psyg-15-1499295 Decembe 27, 2024 Time: 16:23 # 1
TYPE O iginal Resea ch
PUBLISHED 07 Janua y 2025
DOI 10.3389/ psyg.2024.1499295
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Ralph E ich Schmid ,
Uni e si y o Gene a, Swi ze land
REVIEWED BY
Judi h Meije ,
Uni e si y o Humanis ic S udies, Ne he lands
Johannes Due Ens ad,
No wegian Ins i u e o Social Resea ch (ISF),
No way
*CORRESPONDENCE
Mao Shani
mao [email p o ec ed]
RECEIVED 20 Sep embe 2024
ACCEPTED 17 Decembe 2024
PUBLISHED 07 Janua y 2025
CITATION
Shani M, Goldbe g D and an Zalk MHW
(2025) “I you p ick us, do we no bleed?”
An isemi ism and psychosocial heal h
among Jews in Ge many.
F on . Psychol. 15:1499295.
doi: 10.3389/ psyg.2024.1499295
COPYRIGHT
© 2025 Shani, Goldbe g and an Zalk. This is
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License (CC BY). The use, dis ibu ion o
ep oduc ion in o he o ums is pe mi ed,
p o ided he o iginal au ho (s) and he
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p ac ice. No use, dis ibu ion o ep oduc ion
is pe mi ed which does no comply wi h
hese e ms.
“I you p ick us, do we no
bleed?” An isemi ism and
psychosocial heal h among Jews
in Ge many
Mao Shani*, Dana Goldbe g and Maa en H. W. an Zalk
Depa men o De elopmen al Psychology, Ins i u e o Psychology, Osnab ück Uni e si y,
Osnab ück, Ge many
In oduc ion: Amid escala ing global an isemi ism, pa icula ly ollowing he
Hamas a ack on Is ael on Oc obe 7, 2023, his s udy add esses c i ical gaps in
unde s anding he psychosocial impac o an isemi ism on Jewish communi ies
wo ldwide.
Me hods: Focusing on he Jewish communi y in Ge many, we conduc ed a
c oss-sec ional su ey o 420 Jewish indi iduals (mean age = 40.71 yea s, SD
= 15.90; 57% emale). Pa icipan s comple ed measu es assessing ou dis inc
o ms o pe cei ed and expe ienced an isemi ism: e e yday disc imina ion,
mic oagg essions (sub le an isemi ism and collec i e expe iences such as
encoun e ing an isemi ic commen s on social media), igilance agains
an isemi ism, and pe cei ed p e alence o an isemi ism. Psychosocial
ou comes—including dep ession, anxie y, subjec i e well-being, and social
pa icipa ion—we e also measu ed. Da a we e analyzed using co ela ion
analyses and mul iple linea eg essions, and La en P o ile Analysis (LPA)
iden i ied dis inc g oups based on sha ed pe cep ions and expe iences o
an isemi ism and le els o Jewish iden i ica ion.
Resul s: Resul s indica e ha expe iences o an isemi ism, pa icula ly e e yday
disc imina o y ac s, we e signi ican ly associa ed wi h poo e men al heal h
ou comes and educed social pa icipa ion. The LPA e ealed h ee dis inc
g oups, wi h he high-iden i y, high-an isemi ism g oup (53% o he sample)
epo ing signi ican ly highe anxie y le els han hose wi h a e age iden i ica ion
and mo e a e expe ience wi h an isemi ism.
Discussion: These indings unde sco e he pe asi e na u e o an isemi ism
and i s de imen al e ec s on he well-being o Jewish indi iduals. The
s udy highligh s he need o a ge ed in e en ions o p omo e esilience
wi hin Jewish communi ies and calls o b oade socie al e o s o comba
an isemi ism.
KEYWORDS
an isemi ism, pe cei ed disc imina ion, acism- ela ed s ess, Jewish iden i y,
mic oagg essions
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1 In oduc ion
An isemi ic inciden s ha e su ged wo ldwide, inc easing by
235% in 2023, pa icula ly in he Uni ed S a es and Eu ope (An i-
De ama ion League, 2024). Following he Hamas a ack on Is ael
on 7 Oc obe 2023, he Ge man Associa ion o Resea ch and
In o ma ion on An isemi ism (RIAS) documen ed 994 an isemi ic
inciden s in Ge many be ween Oc obe 7 and No embe 9—a 320%
inc ease o e he same pe iod in 2022 (Fische and We zels, 2024).
These inciden s, anging om iolence and p ope y damage o
h ea s and o ensi e beha io , ha e e oded he Jewish communi y’s
sense o sa e y. A 2024 epo by he Eu opean Union Agency
o Fundamen al Righ s ound ha 77% o Jewish esponden s
in Ge many iewed public hos ili y owa d Jews as a signi ican
p oblem, wi h 52% pe sonally expe iencing an isemi ism in public
spaces (Eu opean Union Agency o Fundamen al Righ s, 2024).
Gi en his ala ming si ua ion, i is c ucial o ask: wha a e he
consequences o an isemi ism? A he socie al le el, an isemi ism—
like o he o ms o acial disc imina ion and bigo y—may
damage social cohesion, educing us and coope a ion among
communi y membe s (Bonick, 2021). In Ge many, i hinde s
econcilia ion wi h he pas and he commi men o Holocaus
ememb ance and nu u ing Jewish li e (Jikeli, 2020). F om
a human igh s pe spec i e, an isemi ism in inges upon basic
eedoms, including eedom o eligion, equali y, and he
abili y o p ac ice cul u al li e ee om ha assmen (OHCHR,
2019). Impo an ly, an isemi ism may de imen ally a ec ic ims’
e e yday li es, psychological heal h, and wellbeing. Pe sis en
exposu e may lead o ch onic s ess, anxie y, and dep ession among
Jewish indi iduals, po en ially impac ing hei o e all quali y o
li e (Ha ell, 2000;Rosen e al., 2018). The ea o an isemi ism
can esul in beha io al changes, such as concealing one’s Jewish
iden i y o a oiding public spaces, leading o social isola ion
and educed pa icipa ion in communi y li e (Himmels ein e al.,
2015;Wa son-Single on e al., 2019). These e ec s may ex end
beyond he indi idual, in luencing amily dynamics, ca ee choices,
and esiden ial decisions, he eby shaping he b oade Jewish
expe ience in con empo a y socie y.
