2016). The locations with the largest wave power resource are between latitudes 40° and 60° (Gunn and Stock-Williams, 2012). For instance, wave energy sites off the coast of Ireland present annual average power density levels of more than 80 kW/m. As of 2019, the sector was still not close to commercialization, but progress had been made in assessing the difficulties involved in extracting wave power at a reasonable cost. Significant challenges are the hostile environment in which wave energy converters produce power and the need to design technologies that can reliably operate over the lifetime of a commercial project. A large number of different wave energy conversion concepts and devices are under development, but such variety has resulted in a lack of convergence and overall focus within the sector. However, since 2015, multiple full-scale wave energy converters have been deployed by such developers as 333 Chapter 21: Developments in renewable energy sources same infrastructure, for example) can be facilitated through marine spatial planning (see chap. 26), as well as technical advances in the design of more robust fish cages, technological developments in automation, advances in mooring systems and benefit-sharing (where MRE arrays provide shelter to fish farms). Moreover, abandoned oil and gas platforms can be converted into production and storage units that convert electricity from offshore wind farms into hydrogen and synthetic gas (Jepma and van Schot, 2016; see also chap. 19). Synergies may also arise between the MRE sector and other marine industries, such as transport and operations, supply and manufacture, new materials and mining (Huckerby and others, 2016), and shoreline protection and marine conservation efforts (LiVecchi and others, 2019). 4.2. Potential adverse socioeconomic impacts Considerable challenges will have to be faced in order to achieve the deployment of MRE, as a new energy source, on a significant scale. Apart from the higher energy cost of MRE installations compared with land-based installations, social acceptance also needs to be addressed. MRE installations may meet strong opposition from other maritime sectors and local coastal communities that are reluctant to share marine space (Dalton and others, 2015; Lange and others, 2018). Important issues arising from the interactions of fisheries and offshore wind farms include the loss of fishing grounds and displacement, gear damage, inadequate compensation schemes and the need for a more dynamic engagement of fishers in planning processes (Gray and others, 2016). MRE installations may also be a cause for concern for the coastal tourism sector because of the potential visual disturbance. Studies conducted on the French Mediterranean coast, as well as in North Wales, United Kingdom, and New Zealand, revealed the opposition of coastal communities to offshore wind farms and wave energy installations, especially in places of high scenic beauty (Devine-Wright and Howes, 2010; Westerberg and others, 2013; Brownlee and others, 2015). Potential conflicts regarding safe navigation and operation of marine vessels may also arise when MRE installations are close to existing maritime transport routes. In conclusion, the potential environmental and socioeconomic risks underline the importance of extensive stakeholder engagement, robust environmental impact assessments and risk analysis before planning and siting MRE projects. 5. Key remaining knowledge and capacity-building gaps 5.1. Cost reduction Cost reduction is the most important issue that the MRE industry has to address. Bottom-fixed offshore wind farms may be approaching cost parity with conventional electricity generation sources in some markets; however, no other MRE technology is close to becoming commercially viable without further research and development, targeted innovation and significant financial incentives. The reduction of MRE costs is necessary to attract investors and advance the sector’s development. Cost reduction can be achieved on the basis of the following pillars (SI Ocean, 2013; Smart and Noonan, 2018): •Scale and volume. Larger MRE devices and array installations decrease the manufacturing and installation costs, while the