Textbooks as ‘Neoliberal artifacts’ : a critical study of knowledge-making in ELT industry

This is a self-archived version of an original article. This version may differ from the original in pagination and typographic details. Author(s): Title: Year: Version: Copyright: Rights: Rights url: Please cite the original version: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ Textbooks as ‘Neoliberal artifacts’ : a critical study of knowledge-making in ELT industry © 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group Accepted version (Final draft) Nizamani, Asma; Shah, Waqar Ali Nizamani, A., & Shah, W. A. (2022). Textbooks as ‘Neoliberal artifacts’ : a critical study of knowledge-making in ELT industry. Critical Discourse Studies, Early online, 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2022.2160364 2022 1 Textbooks as ‘Neoliberal Artifacts’: A Critical Study of Knowledge-making in ELT Industry Abstract The present study examined the traces of neoliberal ideology in O-level English language textbooks taught in elitist private schools in Pakistan that follow the UK-based international educational system administrated by the University of Cambridge under the General Certificate of Education (GCE). Analysis in the study was informed by Fairclough's CDA writings. Moreover, Bourdieu's views on neoliberalism were also considered to shed some light on neoliberal ideology in the textbooks. Findings suggest that several neoliberal themes were evident in the textbooks under scrutiny, including marketization, consumerism, branding, celebrity culture, competition, individualism, self-responsibility and self-entrepreneurship, mobility, new ‘Othering’ strategy and English as a neoliberal skill. Based on the findings, we argue that the global ELT industry that produces teaching materials, including textbooks for the periphery is a major contributor to the neoliberal world order maintained by the local (political) elite in the government(s) e.g., Pakistan in case of the present study. The textbooks prepare learners for a competitive world rather than a world based on cooperation, mutual progress, and happiness. The study thus questions such neoliberal hegemony encoded in the textbooks and argues for critical examination and selection of the materials for contexts where English is taught as a foreign language. Keywords: Neoliberalism, O-Levels, Textbooks, English Language, ELT industry Introduction The use of English as a medium for knowledge transfer in a variety of fields, including art, science, technology, and business, has contributed to its significant status throughout the world. As a result, the need for English instruction and learning has grown over time. In fact, there are currently many EFL textbooks as well as a wide range of teaching materials available worldwide aimed at satisfying the diverse needs of the global EFL community. However, the textbooks published both locally and globally are not devoid of ideological agendas. In this vein, the textbooks produced in the English-speaking world for diverse uses, including the formal educational contexts, such as O-level administered by the university of Cambridge under General Certificate of Education (GCE) are not neutral objects. Instead, they impart certain values and ideologies to their users. According to Apple (2006), it is naive to assume that classroom knowledge is impartial. In CDA research, 'texts' are believed to have an ideological effect (see Fairclough, 2001; Wodak & Meyer, 2001; Fowler et al., 1979). Based on the ideological effects of the textbooks, some language scholars have established how discourses in the textbooks construct social identities (Wodak et al., 2009; Young, 2003; Gao, 2021). A growing body of research on textbooks and ELT shows how textbooks, specifically global ELT materials, tend to promote neoliberal ideology (for example, Chun, 2009; Gray, 2012, Copley, 2018, Babaii and Sheikhi, 2018). A majority of textbook studies in Pakistan have focused on state-sponsored textbooks examining discourses of nationalism, religion, and militarism (Rahman, 2002; Aziz, 2010; Qazi, 2020). In a few recent studies, however, neoliberal working through ELT has been unraveled (see Manan, 2021; Author(s), forthcoming). The study by Manan, using the neoliberal governmentality as a conceptual 2 framework, examined teachers and students in fast-growing English language academies in Pakistan, whereas Author(s)., (forthcoming) explored the neoliberal workings of US-funded global English language training programs. Yet it remains unclear how this neoliberal ideology manifests itself in Pakistan's elitist private schools, which follow the O-level Cambridge system unlike the government schools that have their local examination boards in each province of the country. Choosing O-level English language textbooks was based on the fact that elitist private schools with O-level Cambridge system produces a class of people with a western cultural outlook (see Rahman, 2002) as well as