Indeed, ex ensi e social psychology esea ch shows ha ch onic
exposu e o disc imina ion among s igma ized g oups is linked
o maladap i e physiological ou comes like high blood p essu e,
obesi y, and diabe es (Pascoe and Richman, 2009;Lee and Ahn,
2012). I also a ec s psychosocial heal h, including dep ession,
anxie y, social in e ac ions, subjec i e wellbeing (SWB), and sel -
es eem (Pascoe and Richman, 2009;Schmi e al., 2014;Pa adies
e al., 2015;Williams e al., 2019;P ies e al., 2021;Emme
e al., 2024). The heo y o acism- ela ed s ess posi s ha acism,
whe he pe cei ed o eal, ac s as a ch onic psychological s esso ,
de imen ally impac ing bo h men al and physical heal h o e ime
(Ha ell, 2000;Ong e al., 2009;O’Conno e al., 2021;Ahuja and
Haeny, 2024). Racial s igma spans social con ex s and can be a
sou ce o de alua ion (Mille and Kaise , 2001). Repea ed exposu e
o acism may lead o ch onic o e ac i a ion o s ess pa hways,
con ibu ing o me abolic issues ha impai de elopmen and
po en ially cause ea ly aging, hea disease, and o he illnesses
(Sel a ajah e al., 2022). No ably, e en mic oagg essions—sub le
and some imes unin en ional disc imina ion—can cause ch onic
s ess ha nega i ely a ec s men al heal h and quali y o li e,
indica ing poo psychological adjus men (Hu and Taylo , 2016;
Lui and Quezada, 2019). These e ec s ha e been obse ed ac oss
a ious mino i y g oups, al hough mos esea ch has ocused on
Ame ican mino i ies like Blacks, La inos, and Asians.
Despi e a g owing body o esea ch on he ou comes o acism,
ela i ely li le is known abou he impac o an isemi ism on Jewish
communi ies ac oss he diaspo a (Ens ad, 2023;Walke e al.,
2024). This gap is no able, gi en ha esea ch consis en ly shows
Jews epo signi ican ly highe ea o ic imiza ion compa ed
o o he eligious g oups (Ens ad, 2024;Schei le e al., 2023).
Using da a om he EU Fundamen al Righ s Agency’s 2018
su ey, Ens ad (2024) ound ha highe pe cei ed p e alence o
socie al an isemi ism s ongly p edic s expe iences o an isemi ic
ic imiza ion, including ha assmen and iolence. Fu he mo e,
coun y-le el un a o able opinions o Is ael and he p esence
o la ge Muslim popula ions we e iden i ied as p edic o s o
inc eased expe iences and pe cep ions o an isemi ic ic imiza ion,
suppo ing he concep o “new an isemi ism.”
Se e al ac o s con ibu e o his esea ch gap. Fi s , pe cei ing
Jews as “whi e” in ace, class, and cul u e has led o hei
exclusion om co e analyses in acism esea ch. This “passing” as
whi e, while some imes seen as ad an ageous, pa adoxically uels
an isemi ic a i udes iewing Jews as pa o an undese ed eli e
(S ein e al., 2024). Second, he misconcep ion o an isemi ism
as a his o ical a i ac wi h li le con empo a y ele ance pe sis s,
despi e he cu en su ge in an i-Jewish he o ic and ha e c imes
(K essel and K essel, 2016). Thi d, he complexi y and e ol ing
na u e o an isemi ism ac oss socie al segmen s p esen s signi ican
me hodological challenges o esea che s (Salzbo n e al., 2011).
Las ly, ongoing deba es abou wha cons i u es an isemi ism,
pa icula ly ega ding he Is aeli–Pales inian con lic and he
concep o “New an isemi ism,” ha e poli icized he opic, making
i con en ious e en in schola ly ields (Waxman e al., 2022).
We adop ed Zick e al.’s (2011) de ini ion o an isemi ism as
“a social p ejudice di ec ed agains Jews simply because hey a e
Jewish.” This de ini ion p o ides a b oad socio-psychological lens
o examining he associa ions be ween pe cei ed o expe ienced
an isemi ism and psychosocial heal h, ocusing on indi idual
pe cep ions and esponses. Howe e , we also ecognize he
impo ance o de ini ions ha add ess he speci ic con empo a y
mani es a ions o an isemi ism, such as he In e na ional Holocaus
Rememb ance Alliance (IHRA) de ini ion. The IHRA de ini ion
delinea es explici examples o an isemi ism, including Holocaus
denial, conspi acy heo ies, and an i-Is ael he o ic (Wei zman,
2019). We u ilized his discou se-speci ic IHRA de ini ion o
cons uc measu emen i ems e lec ing con empo a y exp essions
o an isemi ism (see below).
Pe cei ed an isemi ism, adap ed om de ini ions o pe cei ed
disc imina ion (Pascoe and Richman, 2009;Schmi e al.,
2014;Williams and Mohammed, 2009), e e s o he subjec i e
expe ience o being ea ed un ai ly, excluded, o denig a ed
because one’s Jewish iden i y. Building on Zick e al.’s (2011)
de ini ion, pe cei ed an isemi ism encompasses indi iduals’
in e p e a ions o beha io s, belie s, o ins i u ional p ac ices ha
hey a ibu e o an isemi ic bias. This de ini ion acknowledges
ha he psychosocial e ec s o an isemi ism depend on he ic im’s
pe cep ion o disc imina ion, ega dless o he pe pe a o ’s
in en o whe he he inciden aligns wi h socie al de ini ions o
an isemi ism. Consequen ly, he e ms “pe cei ed an isemi ism”
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and “expe ienced an isemi ism” a e used in e changeably
h oughou his a icle o e lec he subjec i e na u e o hese
epo s. While we si ua e pe cei ed an isemi ism wi hin heo e ical
amewo ks on acial disc imina ion, we also emphasize ha
an isemi ism possesses unique his o ical, cul u al, and social
cha ac e is ics, as well as dis inc i e con empo a y exp essions, as
highligh ed in ongoing academic deba es (e.g., Cousin and Fine,
2012;Yu al-Da is, 2024). Ne e heless, we belie e ha es ablished
heo e ical models linking expe iences o acism o psychosocial
heal h ou comes, such as acism- ela ed s ess (Ha ell, 2000),
mino i y s ess heo y (Meye , 2003), and linked li es heo y (Elde
e al., 2003), o e aluable insigh s in o he e ec s o an isemi ism.
These amewo ks ha e been success ully applied ac oss mul iple
o ms o disc imina ion, including an isemi ism (e.g., Rosen e al.,
2018;T ilesnik e al., 2022).
