The Status and Terminology of the Hungarian Legal and Administrative Language

Terminologija / Terminology 2025, vol. 32, pp. 1–21 Contents link / Turinio nuoroda ISSN 2669-2198 (online / elektroninis) Copyright © 2025 Ágota Fóris and Ádám Rixer. Published by the Institute of the Lithuanian Language. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Licence, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. // Išleido Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Šis straipsnis yra atviros prieigos, platinamas pagal „Creative Commons‚ priskyrimo licencijos sąlygas, leidžiančias neribotai naudoti, platinti ir atkurti turinį bet kokioje laikmenoje, nurodant autorių ir šaltinį. Received: / Gauta: 2025-09-19. Accepted: / Priimta: 2025-10-14. 1 THE STATUS AND TERMINOLOGY OF THE HUNGARIAN LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LANGUAGE 1 Vengrų teisinės ir administracinės kalbos statusas bei terminija ÁGOTA FÓRIS Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, Hungary E-mail: [email protected]u ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7599-0323 Fields of research: Applied linguistics, Terminology, Professional communication. ÁDÁM RIXER Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, Hungary E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6945-0312 Fields of research: Jurisprudence, Administrative law. https://doi.org/10.35321/term32-03 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ABSTRACT The aim of the article is to provide an overview of the Hungarian legal and administrative language and terminology, including the language of academic publications, higher education and legislation, moreover, the article presents the outline of the planned Hungarian terminology strategy, the status and the state of the terminology of the Hungarian legal and administrative language. The research method is a review and evaluation based on published articles and discussions within the framework of the project. We suggest that according to technical standards and terminology recommendations, terminology should be published in open terminology databases, because terminology databases are important tools for promoting national harmonization of terminology. Above all, it would be essential to link the legal and administrative terminology strategy to the general Hungarian terminology strategy. Since the language of 1 This research was supported by the project titled ‚Is there a need for legal and administrative language reform in Hungary? Developing a terminology strategy for legal and administrative language‛ by the Faculty of Law at the Károli Gáspár University of the Reformed Church in Hungary, between 2022 and 2024. 2 science in Hungary is bilingual, Hungarian and English, we suggest preparing a terminology strategy covering both languages for law and administration faculties and universities, and to shift towards additive bilingualism. KEYWORDS: language policy and planning, terminology strategy, Hungarian terminology strategy, legal and administrative language, clear communication. ANOTACIJA Šio straipsnio tikslas – apžvelgti vengrų teisinę ir administracinę kalbą bei terminologiją, įskaitant mokslinių publikacijų, aukštojo mokslo ir teisės aktų kalbą. Be to, straipsnyje pristatomi planuojamos vengrų terminologijos strategijos apmatai ir vengrų teisinės bei administracinės kalbos terminijos statusas ir būklė. Tyrimo metodas – apžvalga ir vertinimas, grindžiami publikuotais straipsniais ir diskusijomis projekto kontekste. Remiantis techniniais standartais ir terminologinėmis rekomendacijomis, terminus siūloma skelbti atvirose terminų duomenų bazėse, nes šios bazės yra svarbus įrankis, skatinantis derinti terminiją nacionaliniu mastu. Ypač svarbu susieti teisinės ir administracinės terminologijos strategiją su bendrąja vengrų terminologijos strategija. Kadangi mokslo kalba Vengrijoje yra dvikalbė – vengrų ir anglų kalbos, siūloma parengti abi kalbas apimančią terminologijos strategiją teisės ir administravimo fakultetams bei universitetams ir pereiti prie papildomos dvikalbystės modelio. ESMINIAI ŽODŽIAI: kalbos politika ir planavimas, terminologijos strategija, vengrų terminologijos strategija, teisinė ir administracinė kalba, aiški komunikacija. INTRODUCTION A two-year research project was conducted between 2022 and 2024 to examine and define the characteristics related to the status and corpus of legal and administrative language and terminology in Hungary (Rixer 2023). This article will first introduce terminology policy based on the relevant guidelines, as well as the background to the development of a Hungarian terminology strategy. Next, we present the purpose and methodology of the article. The section presenting the results discusses the status of Hungarian legal and administrative language, examining its use in higher education, research and legislation. In the next chapter, we will look at how plain language and better communication have been promoted, and then we will present the steps that have been taken to make legal and administrative terminology more accessible. LANGUAGE POLICY AND PLANNING, AND TERMINOLOGY POLICY The term language planning was introduced by Haugen (1959). Later, Kloss (1969) distinguished between status planning and corpus planning as hyponyms of language planning. Status planning refers to the social and legal status of a language