occupying space in the global marketplace. This is why O-level education in Pakistan focuses on preparing students to study abroad, such as in Englishspeaking countries, with the goal of either settling overseas or assuming privileged positions back at home. This study fills the gap with a significant contribution to the scholarly literature on neoliberal ideology being promoted in the global ELT industry which is a recent phenomenon (see Block, Gray & Holborow, 2012). The current study draws on Fairclough's CDA writings (see Fairclough, 2001, 2010, 2014, 2015). As an analysis tool, CDA aims to expose power ideologies permeating society and contributing to unequal power relations (Fairclough, 2010). Language is used to generate and disseminate neoliberal ideology (Fairclough, 2002). As a problem-driven approach, CDA seeks to provide solutions to societal ills from a discursive perspective (Fairclough, 2010). Further, Bourdieu's (1995) elaborate view on neoliberalism is used to explain neoliberalism's key principles: individualism, competitiveness, and anti-collectivist approach with the market as its center. The following sections explain neoliberalism as a theory followed by neoliberal ideology and its basic tenets as adopted in our study. Then, we discuss our methodology, present our results, and conclude with suggestions and implications for global contexts. Neoliberalism David Harvey explains that neoliberalism is an economic theory that believes individuals can achieve greater success by exercising entrepreneurial liberties and skills within an institutional framework featuring free markets, free trade, and private property rights (Harvey, 2005, p. 2). According to Holborow (2015), the origin of neoliberal practices can be traced back to a small group of advocates in the 1940s, who were inspired by the Austrian political and economic philosopher, Friedrich von Hayek. They shared a fondness for the laissez-faire entrepreneurship of the nineteenth century, which they believed had been destroyed under Nazism and communism. These ideas emerged during the 1970s economic crisis. In response to Margaret Thatcher's individualistic politics and Raegan's use of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to provide aid and debt to the global south under conditions of implementing neoliberalism, this economic practice spread around the world (Holborow, 2015). Neoliberalism emerged as a response to stagnant economic conditions in the 1970s in the face of labor and social challenges faced by capitalism (Cox and Nilsen, 2014). Copley (2018) argues that neoliberalism was the answer to an economy in trouble. Although Jalalian and Rahim (2021) contend that neoliberalism is difficult to define, scholars, however, agree that it is a new phase in capitalism that views socio-economic and cultural aspects of human life through the lens of market and financial benefits (e.g., Treanor 2005, Harvey 2005). A neoliberal rationality, according to Xiong et al. (2018), is hegemonic, in which markets are the only means of organizing social and economic life. Neoliberalism, they explain, differs from classical liberalism in that the state uses its machinery to legitimize and guarantee the market's scope. In Holborow's (2012) view, neoliberal principles have become ingrained in public and private life to the point where it is impossible to imagine life without them. 3 Depending on its interaction with colonialism, imperialism, and globalization, neoliberalism takes on different forms (Fairclough, 2002; Harvey, 2005). Neoliberalism views the world as a 'vast supermarket' with citizens as 'customers' (Apple, 2012). Each individual in such a world is engaged in a market transaction, competing with each other in every sphere of life (Treanor, 2005). As the cornerstone of neoliberalism is the market (Babaii and Sheikhi, 2018, p. 250), several other factors have emerged from it. Among them are privatization of public assets, such as education, and creation of dominant values, such as accumulation of capital, individualism, consumerism, and competition (Harvey, 2005). Giroux (2005) argues that in neoliberalism, either everything is for sale, or it is looted for profit. Holborow (2012, p. 15) describes neoliberalism as 1) an economic theory; 2) a new type of capitalism; 3) a discourse and 4) an ideology. We refer to "neoliberalism" as an 'ideology' in our study. Neoliberalism as an ‘Ideology’ In addition to being an economic theory, neoliberalism is an ideology that encompasses all aspects of human life, including social, cultural, and political issues. In this study, Bourdieu's elaborate position on neoliberalism is used as an ideology. Holborow (2015) asserts that Bourdieu (1998) was the first sociologist to see neoliberalism as a coherent ideology, and to see how it worked through language. In his view, neoliberalism entails the destruction of collectives in favor of a free-market logic. In Bourdieu's view (1998), proponents of free markets presented market logic