Despi e limi ed esea ch, some ecen s udies ha e examined
he psychological impac o an isemi ism. In he Uni ed S a es,
di ec expe iences o an isemi ism ha e been linked o lowe
li e sa is ac ion, dec eased wellbeing, educed sel -es eem, and
la ge nega i e a ec (Al man, 2011;Chase, 2018;Rosen e al.,
2018). Such expe iences also s ongly p edic eelings o being an
ou side wi hin one’s communi y (Alpe and Olson, 2011) and
co ela e wi h highe le els o dep ession and a g ea e p opensi y
o su i o guil (Kosdon e al., 2021). Howe e , ins umen s
like he An isemi ism-Rela ed S ess In en o y—which combine
exposu e equency and s ess eac ions—make i challenging o
isola e he speci ic impac on wellbeing (Pa adies e al., 2015). In
Canada, bo h explici and ambiguous disc imina ion ha e been
ound o p edic inc eased dep essi e symp oms among Jewish
indi iduals (Ma heson e al., 2019). Simila ly, in Aus alia, conce ns
abou an isemi ism and Is ael ollowing auma ic e en s we e
posi i ely ela ed o inc eased anxie y, media ing he impac o
exposu e o g aphic and dis essing con en on social media
(Bankie -Ka p and G aham, 2024). Al hough Ge man s udies a e
ewe , hey e eal compa able pa e ns: expe iences o an isemi ism
a e associa ed wi h heigh ened wo ies, ea s, and pe cei ed
bu dens (Zick e al., 2017), signi ican ly limi ing indi iduals’
li es and hinde ing sel -de e mina ion (Reime -Go dinskaya and
Tzschiesche, 2021). Among Ge man and Aus ian ex-So ie
Jews, pe cei ed an isemi ism p edic s lowe quali y o li e, while
men al heal h appea s mo e ad e sely a ec ed by pe cei ed
xenophobia han by pe cei ed an isemi ism (T ilesnik e al.,
2022).
Collec i ely, hese s udies show consis en associa ions
be ween pe cei ed an isemi ism and nega i e men al heal h
ou comes among Jewish indi iduals—including dec eased li e
sa is ac ion, inc eased anxie y and dep ession, and eelings o
social exclusion. Howe e , p io esea ch p edominan ly ocused
on bla an , o e disc imina ion based on e hnic o eligious
a ilia ion. To be e cap u e con empo a y Jewish expe iences
wi h an isemi ism in Wes e n socie ies, i is necessa y o add ess
addi ional domains. Mode n an isemi ism mani es s in complex
o ms beyond di ec disc imina ion, o en appea ing as cul u al
codes, opes, o me onymical wo ld iews wi hin poli ical,
his o ical, and cul u al con ex s (Schulle , 2021). These include
conspi acy heo ies, s e eo ypes, and delegi imizing belie s abou
Is ael as a Jewish collec i i y (Wei zman, 2019). Mo eo e ,
an isemi ism equen ly appea s as sub le mic oagg essions
and collec i e-discu si e o ms, especially in online spaces and
public discou se (Becke and Bol on, 2022;Wei zman e al.,
2023).
These de elopmen s mi o he e olu ion o mode n acism
and p ejudice. Resea ch sugges s ha e hno- acial p ejudice
is nowadays mo e likely exp essed sub ly o symbolically, as
o e exp essions a e socially unaccep able (Pe ig ew and
Mee ens, 1995;Ak ami e al., 2000;S anke e al., 2024).
And s ill, ecen s udies indica ed ha sub le p ejudice is no
less ha m ul o mino i ies’ adjus men ou comes han bla an
disc imina ion (Jones e al., 2016), whe he hese ac s a e a ibu ed
by a ge s o acism (Ca e and Mu phy, 2015;Pla ow e al.,
2022) o cause s ess due o hei ambiguous in e p e a ion
(Cue as e al., 2024). In his con ex , acial mic oagg essions
a e iden i ied as sub le, indi ec exp essions o acism
(Kan e e al., 2017).
Pa allel o such sub le mani es a ions o an isemi ism, Jewish
expe iences can be a ec ed by ica ious acism—indi ec exposu e
h ough hea ing abou o wi nessing acism in one’s en i onmen
o media (Ha ell, 2000;Gee e al., 2012;Himmels ein e al.,
2015;Hea d-Ga is e al., 2018). Social iden i y heo y posi s ha
sel -image may be in luenced by collec i e sel -es eem, shaped
by pe cep ions o no ms and ou g oup e alua ions (C ocke and
Majo , 1989;Taj el and Tu ne , 2004;Liang and Fassinge , 2008).
Ac ions ha de alue o s igma ize he ing oup may nega i ely a ec
sel -concep and con ibu e o cumula i e acism- ela ed s ess
on psychosocial heal h. The heo y o linked li es sugges s ha
injus ices agains ing oup membe s lead o pe sonal dis ess (Elde
e al., 2003;Gee e al., 2012). Neu oscience e idence indica es ha
indi ec acism can ha e spillo e e ec s, ac i a ing b ain egions
associa ed wi h os acism, exclusion, and ejec ion (Mas en e al.,
2013;Be ge and Sa nyai, 2015). These no ions sugges ha acis o
auma ic e en s can impac heal h among a ge ed g oup membe s
(e.g., Tynes e al., 2019) o e en ex end beyond he immedia e
ing oup.
Finally, esea ch on mino i y s esso s has ocused on
concealing one’s iden i y o a oid ic imiza ion (e.g., Beye
e al., 2024;Meye , 2003;Lo e al., 2024). Vigilance o
acial disc imina ion in ol es heigh ened a en i eness o he
en i onmen in an icipa ion o expe iencing acism (Sawye e al.,
2012;Himmels ein e al., 2015). Beye e al. (2024) ecen ly ound
ha hiding o concealing one’s Jewish iden i y among Ge man
Jews was mo e common among young indi iduals and hose
li ing in a eas wi h highe pe cei ed Muslim popula ion, while
di ec expe iences wi h an isemi ic ha assmen was less p edic i e
o such igilance. While some imes a coping mechanism, his
igilance can lead o in ense wo y, pe sis en moni o ing, and
social a oidance— he consequences o li ing “on ale .” Du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic, wa es o acism agains Asian and
Black Ame icans showed ha igilance p ac ices independen ly
con ibu ed o acism- ela ed s ess (LaVeis e al., 2014;Chae
e al., 2021). In he con ex o an isemi ism, Jews may con end no
only wi h an isemi ic expe iences bu also wi h he an icipa ion
o such encoun e s (Reime -Go dinskaya and Tzschiesche, 2021).
This an icipa ion may lead some o conceal hei Jewish iden i y
in public, such as a oiding Jewish symbols o disguising
eligious p ac ices. Such measu es can add o an icipa o y s ess
o pe se e a i e cogni ions—ch onic wo ies and ea s—which
exace ba e he nega i e e ec s o acism- ela ed s ess on physical
and men al heal h (Sawye e al., 2012).