and its functions, whereas corpus planning is concerned with the formal changes in a language (lexis, spelling, etc.). Planning involves first of all an assessment of the communication problems that require corpus planning, the strategies to overcome these difficulties and the tasks that need to be solved at the national or international level. According to Tolcsvai Nagy (2005: 233), although the development of language planning itself came from several directions, its principles have always included both status and corpus planning. The different language planning trends have built on different historical traditions and methodologies, including the practice of traditional language cultivation (see Nekvapil 2008) and the codification 3 activities of the 19th century. Gazzola et al. point out that there are many different types of language policy and planning (LPP), and that the LPP is a process and a result at the same time. The policy cycle’s stages are ‚(1) the emergence of a language issue, (2) agendasetting, (3) policy formulation and adoption, (4) implementation, and (5) evaluation of what has been done, and the results obtained‛ (Gazzola et al. 2024: 4). General language planning issues have been extended to LSP (language for special purposes) and terminology in the mother tongue. The Guidelines for terminology policies, by UNESCO (Infoterm 2005), separates general language planning from specific language planning. The guidelines on terminology policies affirm that language plays an important role in creating and sustaining a knowledge-based society and in bridging the digital divide. The digital divide co-occurs ‚with inequality of access to information and knowledge, which is in turn associated with inequality in linguistic access‛ (Infoterm 2005: V); and ‚Inadequate terminology is one key factor in the inequality of linguistic access, and it results in ‘functional illiteracy’ in the contexts of accessing information and using computers‛ (Infoterm 2005: V). BACKGOUND – DEVELOPMENT OF A HUNGARIAN TERMINOLOGY STRATEGY For decades, several international documents have highlighted the importance of terminology in multilingualism, in preserving cultural diversity and in universal access to information and knowledge. General principles for a terminology strategy were first published in international documents in the 2000s. Based on the UNESCO guidelines (Infoterm 2005), terminology policy is a set of formalized strategies for coordinating decisions and objectives, and/or the terminology of a particular social group (e.g. a particular linguistic community) or state. ‚A national terminology policy is a public strategy formulated at the level of political decision making in a country or in a more or less autonomous language community <…> with the aim of developing or regulating emerging and existing terminologies for an array of purposes‛ (Infoterm 2005: 4). Based on the relevant standard, terminology policy is a ‚set of principles and strategies used as a basis for developing and regulating terminology for a specific language(s) or domain(s)‛ (ISO 29383:2020). For the development of a general Hungarian terminology strategy, as a starting point, the UNESCO guidelines (Infoterm 2005) and the ISO standard titled ISO 29383:2020 Terminology Policies – Development and Implementation has been used. The standard provides a general guide but, as it points out in its preface, in reality no two situations are exactly the same and each nation’s or organization’s terminology strategy is necessarily unique. At the national level, a terminology policy is usually in the form of a legal document or 4 information strategy, while in smaller organizations it is usually in the form of guidelines for workflow and the use of supporting technology, often without the word terminology. Based on the UNESCO guidelines and different national practices, the preparation of a Hungarian national terminology strategy have been proposed in 2018. Representatives of scientific institutes and organizations from Hungary and abroad participated as invited speakers at the conference organized to lay the groundwork for this. Together, the conference organizers and speakers sought to cooperate and to establish a strategy and to agree on the principles that would lead to the creation of a Hungarian terminology strategy and its publication (Fóris, Bölcskei 2019b). The recommendations for the development of a Hungarian terminology strategy were formulated in this volume by the author-editors. They are:  ‚Publishing a medium-term (4 to 10 years) strategic plan, a so-called ‘Green Paper’ which can open the debate, in order to prepare a document about the terminology strategy plans. Pursuant to Section 38 of Government Decree 38/2012. (III. 12.) on strategic government administration, the Green Paper draws attention to the most important, unresolved questions of terminology as a policy area and initiates that the bodies concerned address the issues within the framework of the strategic control of the government.  Preparing a so-called draft plan on terminology strategy.  Establishing an advisory board on terminology strategy.  Based on the feedback from formulating and publishing the terminology strategy draft plan: finalizing a detailed terminology strategy plan and programme.  Launching the Hungarian National Terminology Portal.  