as a time-tested scientific theory that could not be contested. In their view, the market was competitive, flexible, and individualistic and free of opposition. Bourdieu (2000) elaborates that market logic is imposed upon society through 'strong discourse' which claims the necessity of market logic. According to Chomsky (1999), neoliberal ideas encompass US and international financial institutions' designs that liberalize trade and privatize state assets. In Neoliberalism, class-based identities are replaced with a group of people competing for their own interests. As Holborow (2012, p. 29) argues, neoliberalism misrepresents reality because it is promoted by the dominant class in order to preserve its economic interests. Thus, it presents distorted versions of reality as universal truths. Neoliberal ideology operates at two levels: institutional and individual (see Esposito and Perez, 2014). At the institutional level, policy is designed to achieve free movement of capital through trade, commerce, production, and technology transfer; however, at the individual level, individuals adapt to market demand. This is why neoliberalism is more than a macroeconomic policy. This means everyone accepts the supremacy of the market, even at work and in social life (Copley, 2018, p. 3). According to Fisher (2009), capital follows people even while they are dreaming and has therefore engulfed the social, political, and economic spheres. Constituent Characteristics of Neoliberal Ideology Neoliberal ideology in a text or discourse can be better understood by examining its various characteristics. Copley (2018, p. 5) identified consumption, market neutrality in social relations, and individualism restricted to self-interest as key characteristics of neoliberalism. Becker (1983) argues that linguistic instrumentalism and human capital have replaced the discourse of collectivism. The goal of communication in such a scenario is to maximize selfinterest (Bernstein et al., 2015). The neoliberal ideology promotes privatization (Bori, 2021, p. 10) and mobility of goods and services (Harvey, 2005) and prepares entrepreneurs to market 4 their own skills (Dardot & Laval 2013). Neoliberalism encompasses competition, individualism, consumerism, and personal loss/gain (Esposito and Perez, 2014), together with branding (Babaii et al., 2018). Branding involves commanding attention to gain consideration in the marketplace. A pervasive feature of Neoliberalism is the branding of people, places, institutions, and languages (e.g., see Lury, 2004; Ritzer, 2007). As Lury (2004, p.4) notes ‘the brand mediates the supply and demand of products’ in the current economy. In a neoliberal discourse, privatization, mobility, entrepreneurship competition, consumerism and branding of products and services are prominent themes. 'Celebrity culture' is also at the core of neoliberal ideology (Gray, 2012; Mendick et al., 2018). Celebrities in neoliberalism are used to promote success stories based on personal hard work and self-made content and have their influence on public consciousness (Rojek, 2001, cited in Gray, 2012). Mendick et al., (2018, p.4) argue that the governments construct aspiration nations through policies by establishing dominant notions of success and happiness while overlooking the range of hopes that the young people hold in different local contexts. Another important feature of the neoliberal movement is its endorsement of cosmopolitanism and selective multiculturalism (Babaii et al., 2018, pp. 250-251). The neoliberal view of education has promoted individualism and competition rather than cooperative ethics (Block et al., 2012, p. 6). Neoliberalism promotes an individual responsibility system in which people deserve what they get, and those whose choices are wrong bear harsh consequences (Bernstein et al., 2015, p. 4). Thus, the neoliberal ideology reveals itself via the presence of celebrities as successful entrepreneurs, and biased and selective multiculturalism. Competition prevails over cooperation with each individual being told that he or she is responsible for their own success or failure without acknowledging structural bottlenecks. We will treat neoliberalism as an ideology in textbooks under analysis in the present study by considering the basic conceptions of neoliberalism as an ideology with a specific focus on Bourdieu’s position on neoliberal ideology together with Fairclough’s writings on CDA and neoliberalism. Neoliberal Ideology in English Language Textbooks According to Gray and Block (2014), modern ELT textbooks reinforce Neoliberal ideologies. In ELT coursebooks, social relations are depicted as socially constructed and the dominance of certain social groups is given legitimacy. According to Gray (2012), language coursebooks promote a neoliberal ideology that links success with consumerism and English language learning. A study by Chun (2009) evaluated an Intensive English Program (IEP) that incorporates English for Academic Purposes (EAP). Using a