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In conclusion, gi en his complexi y in con empo a y
p ejudice, i is c ucial o examine bo h o e disc imina o y ac s
and sub le, collec i e o ms o an isemi ism o ully unde s and
hei psychological impac on Jewish indi iduals and communi ies.
A comp ehensi e app oach is he e o e essen ial o cap u ing
he unique cha ac e is ics o con empo a y an isemi ism and i s
po en ial e ec s on men al heal h and social beha io .
1.1 The p esen s udy
This s udy aims o ill esea ch gaps on pe cei ed and
expe ienced an isemi ism and i s ou comes by conduc ing a c oss-
sec ional analysis among Jews li ing in Ge many. Nea ly eigh
decades a e he all o he Thi d Reich, he Jewish communi y in
Ge many numbe s abou 100,000 indi iduals—ba ely 0.2% o he
popula ion—wi h many immig an s om he o me So ie Union
(Gelle and Meng, 2020). As an isemi ic inciden s ise globally,
unde s anding hei psychological oll becomes inc easingly
c ucial. This unde s anding can in o m a ge ed in e en ions o
mi iga e nega i e psychological consequences like anxie y, s ess,
and social wi hd awal (Eu opean Union Agency o Fundamen al
Righ s, 2024), aise awa eness among policymake s o e ec i e
p e en ion s a egies, and p o ide insigh s in o esilience ac o s
applicable o comba ing o he o ms o disc imina ion. Gi en
Ge many’s unique his o ical con ex , unde s anding con empo a y
an isemi ism is essen ial o add essing he Holocaus ’s legacy and
ensu ing he sa e y and wellbeing o Jewish communi ies.
The main objec i e was o examine ela ionships be ween
pe cep ions and expe iences o an isemi ism and indica o s o
psychosocial heal h. In ou heo e ical e iew, we emphasized
he impo ance o conside ing a ious o ms o an isemi ic
disc imina ion, as di e en ypes o expe iences can ha e dis inc
psychological impac s (Pa adies e al., 2015;Williams e al.,
2019;Zick e al., 2017). T adi ionally, esea ch has ocused
on o e , bla an disc imina ion based on e hnic o eligious
a ilia ion, which we ope a ionalized as pe cei ed an isemi ic
disc imina ion o e e yday an isemi ism, adap ed om “e e yday
acism” scales (Williams e al., 1997). Howe e , ecen li e a u e
highligh s he signi icance o sub le o ms o disc imina ion, such
as mic oagg essions, which can be equally ha m ul o men al heal h
(Jones e al., 2016;Sue, 2010). Based on Sue’s (2010) amewo k,
we dis inguished be ween wo ypes o mic oagg essions: sub le
an isemi ism, which a e co e , some imes au oma ic esponses
om non-Jews elying on s e eo ypes and p ejudice; and collec i e
an isemi ism, in ol ing de alua ions and an isemi ic exp essions
communica ed publicly wi hou di ec ly a ge ing indi iduals,
such as exposu e o an isemi ic ha e speech online. These
o ms cap u e bo h di ec sub le insul s and indi ec o public
exp essions o an isemi ism ha indi iduals may encoun e .
Fu he mo e, he li e a u e poin s o he unique e ec s o igilance
agains an isemi ism, which in ol es heigh ened ale ness o
disc imina ion and e o s o educe he likelihood o being
a ge ed, an expe ience ound o con ibu e o poo men al
heal h among mino i ies (Himmels ein e al., 2015). Las ly, we
conside ed he pe cei ed p e alence o an isemi ism in socie y, as
esea ch shows ha me ely pe cei ing an isemi ism as a signi ican
socie al issue can impac indi iduals’ wellbeing, e en wi hou
di ec o indi ec expe iences (Pa adies e al., 2015;Williams
e al., 2019;Zick e al., 2017). Each o hese ypes cap u es
di e en dimensions o an isemi ic expe iences ha may uniquely
con ibu e o psychosocial s ess and heal h ou comes among Jews.
Rega ding psychosocial ou comes, we ocused on common
men al heal h indica o s: dep ession and anxie y, which a e
equen ly examined in he con ex o pe cei ed disc imina ion
and linked o nega i e long- e m ou comes and poo quali y o
li e (Schmi e al., 2014;P ies e al., 2021). We also examined
associa ions be ween pe cei ed an isemi ism and SWB, e e ing
o o e all li e sa is ac ion (Diene , 1994). Finally, we explo ed he
mani es a ion o an isemi ism in social li e. Social pa icipa ion, an
impo an aspec o social capi al, is linked o bo h psychological
and physiological heal h (Be kman e al., 2000). Limi ed esea ch
has so a been published on social pa icipa ion as an ou come o
disc imina ion. Limi ed esea ch has examined social pa icipa ion
as an ou come o disc imina ion; among A ican Ame icans,
disc imina ion was ound o be a signi ican isk ac o o social
exclusion, con ibu ing o poo men al heal h and eelings o
isola ion (Saasa, 2019).
Ou second objec i e was o iden i y and cha ac e ize
di e en p o iles among membe s o he Jewish communi y in
Ge many based on hei expe iences wi h an isemi ism and hei
iden i ica ion as Jews. By mo ing beyond linea ela ionships,
we aimed o gain deepe insigh s h ough homogeneous clus e s
and da a-d i en ypologies o an isemi ism- ela ed pe cep ions and
expe iences, e ealing non-linea ela ionships ha con en ional
me hods migh o e look. To achie e his, we u ilized la en p o ile
analysis (LPA), a lexible ca ego ical modeling app oach ha
classi ies pa icipan s in o la en clus e s based on pa e ns ac oss
a ious a iables (Spu k e al., 2020). To ou knowledge, no p io
s udies ha e employed LPA in esea ch on pe cei ed an isemi ism.