larger-scale production of MRE devices reduces the overall individual component cost. 334 World Ocean Assessment II: Volume II •Experience and generation of knowledge. Knowledge generation is important for MRE capacity-building and cost reduction. New knowledge acquired through experience and learning-by-doing will foster the integration of MRE into relevant State policies. The sharing of data and information, exchanges of experiences, research and development and lessons learned are important drivers of cost reduction. •Innovation. Targeted innovation (in the research and development phase of an MRE concept or in the context of actual industrial MRE projects) will reduce costs and increase the yield and reliability of MRE devices. •Energy storage. Accurate short-term forecasting and energy storage are relevant to the issues of intermittent electricity generation and stochastic fluctuation, respectively. Current technologies for energy storage consist of electrochemical systems (e.g., batteries and fuel cells, and hydrogen energy storage), electrical storage (e.g., supercapacitor energy storage and magnetic systems), mechanical systems (e.g., flywheels and water pumps) and thermal systems (Ould Amrouche and others, 2016; Olabi, 2017). Pumped hydroelectric energy storage is the most mature of those technologies and the largest in scale (see also Wang and others, 2019). 5.2. Environmental monitoring and mitigation measures The environmental monitoring of marine organisms and metocean (oceanographic and meteorological) characteristics is essential for identifying and quantifying variability in the marine environment from the design to 22 See, for example, United States Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, “Takes of marine mammals incidental to specified activities; taking marine mammals incidental to construction of the Vineyard Wind Offshore Wind Project”, Federal Register, vol.84, No.83, 30 April 2019. Available at www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2019-04-30/pdf/2019-08666.pdf. the decommissioning of an MRE installation, while the mapping of the ocean floor may contribute significantly to the proper siting of MRE installations (Mulcan and others, 2015). The establishment of environmental baselines (e.g., mapping and characterization of the seabed, including sediment composition and shallow and deep geology) and the monitoring of biotic elements are necessary to address any adverse impact on biodiversity of the activities in question. In that context, there is a need to define standards for the analysis of environmental monitoring data for MRE development sites and to identify the area over which biological effects may occur to inform baseline data collection.22 It is also necessary to set thresholds, determine changes in species abundance, diversity, distribution and behaviour and readjust management actions (Foley and others, 2015). The MRE technologies used and the stressors introduced in the marine environment should be considered when designing monitoring procedures. Predictive models can be a supplementary tool, ideally when combined with in situ observations. Metocean data can be obtained from in situ measurements, outputs from numerical models and remote sensing instruments. Longterm data are required for the preliminary estimation of the available MRE resource and the metocean climate characteristics in the area of the installation. Short (up to 3 days) and medium-term (3–7 days) forecasting of metocean conditions is also important for operational planning activities. During the operation phase, reliable short-term forecasts of the expected power production are required for large-scale power integration. 