multimodal analysis of the website and textbook of the university program, he found that brochures on the website marketed a high-end lifestyle to students. Students are treated as consumers and purchasers by fancy advertisements. In addition, communication skills and emotional intelligence have been emphasized in the textbooks (Holborow, 2007) along with caring capitalism as the main theme. Based on interviews with senior ELT publishers and an analysis of guidelines for authors of ELT textbooks, Gray (2010) concluded that the textbook's content was not accidental. He reported that teachers also identified ideological elements in global coursebook contents and found the celebration of philanthropic capitalists as problematic. In another study, John Gray shows how ELT coursebooks represent celebrities as a part of the neoliberal worldview. He argues that entrepreneurs and self-made individuals began to be viewed as ideals in ELT books (Gray, 2012, p. 103). 5 Similarly, Copley (2018) analyzed ELT coursebooks of the past 40 years to see what changes were made with the advent of Neoliberalism. The study found that ELT coursebooks have undergone profound changes in recent years. In contrast to earlier books that emphasized teamwork, the newer ones influenced by neoliberalism emphasize individuality. In textbook production, the sociocultural and political context influences the content (Apple, 1993), and some values and beliefs that are promoted may be alien to learners from other cultures (CurdtChristiansen, 2017). In textbooks, language use is usually routinized and geared toward stereotyped cultural settings (Bernstein, 2015, p. 7). Babaii et al. (2018) analyzed ELT materials in Iranian private schools using Fairclough's CDA model. They found several themes popularized in textbooks, including competitiveness and consumerism, marketability, individual productivity, branding and non-critical multiculturalism. Bori (2021) studied two English courses at Serbia's private language school for unemployed students. Students' beliefs and actions regarding the role of English and the use of global English textbooks over local textbooks revealed heavy influence of external socioeconomic and political factors caused by neoliberalism. The Present Study The present article is part of a larger study at Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro Pakistan. The data was collected from Oxford University Press (OUP) O-level English textbooks used in elite schools in Sindh province. Each Oxford Progressive English (OPE) book contains ten units. Grade-9 OPE consists of thirty-seven texts, while grade-10 OPE include forty-one texts. Among the texts are news reports, journals, fiction, autobiographies, poetry, and so on. Moreover, each textbook ends with an examination practice section. For this study, all texts excluding poems were analyzed. Choosing elitist private schools was based on the fact that they follow a UK-based Cambridge System and teach Oxford Progressive English as part of the English compulsory course as opposed to government schools and colleges that follow national curriculum and textbooks developed by local textbook boards in each province of the country. Textbook Grade Author Edition Oxford Progressive English (OPE) 9 Rachel Redford 3rd, 2016 Oxford Progressive English (OPE) 10 Rachel Redford 3rd, 2016 Table 1 Information about textbooks The Study Objective ▪ To examine the presence of neoliberal ideology in O-level English Language Textbooks and the role of language in promoting it Context of the Study Pakistan as a postcolonial country is the context of the present study. English language teaching in the country is divided between private and public systems, each with its own ideological and pedagogical orientation. Elite English medium schools, for instance, teach English to a specific class of students to instill western values (Rahman, 2002; Shah and Pathan, 2016). In contrast, private non-elite English medium and state-mandated education systems have been argued to transform learners' subjectivity and identity into national subjects (Nayyar & Saleem, 2005; Rahman, 2010; Qazi, 2020). The country is divided into four major provinces, namely Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The present study has selected the English 6 language textbooks which are taught in elitist private schools of Pakistan that follow O’ level Cambridge System as discussed below. O’ Levels Education System in Pakistan UK-based O-level education system is recognized worldwide, including in Pakistan. In Pakistan, it is equivalent to matriculation. The exam is administered by the University of Cambridge under the General Certificate of Education (GCE). The O-levels in Pakistan are divided into two years, called O-1 and O-2. However, some schools include three years to give students a pre-O level background. In some cases, students may be able to complete their Olevels in one year if they opt to take all eight papers instead of splitting them into three