In explo ing p o iles based on an isemi ic pe cep ions and
expe iences, we included a measu e o social iden i ica ion wi h
Jewish eligious o e hno-na ional iden i y, as i may in luence
pe cep ions and expe iences o an isemi ism and in e ac wi h
hem o de e mine psychosocial ou comes. Jews may u ilize hei
Jewish iden i y as a coping mechanism o bu e agains he
nega i e impac o such expe iences (B anscombe e al., 1999;
Schmi e al., 2014), o hey may dis ance hemsel es om he
social ca ego y as a disengagemen s a egy (Becke and Tausch,
2014; an Veelen e al., 2020). P io esea ch has ound consis en
e idence o a posi i e ela ionship be ween Jewish iden i ica ion
and sel - epo ed expe iences o an isemi ism (e.g., Dubow e al.,
2000;Al man, 2011;Rebhun, 2014;Zick e al., 2017;T ilesnik
e al., 2022;Ens ad, 2024). Indi iduals wi h s onge Jewish
iden i y may be mo e a uned o ecognizing and in e p e ing
inciden s as an isemi ic due o heigh ened awa eness o Jewish
issues and his o y (F iedlande e al., 2010). Highe ing oup
iden i ica ion may inc ease Jewish isibili y, bu can also inc ease
esilience, sugges ing ha a s onge sense o g oup cohesion and
iden i y con idence can a enua e he sense o ea and wo y
(Walleng en and Mellg en, 2015;Ens ad, 2024). Social iden i y
heo y (Taj el and Tu ne , 2004) p o ides a obus amewo k
o unde s anding his ela ionship: indi iduals de i e signi ican
pa s o hei sel -concep om g oup membe ship, including
eligious and e hnic iden i ies. Fo s ongly iden i ied Jews, hei
Jewish iden i y becomes cen al o hei sel -concep , making hem
mo e sensi i e o po en ial h ea s o disc imina ion agains hei
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g oup (Kessle and Hollbach, 2005) and mo e igilan abou
sub le o ms o an isemi ism o mic oagg essions (Selle s and
Shel on, 2003). Fu he mo e, he ejec ion-iden i ica ion model
sugges s ha pe cei ing disc imina ion can lead o inc eased in-
g oup iden i ica ion as a coping mechanism, c ea ing a ecip ocal
ela ionship be ween Jewish iden i y s eng h and an isemi ism
pe cep ion (B anscombe e al., 1999).
Toge he , hese esea ch goals ha e he po en ial o signi ican ly
con ibu e o social psychology and an isemi ism esea ch. By
add essing he unde s udied psychosocial impac o an isemi ism
amid he ecen global su ge in inciden s, his s udy aims o ill
a c ucial gap in he li e a u e. Examining ou dis inc o ms o
pe cei ed an isemi ism p o ides a comp ehensi e amewo k o
unde s anding how a ious mani es a ions a ec men al heal h
and social beha io . This app oach may in o m u u e s udies on
sub le and collec i e o ms o p ejudice ac oss di e en mino i y
g oups. In es iga ing he ole o Jewish iden i ica ion in ela ion
o an isemi ic expe iences and men al heal h ou comes could o e
aluable insigh s in o coping mechanisms and esilience ac o s
applicable o o he o ms o disc imina ion. Employing LPA o
iden i y dis inc g oups wi hin he Jewish communi y in oduces
a no el me hodology o unde s anding he e ogeneous esponses
o disc imina ion. Ul ima ely, he indings ha e he po en ial o
in o m he de elopmen o a ge ed in e en ions o p omo e
esilience among Jewish communi ies and guide b oade e o s o
comba an isemi ism and o he o ms o disc imina ion.
2 Ma e ials and me hods
All measu es, da a, and analysis iles a e
publicly a ailable a h ps://os .io/4 7s5/? iew_only=
5c91dd5391aa4726b495237194d8a972. The s udy was app o ed by
he e hics commi ee o he au ho s’ ins i u e.
2.1 Pa icipan s and p ocedu e
Due o he di icul y o ob aining a ep esen a i e sample o
he Jewish communi y in Ge many, we employed a con enien
snowball sampling me hod o ec ui pa icipan s aged 18 and
abo e who li e in Ge many and iden i y as Jewish. Rec ui men
was conduc ed h ough con ac s wi h Jewish and p o essional
o ganiza ions, mailing lis s, and pe sonal ne wo ks. A o al o
619 indi iduals accessed he online su ey be ween Decembe
2022 and Ma ch 2023. A e excluding 179 pa icipan s wi h
o e 90% missing da a, ou who selec ed “Ch is iani y” as hei
eligion ( e aining h ee who iden i ied as “A heis s”), and 16
who ailed an a en ion check, he inal sample comp ised 420
pa icipan s—su icien o s a is ical powe (see Supplemen a y
ma e ial). A e signing a s anda d consen o m, pa icipan s
comple ed ques ionnai es assessing pe cep ions and expe iences
o an isemi ism, ou come a iables, sociodemog aphic and
sociopoli ical cha ac e is ics, and o he measu es no epo ed he e.
The a e age age o pa icipan s was 40.71 yea s (SD = 15.90).
Gende dis ibu ion was 57% emale (n= 239), 42% male (n= 177),
and h ee pa icipan s chose “o he .” Ge man na ionali y was
held by 78%, wi h he emainde mos ly ha ing dual Ge man
and Is aeli ci izenship, only Is aeli ci izenship, o ci izenship o
ano he Eu opean coun y. A majo i y (80%) had a mig a ion
backg ound. App oxima ely hal we e bo n in Ge many, 27% in
he o me So ie Union, 13% in Is ael, and 10% in o he coun ies.
Rega ding educa ion, 10% did no achie e a high-school diploma
(Abi u o equi alen ), 32% held a high-school diploma, and 43%
had academic educa ion—including 18% wi h a mas e ’s deg ee
and 10% wi h a doc o al deg ee. Socioeconomic s a us (SES) was
pe cei ed as “ e y good” by 14%, “good” by 50%, “medium” by 30%,
“bad” by 6%, and “ e y bad” by one pa icipan . Employmen s a us
included 41% ull- ime employed, 11% pa - ime employed, 20%
s uden s, and 7% e i ed. Ma i al s a us was 41% ma ied, 19% in a
ela ionship, nea ly 30% single, 8% di o ced, and 1% widowed; 48%
had child en. O e 60% esided in la ge ci ies wi h o e 500,000
inhabi an s, and only 7% li ed in owns o illages wi h ewe han
20,000 esiden s. Mos pa icipan s (82%) we e membe s o Jewish
communi ies ac oss he coun y, and 32% equen ly pa icipa ed
in communi y ac i i ies.
2.2 Measu es
All measu es no o iginally in English, o wi hou an exis ing
alida ed Ge man e sion, we e ansla ed using a o wa d-
backwa d ansla ion p ocedu e by a membe o he esea ch eam
highly p o icien in bo h English and Ge man. While we did no
explici ly di e en ia e be ween online and o line expe iences in
ou measu es o e e yday an isemi ism and sub le an isemi ism,
hese scales we e designed o cap u e an isemi ic encoun e s
ha could occu in any con ex , including bo h physical and
i ual en i onmen s. Acknowledging he signi ican ole o online
pla o ms in he dissemina ion o an isemi ic con en (Becke e al.,
2024), he collec i e an isemi ism scale speci ically includes i ems
e e ing o online an isemi ism, such as exposu e o an isemi ic
commen s on he in e ne o social ne wo ks (e.g., “You see
an isemi ic commen s on he in e ne , e.g., in social ne wo ks”).