335 Chapter 21: Developments in renewable energy sources 5.3. Strategic considerations for development of marine renewable energy, including funding The development of national energy strategies may involve a number of objectives. In that context, some critical factors to be considered include reducing the cost of MRE and enhancing its large-scale integration into electric power systems; leveraging a diversity of MRE sources and determining their geographical distribution; reducing barriers to deployment, including siting conflicts and permitting processes; and attracting significant investment in the sector. Furthermore, the World Conservation Congress of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), at its sixth session, asked States and competent authorities to implement a strategy for the development of offshore renewable energy that takes environmental issues into account and to subject that strategy to rigorous strategic environmental assessment (IUCN, 2016). That commitment is completely in line with Sustainable Development Goal 7.3 23 See www.offshorewindus.org/about-us. The full development of MRE can enhance the diversity of low-carbon energy options and provide viable alternatives to fossil fuel. Traditional commercial funding sources are often insufficient to achieve that goal, so innovative strategies are required. Private-public partnerships are considered critical for the development of MRE. For example, the European Commission has set up the Ocean Energy Forum, bringing together industry, finance, academia and public authorities to identify solutions and make investment more attractive. In the United States, the Business Network for Offshore Wind23 is promoting the offshore wind industry. The importance of the public sector’s support is not confined to the funding of the early stages of development of new technologies. Equally, if not more, important is its role in creating a favourable private investment environment through financial and fiscal incentives, renewable portfolio standards, offsets or feed-in tariffs. Investment in new technologies is generally limited to States with the financial means to accept the risks associated with technologies that are not commercially viable. However, developing countries could invest in those MRE technologies that are more mature. 6. Anticipated future trends Although considerable progress has been made towards the exploitation of MRE, the industry is still in the early stages of development, except for the offshore wind sector. As in general wave energy and tidal energy are not yet commercially viable, the immediate target is to encourage more offshore deployments of single prototypes or small-scale arrays. Such deployments, if successful, will build confidence in the sector and encourage the investments required to develop large-scale farms. Technological advances are also required to improve power take-off performance and reliability, along with control systems to maximize power absorption. The survivability, reliability and cost-reduction potential of wave and tidal technologies offset the significant investment risk. In Europe, ambitious LCOE reduction targets for offshore wind, wave and tidal energy have been established under the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (European Commission 336 World Ocean Assessment II: Volume II Directorate-General for Energy and others, 2018). The goal for offshore wind energy is to reduce LCOE to a no-subsidies point for fixed offshore wind and to less than €120/MWh for floating offshore wind by 2025. The corresponding targets for wave and tidal energy are €200/MWh and €150/MWh, respectively. Worldwide support by national Governments would allow the industry to develop the critical mass that would in turn generate large cost reductions. The corresponding LCOE projections for salinity gradient energy and ocean thermal energy conversion are €80/MWh and €150–200/MWh, respectively (Ocean Energy Europe, 2016). A recent trend for increased open sea deployments of wave, tidal and ocean current devices has been to focus on niche markets. Local MRE options may offer a solution for energy needs in off-grid areas and remote coastal and island communities (e.g. small island developing States), including for desalination and aquaculture (LiVecchi and others 2019; Rusu and Onea, 2019).24 In such applications, wave and tidal energy have the potential to be competitive with diesel generators. In most 24 See United States Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, “Powering the Blue Economy”. cases, wave and tidal energy devices would be smaller in size than utility-scale devices, so a high capital outlay would not be required. Working towards utility scale by incrementally scaling