Designing the Hungarian National Terminology Database and drawing up its cost plan, material and human resource prerequisites‛ (Fóris, Bölcskei 2019a: 18). A few years after, following these recommendations, the HUN-REN Hungarian Research Centre for Linguistics 2 has already been the recipient of two grants in this area and has published a Green Paper (Prószéky et al. 2023; www.nytud.hu) containing strategic terminology studies of Hungarian terminologists. The Green Paper consists of four parts: 1. General issues of terminology strategy; 2. Specific issues of terminology strategy; 3. Standards and spelling; 4. Bibliography. In Part IV, at the end of the book, a selected bibliography on terminology strategy has been published, a collection of literature focusing on the general principles and methods of terminology strategy, organized around the following four themes: principles of terminology strategy; terminology database design; national public terminology databases and portals in Europe and major international terminology databases; publicly available language databases containing Hungarian terms – 2 From 1 August 2025: ELTE Research Centre for Linguistics. 5 availability data, characteristics (Fóris et al. 2023; about the Hungarian linguistic corpora and databases, national and European projects, see the book summarizing the results achieved with the lead of Tamás Váradi (Dodé, Ludányi 2021)). Although Gazzola et al. (2024: 1) locate ‚language policy and planning first and foremost as a responsibility of governments (at the national, regional, local, and potentially international level) and relevant bodies across all areas of public policy‛, in Hungary, a comprehensive, explicit language policy prepared by the government does not exist yet. However, in our view, a public body such as the Hungarian Academy of Sciences (www.mta.hu) – in continuous cooperation with the relevant sectors, universities and terminology organizations 3 – could be suitable to manage it. The remaining recommendations, such as the establishment of a national terminology database and portal, were implemented within the framework of the Hungarian national terminology strategy, which aimed to create the Hungarian National Terminology Database and a terminology portal (Fóris 2024a; publications on this topic from the previous year have been compiled into a book: Fóris 2025). PURPOSE AND METHODOLOGY This article aims to provide an overview of Hungarian legal and administrative language and terminology, including that used in academic publications, higher education and legislation. This overview is based on the results of a two-year research project conducted between 2022 and 2024. The research uses a case study methodology to provide an in-depth content analysis of the subject within its real-world context. The review and summary of results involve presenting a comprehensive overview of the data collected from multiple sources, analysing it to identify key themes and patterns, and synthesising these findings into a detailed description. The analysis is based on published articles and discussions within the project framework, as well as literature on legal and administrative language and terminology, and academic and professional websites and monographs (synthesis and analysis of previous research). STATUS OF THE HUNGARIAN LEGAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE LANGUAGE The Legal and Administrative Language in Higher Education While it is widely acknowledged that law and language are intertwined (e.g., Karpen, Xanthaki 2017; Tiersma, Solan 2021; Biel, Kockaert 2023; Engberg 2023; Drinóczi et al. 2025), with law being implementable through language, it is noteworthy that Hungarian 3 Such as the Council of Hungarian Terminology, MaTT, www.matt.hu. 6 universities rarely offer courses dedicated to legal language or communication. The following section will examine several characteristics of law education. Hungarian is the language of instruction at the eight law faculties and at the Ludovika University of Public Service in the Hungarian higher education. On the one hand, the topic of language and law started to be discussed in higher education, books about law and literature were published, courses have been introduced in Hungarian in all law faculties (Rixer 2012): for example at the Faculty of Law of Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest (ELTE) there has been a ‘Law and Literature’ course since 2017 and at the Faculty of Law of the Károli Gáspár University (KRE) since 2019 (see Fekete 2018). The Faculty of Law of ELTE has also been hosting a podcast titled ‘Law and Literature’ on the university radio for several years. The number of moot court competitions for students is increasing (Rixer 2024) both in Hungarian and English, and these competitions have quickly become popular among students. On the other hand, only four of the eight Hungarian law faculties offer rhetoric or legal communication courses integrated into the curriculum. For example, ‘Legal reasoning and communication’ is a compulsory course at the Faculty of Law of the University of Miskolc; likewise, ‘Legal Reasoning and Legal Rhetoric’ is a compulsory course at the Faculty of Law of the Pázmány Péter Catholic University, and ‘Legal Communication’ at the Faculty of Law of the University of Pécs. There is no specific course on linguistics or terminology