2.2.1 E e yday an isemi ism
To assess pe cep ions o di ec disc imina o y expe iences,
we used he Ge man- ansla ed E e yday Disc imina ion Scale
(Williams e al., 1997). Pa icipan s a ed nine i ems (e.g., “You a e
ea ed wi h less cou esy han o he people a e”; “People ac as i
hey a e a aid o you”) on a 5-poin scale (1 = ne e o 5 = e y
o en), indica ing he equency hey el disc imina ed agains due
o hei Jewish, Is aeli, o eligious a ilia ion. The scale showed high
in e nal consis ency (α= 0.89).
2.2.2 An isemi ic mic oagg essions
An isemi ic mic oagg essions we e measu ed using a simila
5-poin equency scale. As men ioned ea lie , we measu ed
an isemi ic mic oagg essions wi h wo subscales: sub le and
collec i e an isemi ism. The collec i e an isemi ism subscale
included i ems e e ing o demoniza ion and delegi imiza ion
o he Jewish s a e, in acco dance wi h he IHRA de ini ion o
an isemi ism and i s con empo a y mani es a ions (Wei zman,
2019), such as “You hea o ead media epo s ha demonize
Is ael, he Is aeli mili a y, o he Is aeli people.” Speci ically, we
aimed o co e he spec um o con empo a y mani es a ions o
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an isemi ism in Ge many, including Holocaus - ela ed seconda y
an isemi ism and Is ael- ela ed an isemi ism (Kemp , 2015).
Speci ically, sub le an isemi ism was assessed wi h i e i ems (e.g.,
“Someone makes you eel like you’ e no pa o Ge man socie y”;
“Someone makes you eel like you ha e o jus i y you sel o
all so s o hings as a Jewish pe son”), showing good eliabili y
(α= 0.87). Collec i e an isemi ism was measu ed wi h se en i ems
(e.g., “You hea o ead conspi acy heo ies in ol ing Jews”), also
wi h high eliabili y (α= 0.89).
2.2.3 Pe cei ed p e alence o an isemi ism
The pe cei ed p e alence o an isemi ism in Ge man socie y
was measu ed using a sliding scale anging om 1% o 100%.
Pa icipan s es ima ed he pe cen age o people in Ge man socie y
who hold nega i e iews o Jews.
2.2.4 Vigilance agains an isemi ism
Vigilance agains an isemi ism was assessed using nine
i ems adap ed om Zick e al.’s (2017) ins umen measu ing
an isemi ism- ela ed wo ies, secu i y pe cep ions, and beha io s.
Pa icipan s a ed hei ag eemen on a 5-poin scale (1 = comple ely
disag ee o 5 = comple ely ag ee). Sample i ems include “The e a e
e en s and places o which I do no go because o an isemi ism”
and “I would no wan my neighbo s o know ha I am Jewish.”
The scale demons a ed good eliabili y (α= 0.86).
2.2.5 Dep ession and anxie y
Dep ession and anxie y we e measu ed using he Hospi al
Anxie y and Dep ession Scale (HADS; Pe e mann, 2011), a widely
used ins umen assessing psychological dis ess on a 4-poin scale
wi h a ying ancho s. A e emo ing one i em due o insu icien
model i in a con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA) (see below), he
anxie y subscale comp ised i e i ems (e.g., “Wo ying hough s go
h ough my mind,” α= 0.79), and he dep ession subscale included
six i ems (e.g., “I ha e los in e es in my appea ance,” α= 0.74).
2.2.6 Subjec i e wellbeing
Subjec i e wellbeing was assessed using he Sa is ac ion wi h
Li e scale (Diene , 1994). Pa icipan s esponded o i e i ems (e.g.,
“In mos ways my li e is close o my ideal”) on a 7-poin scale
anging om 1 (no ue a all) o 7 (comple ely ue), wi h high
eliabili y (α= 0.87).
2.2.7 Social pa icipa ion
Social pa icipa ion was measu ed wi h a ou -i em scale
de eloped o his s udy. Pa icipan s a ed how o en hey isi
iends, mee new people, and engage in ac i i ies ou side he Jewish
communi y on a 5-poin scale (1 = ne e o 5 = e y o en). The scale
showed accep able eliabili y (α= 0.77).
2.2.8 Jewish iden i ica ion
Jewish iden i ica ion was measu ed using ou i ems adap ed
om F ind e and Die ich (2017). Pa icipan s indica ed hei
ag eemen on a 6-poin scale (1 = comple ely disag ee o
6 = comple ely ag ee) wi h s a emen s such as “Being Jewish is an
impo an pa o who I am.” The scale’s eliabili y was accep able
(α= 0.72).
2.2.9 Demog aphics and pe sonal cha ac e is ics
Sociodemog aphic and pe sonal cha ac e is ics we e collec ed
as con ol a iables o eg ession analyses and o cha ac e ize
la en p o iles (see below). These included gende , age, highes
educa ional le el, mig a ion backg ound and na ionali y, amily
s a us and numbe o child en, SES, eligiosi y, poli ical o ien a ion
(le - igh scale), and equency o pa icipa ion in Jewish
communi y e en s and ac i i ies. Fo all mul i-i em scales,
a i hme ic means we e calcula ed o ep esen each cons uc , wi h
highe sco es indica ing a g ea e deg ee o he espec i e quali y.
3 Resul s
3.1 P elimina y analysis
Fi s , we conduc ed a con i ma o y ac o analysis (CFA)
o alida e he concep ual dis inc ion be ween e e yday, sub le,
and collec i e an isemi ic expe iences a he measu emen le el.
A co ela ed h ee- ac o model, wi h ou added in e -i em
esidual co a iances (be ween i ems 1–2 and 8–9 on he e e yday
an isemi ism scale, and i ems 6–7 and 7–8 on he collec i e
an isemi ism scale), yielded an accep able model i acco ding o
accep able c i e ia (Hu and Ben le , 1999), χ2(182) = 432.635,
p<0.001, CFI = 0.944, TLI = 0.935, RMSEA = 0.062, 90% CI [0.054,
0.069], SRMR = 0.061.
Second, we examined he ac o s uc u e o he HADS
using CFA. The ini ial wo- ac o model (dep ession and anxie y)
demons a ed insu icien i , χ2(55) = 193.489, p<0.001,
CFI = 0.987, TLI = 0.0972, RMSEA = 0.083, 90% CI [0.071,
0.096], SRMR = 0.057. Modi ica ion indices indica ed a high c oss-
loading on i em 4 o he anxie y subscale, which we emo ed.