subjects in the first year and five subjects in the second year. Among these papers, English is a compulsory subject. One of the major reasons for selecting GCE O-levels over Pakistani matriculation boards is the recognition of the former as the standard for applying to universities abroad. Students seeking admission to undergraduate programs in a foreign country, especially the United Kingdom, often seek GCE qualifications. International educationists design its curriculum to meet the modern educational needs of students in order to compete in the contemporary world. O-level courses are mostly chosen by upper-class and upper middle-class students in Pakistan due to their higher fees. In order to take O-level exams, students do not necessarily need to be enrolled in a school; therefore, private candidates are only required to pay the exam fees. Due to this, students primarily receive private tuitions instead of school instruction during O-levels in Pakistan. However, students still attend school to socialize with their peers. Tutoring O-level subjects is also a highly lucrative business since fees range between PKR 15000 and PKR 50,000. Exams are held twice a year, in May/June and October/November. Students may appear in May or October, but most schools prefer students to take exams in May. If candidates fail the exam the first time, they may reappear in the same year for a second attempt. Exams are conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) in Pakistan. The CIE grades O-levels on a sixpoint scale from A to E where A stands for the highest and E shows the lowest point. According to the Pakistan Exams & Refund Policy Manual 2021-2022 published by British Council, fees vary between PKR 15,750 and PKR 25,000 for each subject. Hence, O-levels are almost impossible for middleand lower-class students to choose over matriculation. Method of Analysis We identified neoliberal ideology deductively using themes from literature that helped us trace instances in the selected sample of textbooks which were analyzed with the help of Fairclough’s writings. Fairclough (2010) argues that CDA as an analysis method is designed to expose the ideology of power that has become naturalized in society and has resulted in unequal power relations. He contends that neoliberal ideology is generated through discourse and spread through language (Fairclough, 2002). In his CDA writings, discourse and society are dialectically connected, which means they influence each other. Fairclough (2010, 2014) offers a theoretical and methodological lens to examine the semiotic characteristics of neoliberal ideology. A CDA, thus, investigates how discourse produces ideological dominance, racism, sexism, economic disparity, and bias in the favor of economic privilege. In the present study, we have drawn on Fairclough’s (2001, 2015) three-dimensional model (see Fig 1) to analyze the textbooks in terms of tracing neoliberal ideological instances. 7 Fig 1 Fairclough’s three-dimensional framework Through Fairclough's three-dimensional model, we seek to deconstruct the exploitative power relations mediated by language. The analysis of the text is done at three levels: description, interpretation, and the explanation. The first stage requires the analysis of word choices, grammar, and structure of text that are ideologically determined (Fairclough, 2001). The second stage deals with the pragmatic processes, commonsense assumptions, background knowledge involving the text and the text producer. The explanation takes into account the larger socio-political interventions involved in text production (see Fairclough, 2001, 2015). A detailed description of how the model was used can be found in our analysis. As the threedimensional model is a very detailed framework, we have not used all categories in the current study. As a result, we have chosen categories that are appropriate for our data. For example, experiential, expressive and relational values of the formal features of the language are combined with the pragmatic processes e.g., context, presupposition, frame, script, topic etc. and larger socio-political aspects of the social order underpinned by neoliberal ideology. As Fairclough (2001) pointed out, the method is not a holy writ; its use is determined by the data and questions that guide the study. Results and Discussion The findings of the current study are presented in the form of themes that have emerged from our analysis of the data. The table 2 and 3 show the percentage of each theme collected based on the total excerpts found in the selected textbooks reflectively followed by the detailed discussion of the themes in the light of Fairclough’s CDA writings and existing literature on neoliberal ideology in the textbooks. Table 2 Oxford Progressive English (OPE-9) themes Table 3 Oxford Progressive English (OPE-10) themes Marketization/Branding/Consumerism The market is at the heart of neoliberal ideology. In a market-driven discourse, consumerism is naturally elevated above other social ideals (Babaii and Sheikhi 2018, p. 261). It is through this market logic that everything worth making a profit is transformed into a brand to be consumed regardless of its necessity and true value to people (Fairclough, 2005). In neoliberal era, the public has evolved from being ‘active citizens’ to being ‘passive self-interest consumers.’ In Excerpts (1), (2), & (3), we have identified instances of market-driven discourse, branding, and consumerism extracted from the selected English language textbooks for the purpose of our analysis. 1. With advance sales of 350,000 on Amazon UK and delivery planned for 500,000 copies UK-wide, marketing hype had forecast that HP6 would be the Books Sensation of All Time. OPE-9, p.21 2. Harry Potter merchandise refers to all the things to be bought in the shops which are a spin-off, or connected with, Harry Potter books, such as toys, games, clothes, rucksacks and so on. Such merchandise nets or gains enormous sums of money for books, such as the Harry Potter ones. OPE-9, p.23 3. In what way can Harry Potter be considered similar to the world-famous food chain, McDonald's? OPE-9, p.23 8 The three excerpts refer to the world-famous 'Harry Potter' book series. This series is valued in pure market terms in excerpt 1. As such, the text producer reiterates that Harry Potter's series is the best-selling book of all time. Bourdieu (1998) considers this as incontestable market logic. Book marketing in neoliberalism extends beyond selling copies furthering the concept of ‘branding’ with other materials to be sold in conjunction with books (see Fairclough, 2005, for branding in neoliberalism). Excerpt 2 illustrates this market rationality. Branding and consumerism are direct results of book marketing. According to Fairclough (2002), text producers can reinforce their stance by rewording, overwording, and utilizing synonyms. The same technique is used here to highlight similar products and their results. A word like 'enormous' shows the text's evaluation of reality, what Fairclough calls 'expressive value' attached to formal language features (Fairclough, 2015, p. 135). It builds an impression about a certain amount of money to make an impression on readers. The money-making argument in text (2) is framed within the context of market logic, in which books are valued according to how much money they make. Babaii & Sheikhi (2018) contend that anything related to monetary gain and employment is valuable in a market-driven society. As a result of marketization, Mumby (2016) notes that some (branded) commodities become famous labels. A consumer's devotion to a brand is seen as a natural emotion. As Gauthier et al., (2013, p. 11) contend privatization policies and deregulation of public space, media, and institutions have resulted in brands being present everywhere, including in schools, museums, and other public places. In this vein, textbooks contribute significantly to this "normalizing" process in the ELT sector. As shown in excerpt 3, the Harry Potter book series is compared to one of the biggest food chain brands. The sentence mode is 'interrogative'. This results in the interpreter's response as simply elaborating the text producer's experiential value (Fairclough, 2015, p. 150). It is presupposed that the interpreter is familiar with the large western food-chain MacDonalds, so she can easily compare it to Harry Potter (see Fairclough, 2015, p.164, for presupposition). MacDonalds and Harry Potter are tied together to reinforce their value in neoliberal market. Likewise, neoliberalism values even pets for their financial benefits. Holmes is the name of the animal in Excerpt 4. The buffalo owner speaks for his animal purposefully, eliding human agency (Fairclough, 2015, p.140) for the fate of these animals to be exploited for profit. This text enacts a relation of the animal in the neoliberal market business by overemphasizing the use of terms like 'star' and 'buffalo meat business' ultimately leading to its consumption. 4. But Holmes will never end up as bison burgers. He’s got his future mapped out. He’s become a star in the buffalo meat business OPE-9, p.54 Excerpt 5 blow discusses one of the main tactics of neoliberalism, namely the division of people into winners and losers based on ‘skills.’ 5. The top 1 percent of a country's population can today capture 18 per cent, or even more, of the national income. This is the Winner Take All economy where small differences in skills can mean large differences in returns. It has become possible because technology has increased the size of the market that can be served by a single person or firm. OPE -9, p.26 The text employs ‘can’ as an expressive modality (Fairclough, 2015, p. 144) showing how the writer is offering one interpretation of reality with almost authority over the truth by establishing a relation between national income and ‘skills’ that best suit to the neoliberal forces, e.g., technology. 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