up devices and array size may provide the pathway to the commercialization of wave and tidal energy. The offshore wind sector is expected to expand globally, including in areas where no offshore wind farms are currently operational. In the next decade, Asia and the United States are expected to make significant progress, with growth in offshore wind energy also accelerating in nascent markets. The use of floating platforms is a step change for the industry. Floating wind energy is on the cusp of commercial deployment, and there are new technologies at earlier stages of development with the potential for offshore deployment. For example, multi-turbine platforms may offer an alternative to continuous increases in wind turbine size. High-altitude wind concepts, such as autonomous kites or unpiloted aircraft, and hybrid platforms combining various types of MRE technology on a single platform are also moving along the development process. Acknowledgements: We would like to acknowledge the substantial contribution of Nikolaos Koukouzas with respect to offshore geothermal energy. 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Chapter 7N Peter Croot (convener), Hilconida Calumpong (chapter lead member), Fernanda de Oliveira Lana, Osman Keh Kamara (co-lead member), Joseph Montoya, Tracey T. Sutton, Michael Vecchione and Tymon Zielinski (colead member). Chapter 7O Ana Colaço (convener), Angelika Brandt, Hilconida Calumpong (chapter lead member), Ana Hilario, Tomo Kitahashi, Nuno Lourenço, Bhavani E. Narayanaswamy, Imants George Priede, Ashley Rowden, Joshua T. Tuhumwire (subchapter lead member), Michael Vecchione and Hiromi Watanabe. Chapter 7P Nadine Le Bris (convener), Hilconida Calumpong (chapter lead member), Sanae Chiba (subchapter lead member), Ana Colaço, Elva Escobar, Anna Metaxas, Paraskevi Nomikou, Julia Sigwart, Verena Tunnicliffe and Hiromi Watanabe. Chapter 7Q Howard S.J. Roe (convener), Hilconida Calumpong (chapter lead member), David Freestone, Laurence Kell, Brian E. Luckhurst, Chul Park (co-lead member) and Tammy Warren. Chapter 8A Alan Simcock (convener and chapter lead member), Austin Becker, Marcelo Bertellotti, Joan Bondareff, Robert Boysen, Anthony Charles, Leandra Gonçalves, Miguel Iñíguez, Osman Keh Kamara (co-lead member), Paula Keener, Jenna Lamphere, Candace May, Angeliki N. Menegaki, Ishmael Mensah, Essam Yassin Mohammed (co-lead member), Tanya O’Gara, Christina Pita, Jean Edmond Randrianantenaina, Maria Sahib, Regina Salvador, Anastasia Strati (co-lead member), JeanClaude Tibe and Gregory Wetterau. Chapter 8B Michael Moore (convener), Martin Edwards, Bella S. Galil, Osman Keh Kamara (co-lead member), Essam Yassin Mohammed (colead member), Alan Simcock (lead member), Anastasia Strati (co-lead member) and Dick Vethaak. Chapter 9 Carlos Garcia-Soto (convener and lead member), Denise Breitburg, Monica Campillos, Patricia Castillo-Briceno, Sanae Chiba (co-lead member), Matthew Collins, Ganix Esnaola, Karen Evans (co-lead member), Louise B. Firth, Thomas Frölicher, Jason M. Hall-Spencer, David Halpern, Karen L. Hunter, Gabriel Ibarra, SungYong Kim, Roxy M. Koll, Kathleen McInnes, Jon Saenz, Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead member), Bess Ward and Tymon Zielinski (co-lead member). Chapter 10 Thomas Malone (convener), Archis Ambulker, Maria João Bebianno (co-lead member), Paula Bontempi, Michael Krom, Harri Kuosa, Joseph Montoya, Alice Newton, Yapo Ossey, João Sarkis Yunes, Walker Smith, Lars Sonesten, Georgios Sylaios, Juying Wang (lead member) and Kedong Yin. 494 World Ocean Assessment II: Volume II Chapter 11 Ralf Ebinghous (convener: pharmaceuticals and personal care products), Bjørn Einar Grøsvik (convener: hydrocarbons), Ida-Maja Hassellöv (convener: ships), Colin F. Moffat (convevner: persistent organic pollutants), Alan Simcock (convener: radioactivity; and co-lead member), Lars Sonesten (convener: atmospheric inputs), Penny Vlahos (convener: metals), Eric P. Achterberg, Babajide Alo, Robin Anderson, Carlos Francisco Andrade, Michael Angelidis, Maria João Bebianno (lead member), Arsonina Bera, Nene Bi Trace Boniface, Miguel Caetano, Isabel Natalia Garcia Arevalo, Kissao Gnandi, Julio Esteban Guerra Massón, Gi Hoon Hong, Suk