By adding co a iances be ween he esiduals o i ems 2 and 7
in he anxie y subscale and i ems 6 and 8 in he dep ession
subscale, he model i imp o ed signi ican ly: χ2(41) = 100.543,
p<0.001, CFI = 0.950, TLI = 0.932, RMSEA = 0.062, 90% CI [0.046,
0.077], SRMR = 0.043.
Finally, he igilance agains an isemi ism scale showed
a good i o a single- ac o s uc u e, as indica ed by a
p incipal componen analysis (PCA) wi h an added esidual
co a iance be ween i ems 6 and 7: χ2(26) = 52.57, p= 0.002,
CFI = 0.977, TLI = 0.968, RMSEA = 0.054, 90% CI [0.033,
0.075], SRMR = 0.040.
Missing da a a he i em le el did no exceed 16.7%. Li le’s
MCAR es indica ed ha he da a we e missing comple ely a
andom (χ2(10,591) = 10,738.464, p= 0.155; he e o e, he da a
we e assumed o be missing a andom and cases wi h missing da a
we e omi ed pe analysis.
3.2 Desc ip i e analysis
Pa icipan s epo ed expe iencing sub le an isemi ism mo e
equen ly han e e yday an isemi ism (i.e., pe cei ed di ec
disc imina ion). As illus a ed in Figu e 1, o e 40% indica ed ha
hey we e a leas a ely h ea ened o ha assed, and 45% epo ed
being called names o insul ed due o hei Jewish a ilia ion.
In con as , mo e han hal o he pa icipan s s a ed hey we e
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FIGURE 1
Pe cen age dis ibu ion o selec ed i ems measu ing e e yday, sub le, and collec i e an isemi ism. N a ies be ween 412 and 419 due o missing
esponses ac oss i ems.
o en o e y o en blamed o he policies o he S a e o Is ael
o exposed o conspi acy heo ies abou Jews. App oxima ely
wo- hi ds encoun e ed an isemi ic s a emen s in he media a
leas some imes. Pa icipan s in ou s udy es ima ed ha , on
a e age, 45% o Ge mans ha bo an isemi ic iews (SD = 21.37), a
igu e signi ican ly highe han ecen su ey-based es ima es. Fo
ins ance, a 2019 su ey by he An i-De ama ion League. (2019)
epo ed ha 15% o Ge mans hold such iews. This subs an ial
disc epancy highligh s he gap be ween he pe cei ed p e alence
o an isemi ism among he Ge man Jews in ou sample and
b oade socie al es ima es, indica ing a heigh ened pe cep ion o
an isemi ism wi hin he Jewish communi y.
3.3 Co ela ional analysis
Pea son co ela ions among he s udy’s main a iables a e
p esen ed in Figu e 2 (a mo e con en ional co ela ion ma ix
is p esen ed in Supplemen a y Table 1). All measu es o
pe cei ed e e yday, sub le, collec i e, and p e alen an isemi ism
we e posi i ely co ela ed. Pa icipan s who expe ienced mo e
e e yday an isemi ism also ended o epo mo e equen
mic oagg essions, as measu ed h ough sub le and collec i e
an isemi ism, pe cei ed a highe p e alence o an isemi ism in
Ge man socie y, and, o a lesse ex en , exhibi ed highe igilance
agains exposu e o an isemi ism. Mo e equen expe iences o
e e yday an isemi ism we e mode a ely associa ed wi h lowe
SWB and social pa icipa ion, as well as highe anxie y and
dep ession. Sub le and collec i e an isemi ism, wo dimensions
o an isemi ic mic oagg essions, we e also mode a ely linked o
inc eased anxie y and dep ession. Pe cei ing a highe p e alence
o an isemi ism was weakly bu signi ican ly ela ed o highe
anxie y and dep ession, and o educed social pa icipa ion and
SWB. Addi ionally, emb acing mo e igilan beha io was weakly
o mode a ely associa ed wi h highe anxie y and dep ession and
wi h lowe social pa icipa ion. Finally, Jewish iden i ica ion was
posi i ely ela ed o all measu es o pe cei ed and expe ienced
an isemi ism bu was no ela ed o igilance agains an isemi ism.
In e es ingly, we ound no signi ican ela ionship be ween Jewish
iden i ica ion and psychosocial ou comes.
3.4 Mul iple linea eg essions p edic ing
ou comes om an isemi ism
To examine he unique p edic i e powe o pe cei ed
and expe ienced an isemi ism domains beyond demog aphic
a iables, we conduc ed ou mul iple linea eg ession analyses
on he ou come a iables: SWB, anxie y, dep ession, and social
pa icipa ion. The esul s a e illus a ed in Figu e 3, wi h de ailed
pa ame e s p o ided in Supplemen a y Tables 2–5. Rega ding
demog aphic p edic o s, highe age and SES signi ican ly p edic ed
highe SWB. Highe anxie y was associa ed wi h being emale
and leaning owa d he le o he poli ical spec um. Only
highe SES signi ican ly p edic ed lowe dep ession. Highe social
pa icipa ion was p edic ed by se e al demog aphic a iables,
including ha ing ewe child en, highe eligiosi y, highe SES, and
mo e equen in ol emen in he Jewish communi y.
A e con olling o demog aphics and ele an pe sonal
cha ac e is ics, e e yday an isemi ism eme ged as a signi ican
p edic o o highe anxie y and dep ession, as well as lowe
SWB and social pa icipa ion, su passing o he p edic o s in
he models. Addi ionally, pe cei ing a highe p e alence o
an isemi ism signi ican ly p edic ed lowe SWB and inc eased
dep essi e symp oms. Vigilance agains an isemi ism signi ican ly
p edic ed educed social pa icipa ion. While he e ec o sub le
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FIGURE 2
Bi a ia e Pea son co ela ions among he s udy’s main a iables. AS, an isemi ism. Co ela ions wi h absolu e alues o 0.11 o highe a e s a is ically
signi ican (p<0.05). Non-signi ican co ela ions a e no displayed (cells emain blank). S onge colo s ep esen highe co ela ion coe icien s, as
indica ed by he scale on he igh side o he igu e.
an isemi ism on anxie y, dep ession, and social pa icipa ion was
ma ginally signi ican (ps<0.07), collec i e an isemi ism did no
uniquely con ibu e o explaining a iance in he ou come a iables
beyond o he o ms o an isemi ic expe iences.