in law schools, although linguistic analysis is one of the basic skills for legal work. One of the essential elements of the relationship between law and language (beyond the fact that all legal instruments are expressed in language) is that the first step in the interpretation of legislation and individual decisions is always the so-called grammatical interpretation that means analysing the words, expressions, concepts and phrases in legislation and individual decisions based on grammatical rules and semantics, and comparing them with the historical facts of the given case to be evaluated. The question arises whether, if linguistic analysis and legal terminology is such a central part of the legal profession, it is not justified to teach legal and administrative LSP or legal terminology as a separate subject at university level legal education. We do not see any examples of this in Hungary: the relevant knowledge is traditionally ‘dispersed’ between the various subjects (Introduction to law, Legal history, Legal communication, Legislative theory, and dogmatic knowledge of the various branches of law) (e.g. Drinóczi, Novák 2015). However, clear and accessible communication is considered by several authors as an ethical requirement and is incorporated into the curriculum of ethics courses in legal education (Tóth 2017; Németh 2022). Legislative knowledge is usually taught in law faculties in Hungary as part of the basic legal courses (e.g. Introduction to Law, Constitutional Law), but this is only one of many topics in these courses, and the linguistic context is also very limited. Recognizing this, most institutions offer courses in Legislative Studies (Jogalkotástan, e.g. Faculty of Law of KRE) or Legislative Theory (Törvényhozástan, e.g. Faculty of Law of the University of 7 Pécs) as compulsory or optional subjects, where the linguistic issues and contexts are also more widely covered. More in-depth courses are available in the form of Postgraduate Training Programs for law degree holders (szakjogász szakirányú továbbképzés): the Faculty of Law of the Pázmány Péter Catholic University offers further training in Public Service Regulation and Codification in Hungarian (közszolgálati szabályozási és kodifikációs szakjogász szakirányú továbbképzés), and in 2024, the Széchenyi István University of Győr launched a Postgraduate Training Program in Law and Governance in English. Among the accredited Postgraduate Training Programs, there used to be a specialized Legislative Drafting Training for Local Level in Hungarian (helyi jogszabály-szerkesztő szakjogász szakirányú továbbképzés), which has not been offered for some time. In higher education in the field of public administration (Ludovika University of Public Service, Faculty of Public Governance), legislative issues are emphasized in a compulsory core subject (Szabályozás és kodifikáció, in English: Regulation and Codification), but even within this, the language section is of minor importance. Overall, it can be said that teaching Hungarian legal and administrative language is not a priority in the training of lawyers and public administrators in Hungary. Of course, the situation of the Hungarian legal and administrative language is also significantly influenced by the fact that, partly due to ERASMUS cooperations, Stipendium Hungaricum Scholarships, and partly due to the implicit language strategy of the government and universities, the number of courses offered in English (and less frequently in German and French) is growing at law and administration faculties; the number of English-language postgraduate training programs and the number of English-language doctoral courses have also increased significantly in the last decade. Nine Hungarian universities have doctoral schools of law, and one university has a doctoral school of public administration (www.doktori.hu), and officially Hungarian is the language of instruction in most of them, however, doctoral students are generally expected to be able to publish in English, and there is the possibility (and practice) to write theses in English and attend classes in English. (One of these Universities is the Andrássy Gyula University, where the language of instruction is German.) Therefore, in addition to Hungarian, English has also become important in academic writing and legislation. It is also becoming the language of instruction in many Hungarian universities, as English Medium Instruction (EMI). The Legal and Administrative Language in Research and Publications There have been significant changes in academic research recently, affecting the status and use of legal language. A decade ago, it was easy to make a list of studies and monographs written by Hungarian authors in foreign languages in certain areas of law and on certain topics (Rixer 2013). By today, publishing in English and international research collaborations have become common. Several handbooks have been published in English, one of them is about Hungarian public administration reform from 2010 under the Magyary 8 Zoltán Public Administration Development Program (Patyi, Rixer 2014). In the case of publications written in a foreign language, even basic terms and concepts (e.g. the use of the term közigazgatási eljárásjogi ügyfél, ‘party to an administrative authority procedure’) require a special explanation. English language publications