Hyun Kim, Rainer Lohmann, Kida Rose Ninsemon, Jae Ryoung Oh, Bing Qiao, Monika Stankiewicz, Joshua T. Tuhumwire (co-lead member), Juying Wang (co-lead member) and Judith Weis. Chapter 12 François Galgani (convener: marine debris), Aleke Stöfen-O’Brien (convener: dumping), Archis Ambulkar, Maurizio Azzaro, Maria João Bebianno (lead member), Arsonina Bera, Joan Bondareff, Alan Deidun, Fernanda de Oliveira Lana, Huw Griffiths, Bjørn Einar Grøsvik, Martin Hassellöv, Christos Ioakeimidis, Jenna Jambeck, Ahmed M. Kawser, Paula Keener, Iryna Makarenko, Chelsea Rochman, Qamar Schuyler, Paula Sobral, Konstantinos Topouizelis, Joshua T. Tuhumwire (co-lead member), Dick Vethaak, Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead member), Penny Vlahos, Juying Wang (co-lead member) and Judith Weis. Chapter 13 Ca Thanh Vu (convener and lead member), Paulette Bynoe, Trang Minh Duong, Matt Eliot, Frank Hall, Sylvain Monde, Tuan Le Nguyen, Roshanka Ranasinghe, Matthieu de Schipper and Joshua T. Tuhumwire (co-lead member). Chapter 14 Ca Thanh Vu (convener and lead member), Matchonnawe Hubert Bakai, Sam Bentley, Nene Bi Trace Boniface, Lionel Carter, Catherine Creese, Robert Dapa, Hugo Masson Fiallos, Regina Folorunsho, Gheorghe Ftadeev-Brat, Alan Simcock (co-lead member) and Alix Willemez. Chapter 15 Porter Hoagland (convener), Megan Bailey, Lena Bergström, Alida Bundy, Fernanda de Oliveira Lana, Karen Evans (co-lead member), Manuel Hidalgo, Andrew Johnson, Melina Kourantidou, Hector Lozano-Montes, Enrique Marschoff (lead member), Essam Yassin Mohammed (co-lead member), Henn Ojaveer (co-lead member), Franklin Ormaza-Gonzalez, Imants George Priede, Ylenia Randrianisoa (co-lead member), Jörn Schmidt (co-lead member), Zacharie Sohou, Burcu Bilgin Topçu, Lynn Waterhouse and Chang-Ik Zhang. Chapter 16 Rohana Subasinghe (convener), Pedro Barón, Malcolm Beveridge, Enrique Marschoff (lead member), Doris Oliva and Renison Ruwa ( co-lead member). Chapter 17 Hilconida Calumpong (convener and lead member), Paula Bontempi, Adam Hughes, Franciane Pellizzari, Isabel Sousa Pinto, Renison Ruwa (co-lead member), Jörn Schmidt (co-lead member) and Noemí Solar-Bacho. Chapter 18 James R. Hein (joint convener), Pedro Madureira (joint convener), Maria João Bebianno (co-lead member), Ana Colaço, Giorgio de la Torre, Paraskevi Nomikou, Luis M. Pinheiro, Richard Roth, Pradeep Singh, Anastasia Strati (co-lead member) and Joshua T. Tuhumwire (lead member). 495 Annex I: Original members of the writing teams approved by the Bureau Chapter 19 Amardeep Dhanju (convener), Arsonina Bera, Hans-Peter Damian, Robert Dapa, Giorgio de la Torre, Kacou Yeboue Seraphim, Alan Simcock (co-lead member) and Joshua T. Tuhumwire (lead member). Chapter 20 Ana Širović (convener), Karen Evans (lead member), Carlos Garcia-Soto (co-lead member), John A. Hildebrand, Sérgio M. Jesus and James H. Miller. Chapter 21 Takvor Soukissian (convener), Joan Bondareff, Valerie Cummins, Amardeep Dhanju, Carlos Garcia-Soto (co-lead member), Lars Golmen, Osman Keh Kamara (co-lead member), Jimmy Murphy, Eric Mwangi Njoroge, Anastasia Strati (lead member) and Georges Vougioukalakis. Chapter 22 Thomas W. Therriault (convener), Marnie L. Campbell, Alan Deidun, Bella S. Galil, Chad L. Hewitt, Graeme Inglis, Henn Ojaveer (lead member), Chul Park (co-lad member), Bing Qiao, Renison Ruwa (co-lead member) and Evangelina Schwindt. Chapter 23 Robert Blasiak (joint convener), Ellen Kenchington (joint convenor), Jesús M. Arrieta, Jorge Rafael Bermúdez-Monsalve, Hilconida Calumpong (co-lead member), Shao Changwei, Sanae Chiba (lead member), Hebe Dionisi, Carlos Garcia-Soto (co-lead member), Helena Vieira and Boris Wawrik. Chapter 24 Alan Simcock (convener and lead member), Carlos Garcia-Soto (co-lead member), Aninda Mazumdar, Aaron Micallef, Joseph Montoya, Katherine E.A. Segarra, Joshua T. Tuhumwire (co-lead member) and Leonid Yurganov. Chapter 25 Karen Evans (convener and lead member), Roland Cormier, Piers Dunstan, Elizabeth Fulton, Essam Yassin Mohammed (co-lead member), Jörn Schmidt (co-lead member), Alan Simcock (co-lead member), Vanessa Stelzenmüller, Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead member) and Skipton Woolley. Chapter 26 Alan Simcock (convener and lead member), Jarbas Bonetti, Louis Celliers, Karen Evans (co-lead member), Leandra Gonçalves, Ståle Navrud, Marcus Polette, Julian Renya and Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead member). Chapter 27 Piers Dunstan (convener), Hilconida Calumpong (co-lead member), Louis Celliers, Valerie Cummins, Ana Cristina de Jesus, Michael Elliott, Karen Evans (co-lead member), Antony Firth, Frédéric Guichard, Quentin Hanich, Manuel Hildago, Hector Manuel LozanoMontes, Chanda L. Meek, Essam Yassin Mohammed (co-lead member), Marcus Polette, Jemma Purandare, Anita Smith, Anastasia Strati (lead member) and Ca Thanh Vu (co-lead member). Chapter 28 Luciano Hermanns (convener), Denis Worlnanyo Aheto, Adem Bilgin, Robert Blasiak, Cecile Brugere, Karen Evans, Antony Firth, Marinez Eymael Garcia Scherer, Deborah Greaves, Osman Keh Kamara (co-lead member), Wenhai Lu, Iryna Makarenko, Juan Ramon Martinez, Essam Yassin Mohammed (lead member), Ståle Navrud, Jörn Schmidt (colead member), Anita Smith, Anastasia Strati (co-lead member), Rashid Sumaila, Kateryna Utkina, Hans Van Tilburg, Wojciech Wawrzynski and Vladimir Žulkus. 497 Annex II Peer reviewers nominated for each chapter 499 Annex II: Peer reviewers nominated for each chapter Chapter 3 Chaolun Li and Alexander Turra. Chapter 4 Patricio Bernal and Robert Watson. Chapter 5 Jae Hak Lee and Bronte Tilbrook. Chapter 6A Gustavo Ferreyra, Christian M. Naranjo, Maria Tapia and George Wiafe. Chapter 6B Wenqian Cai and Thomas G. Dahlgren. Chapter 6C Myriam Lteif and Joanne Morgan. Chapter 6D Trevor Branch and Eduardo R. Secchi. Chapter 6E Maria Angela Marcovaldi, Honghui Huang and Bryan Wallace. Chapter 6F Marcelo Berellotti, David Thompson and Thomas Webb. Chapter 6G Alan Critchley, Peter Edwards and Paulo Antunes Horta. Chapter 7A Gregorio Bigatti and Rachel Przeslawski. Chapter 7B Catia Barbosa, Alejandro Bortolus, M. M. Maruf Hossain and Rachel Przeslawski. Chapter 7C Miguel Esteban and Jemma Purandare. Chapter 7D Catia Barbosa, Elamin Mohammed Elamin Abdelrahman and Wilford Schmidt. Chapter 7E Peter Auster, Mark Costello and Nadine Le Bris. Chapter 7F Oscar Iribarne and João Marques. Chapter 7G Peter Edwards and Pat Hutchings. Chapter 7H Denis Aheto, Sean Green and Elamin Mohammed Elamin Abdelrahman. Chapter 7I Alejandro Bortolus and David Johnson. Chapter 7J Aaron Micallef and Paul Snelgrove. Chapter 7K Robin Anderson, Thomas G. Dahlgren and Russel Tait. Chapter 7L Karen Stocks and Chunsheng Wang. Chapter 7M Georgios Kazanidis and Tomo Kitahashi. Chapter 7N Silvia I. Romero and Jan Marcin Węsławski. Chapter 7O Anna Metaxas and Paul Snelgrove. Chapter 7P Se-Jong Ju, Cindy Lee Van Dover and Chunsheng Wang. Chapter 7Q Robin Anderson and Michael Vecchione. Chapter 8A Marnie Campbell and Vitor Manuel Oliveira Vasconcelos. Chapter 8B Peter Harris, David Lusseau, Grant Murray, Marcus Polette, Marisol Vereda and Wojciech Wawrzynski. Chapter 9 Jae Hak Lee and Bronte Tilbrook. 500 World Ocean Assessment II: Volume II Chapter 10 Nora Montoya, Song Sun and Mitsuo Uematsu. Chapter 11 Peter Liss, Isabel Natalia Garcia Arevalo, Fani Sakellariadou, Peiyan Sun and Andrea Weiss. Chapter 12 Jongmyoung Lee, Daoji Li, Kara L. Law and Alessandro Turra. Chapter 13 Jarbas Bonetti Filho, Georgios Sylaios and Gert-Jan Reichart. Chapter 14 Constantina Skanavis and Jean Marie Bope Bope Lapwong. Chapter 15 Sukgeun Jung, Christina Pita and Rashid Sumaila. Chapter 16 Patricio Bernal and Lionel Dabbadie. Chapter 17 Alan Critchley and Huang Honghui. Chapter 18 Elaine Baker, Hans-Peter Damian and Chunsheng Wang. Chapter 19 Peter Harris and Mark Shrimpton. Chapter 20 Daniel Costa, Bruce Howe and Isabel Natalia Garcia Arevalo. Chapter 21 Craig Stevens and Eugen Rusu. Chapter 22 Alejandro Bortolus and Cynthia McKenzie. Chapter 23 Elva Escobar, Kenneth Halanych and Gabriel Hoinsoude Segniagbeto. Chapter 24 Luis Pinheiro and Carolyn Ruppel. Chapter 25 Ken Anthony, Natalie Ban and Benjamin Halpern. Chapter 26 Chanda Meek and Kateryna Utkina. Chapter 27 Natlia Ban and Mette Skern-Mauritzen. Chapter 28 Dolores Elkin, Vinicius Halmenschlager, Chul-Oh Shin, Regina Salvador and Marjan Van den Belt. WORLD OCEAN ASSESSMENT II 20-11859 ISBN 978-92-1-130422-0