To con ol o mul iple compa isons ac oss he eg ession
models, we applied he Holm-Bon e oni co ec ion o he p
alues o all p edic o s. The adjus ed p alues o each p edic o
ac oss he models a e p esen ed in Supplemen a y Table 6. A e
adjus men , om he main a iables, only an isemi ic expe iences
in e e yday li e emained a consis en ly signi ican p edic o
ac oss all ou comes. In con as , sub le an isemi ism, collec i e
an isemi ism, pe cei ed p e alence o an isemi ism, igilance and
Jewish iden i ica ion we e no signi ican in any model a e
adjus men , wi h adjus ed p alues abo e 0.05 ac oss ou comes.
Finally, we conduc ed an addi ional se ies o mul iple
linea eg essions o examine a po en ial in e ac ion be ween
Jewish iden i ica ion and e e yday an isemi ism in p edic ing
he ou ou comes (see Supplemen a y Table 7). The esul s
indica ed no signi ican in e ac ions, sugges ing ha he s ong
p edic i e ela ionship be ween e e yday an isemi ic expe iences
and psychosocial ou comes is consis en ac oss di e en le els o
iden i ica ion wi h he Jewish e hnic o eligious iden i y.
3.5 P o iles o expe iences wi h
an isemi ism and Jewish iden i ica ion
We conduc ed a LPA using he R package idyLPA
(Rosenbe g e al., 2018). The p o iling a iables we e Jewish
iden i ica ion, igilance agains an isemi ism, pe cei ed p e alence
o an isemi ism, e e yday an isemi ism, and an isemi ic
mic oagg essions (sub le and collec i e an isemi ism). All
a iables we e s anda dized, and comple e cases (n= 344) we e
included. To de e mine he op imal p o ile solu ion, we compa ed
models wi h di e en a iance and co a iance s uc u es: equal
a iances wi h ixed co a iances (EV/FC), a ying a iances wi h
ixed co a iances (VV/FC), equal a iances wi h equal co a iances
(EV/EC), and a ying a iances wi h a ying co a iances (VV/VC)
(Rosenbe g e al., 2018). Models anging om 1 o 10 p o iles we e
assessed using empi ical c i e ia such as he Bayesian in o ma ion
c i e ion (BIC), sample size-adjus ed BIC (SABIC), and he
boo s apped likelihood a io es (BLRT) wi h 999 esamples,
which p o ided p alues o model imp o emen (Nylund e al.,
2007). Concep ual c i e ia a o ed pa simonious models wi h
meaning ul p o iles ep esen ing a leas 5% o he sample.
The 3-class model wi h equal a iances and equal co a iances
(EV/EC) was selec ed as op imal based on low BIC and
SABIC alues and a signi ican BLRT (see Supplemen a y
Table 9). Al hough a 4-class EV/EC model showed sligh ly
be e i , i included a p o ile ep esen ing only 1% o he
sample. Clus e ing means a e depic ed in Figu e 4, and
de ailed di e ences a e a ailable in Supplemen a y Table 8.
Jewish iden i ica ion and expe iences o e e yday, sub le, and
collec i e an isemi ism signi ican ly di e en ia ed he p o iles.
In con as , igilance agains an isemi ism was mode a e
and simila ac oss p o iles, and pe cei ed p e alence o
an isemi ism was ela i ely high (o e 40% on a e age) in all
p o iles.
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FIGURE 3
Resul s o mul iple linea eg ession analyses p edic ing psychosocial ou comes. The plo p esen s s anda dized eg ession coe icien s om ou
mul iple linea eg ession models, each wi h 15 p edic o s displayed on he y-axis. These models p edic social pa icipa ion, dep ession, anxie y, and
subjec i e wellbeing. The ho izon al lines ex ending om each s anda dized be a es ima e ep esen 95% con idence in e als. P edic o s whose
con idence in e als do no c oss he ze o poin on he x-axis a e conside ed s a is ically signi ican (p<0.05).
The i s p o ile, High Iden i y,High An isemi ism, comp ised
53% o he sample. Indi iduals in his g oup (see Table 1)
we e highly iden i ied wi h hei Jewish iden i y and expe ienced
an isemi ism mo e equen ly han hose in o he p o iles. They
we e mo e eligious, pa icipa ed mo e in Jewish communi y
ac i i ies, and 62% we e bo n in Ge many.
The second p o ile, Low Iden i y,Low An isemi ism, included
8% o he sample. Pa icipan s had signi ican ly lowe Jewish
iden i ica ion and epo ed less pe cei ed and expe ienced
an isemi ism compa ed o p o ile 1. They we e less eligious, less
ac i e in he Jewish communi y, and younge on a e age; 28% we e
bo n in Is ael, highe han in p o iles 1 (8%) and 3 (13%).
The hi d p o ile, A e age Iden i y,Low An isemi ism,
accoun ed o nea ly 40% o he sample. These indi iduals
iden i ied less s ongly wi h Jewish iden i y han hose in
p o ile 1 bu mo e han hose in p o ile 2. Thei expe iences
wi h an isemi ism we e simila o p o ile 2. Abou one- hi d
we e immig an s om he o me So ie Union, and hey
we e less eligious and less ac i e in he Jewish communi y
compa ed o p o ile 1.
We hen examined whe he he h ee p o iles di e ed in hei
a e age sco es on he s udy’s ou come a iables (see Table 2). The
g oups did no di e signi ican ly in SWB, dep ession, o social
pa icipa ion. Signi ican di e ences eme ged only o anxie y,
F(2,341) = 10.51, p<0.001, η2= 0.07. Pos hoc Tukey’s HSD es s
indica ed ha high iden i ie s expe iencing equen an isemi ism
(p o ile 1) had highe anxie y le els (M= 2.09, SD = 0.55) han hose
wi h a e age iden i ica ion and low pe cei ed an isemi ism (p o ile
3, M= 1.82, SD = 0.53), p<0.001. In e es ingly, low iden i ie s
wi h low pe cei ed an isemi ism (p o ile 2) and high iden i ie s
wi h high an isemi ism (p o ile 1) had simila le els o anxie y.
4 Discussion
The s udy esul s con i m ha an isemi ism, in i s a ious
o ms, con inues o be a majo s esso o Jews in Ge many—
a coun y ha has seemingly come o e ms wi h i s pas and
whe e an isemi ism is legally sanc ioned. Despi e measu es o
add ess i , Jewish communi ies emain ulne able. Simila o
p e ious s udies on exposu e o an isemi ism among Ge man Jews
(Eu opean Union Agency o Fundamen al Righ s, 2024;Zick e al.,
2017;Beye e al., 2024), an isemi ism emains a daily eali y.
Ou p o iling analysis e ealed ha mo e han hal o he sample
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