can play a major role in the more consistent use of English in the Hungarian academic sphere, and the description of the terminology and conceptual system of the Hungarian legal and administrative language in English. Rixer (2013: 7) already noted a decade ago that English has taken over the role of the former Latin, German and Russian languages in becoming a mediating language in Hungary, not only in understanding neighbouring people, but also in a wide range of sciences and academic disciplines, including law and public administration (although it is still not exclusive, of course). He also pointed out that in the case of English-language publications, terminological and conceptual consistency is often lacking; and a Hungarian and English dictionary of public law and administration would be necessary. He drew attention to the need for the development of the Hungarian administrative law doctrine, because a coherent, clear and transparent use of administrative (legal) terminology is a prerequisite for greater involvement in the international governance literature (Rixer 2013: 21–22). Contemporary discourse has highlighted the necessity of a legal terminology database, which replaces the need for a dictionary. Today, considering the recommendations of the terminology strategy, and in line with the opinion of Drinóczi and Novák (2015), we conclude that there is a need for terminological and conceptual harmonization of the administrative law, first of all to build a terminology database and to publish the Hungarian terms, concepts and the conceptual network of administrative law with English equivalents. Terminology databases are important tools for promoting national harmonization of terminology and for the rapid and consistent publication of newly adopted terms. Nowadays, the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and the Hungarian universities consider publishing in English to be the most important, and among the various academic career requirements, publications and citations in English are of greater value than those in Hungarian. The question is: what impact this change will have on the use of Hungarian legal and administrative language, despite the professional advantages and international benefits that result from it? At present, it seems that at academic level, legal and administrative language use has already become bilingual: Hungarian and English, but the question is whether the language of legislature and of administration and governance has already reached Hungarian and English bilingualism? The Hungarian Academy of Sciences has acknowledged the situation as well. Since its foundation in 1825, one of its key missions has been promoting the use of the Hungarian language. In 2023 the Academy launched a public online discussion forum about Hungarian as a language of science. The main conclusions of the discussion forum have been published on the Academy’s website: the Academy continues to consider the Hungarian language and 9 Hungarian LSP’s as a matter of national strategic importance; supports the bilingual use of Hungarian and English in science, i.e. scientific bilingualism; prefers supporting the Hungarian language primarily in the form of digital support; and it also argues for the importance of English in sciences (MTAMN). However, some Hungarian linguists argue that the Academy actually does little to support the use of Hungarian as a scientific and academic language (Ferenc 2018; Kontra 2025). In other words, the shift towards bilingualism seems to favour subtractive bilingualism rather than additive bilingualism, while the latter would be more appropriate (see Lambert 1981; Phillipson 2003; Kontra 2025). The Legal and Administrative Language in Legislation The changing circumstances intensify, and even make inevitable, the enforcement of the requirement of norm clarity in the Hungarian legal and administrative language, i.e. the demand to satisfy the need for normative and specific legal acts to be as comprehensible, simple and transparent as possible. The growing demands and expectations in this respect are perhaps linked to the fact that the lack of clarity of legal norms has become not only a source of inconvenience but also a slowing factor and a threat to modern market economies and participatory mass democracies. The real accessibility of legal texts is a (pre)condition for exercising many fundamental rights, and the accessibility of legal sources is also a constitutional mandate, but there is no consensus on how to prescribe/regulate, measure, and enforce accessibility, thereby improving access to texts. Decree 61/2009. (XII. 14.) of the Minister of Justice and Law Enforcement on the Drafting of Legislation in Hungary states that draft legislation must be worded in accordance with the rules of the Hungarian language, in a clear, comprehensible and consistent manner (Section 2). In her research, Judit Tóth shows that the requirement of clarity is formulated as an expectation in a total of 270 sources of law in the Hungarian legal system, but its content – what this means – is completely lacking in the legal texts examined (Tóth 2023: 157). It is also important to note that the newer and newer waves of deregulation (in Hungary, on average every 4–5 years) do not usually contain explicit linguistic objectives. 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