Towards a deeper understanding of strategic management factors in international non-governmental organizations

Zhang, Xue; Saadé, Raa a Geo ge
A icle
Towa ds a deepe unde s anding o s a egic
managemen ac o s in in e na ional non-go e nmen al
o ganiza ions
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zhang, Xue; Saadé, Raa a Geo ge (2025) : Towa ds a deepe unde s anding o
s a egic managemen ac o s in in e na ional non-go e nmen al o ganiza ions, Adminis a i e
Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 1-36,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020034
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Ci a ion: Zhang, X., & Saadé, R. G.
(2025). Towa ds a Deepe
Unde s anding o S a egic
Managemen Fac o s in In e na ional
Non‑Go e nmen al O ganiza ions.
Adminis a i e Sciences,15(2), 34.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci15020034
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A icle
Towa ds a Deepe Unde s anding o S a egic Managemen
Fac o s in In e na ional Non‑Go e nmen al O ganiza ions
Xue Zhang * and Raa a Geo ge Saadé *
School o Global Go e nance, Beijing Ins i u e o Technology, Beijing 100081, China
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (X.Z.); [email p o ec ed] (R.G.S.)
Abs ac : In e na ional ac i i ies by all NGOs ha e become ubiqui ous. The e o e, in e na‑
ional non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions (INGOs) a e signi ican ly and g adually inc easing
hei in e na ional in luence shaping a new pa adigm o global a ai s anging om hu‑
man aid o digi al go e nance. In his s udy, we del e in o he li e a u e and connec wi h
p o essionals o ge a deepe unde s anding o how s a egic managemen is add essed
and pe cei ed in INGOs. The pape is composed o wo pa s, namely a comp ehensi e
li e a u e e iew ollowed by a pilo su ey‑based empi ical s udy, o assess and alida e
ele an cons uc s/ ac o s in he con ex o INGOs. The su ey me hodology app oach
was used o assess ac o s using explo a o y ac o analysis (EFA). Ou comes om he li ‑
e a u e e iew we e c oss‑examined agains he EFA o guide he ca ego iza ion o ac o s
is‑à‑ is new indings. Twel e alida ed ques ions ele an o ou con ex we e adap ed
and composed in he su ey. EFA esul ed in he signi ican eg ouping o i ems in o h ee
ac o s. We he e o e e o mula ed he cons uc s in he INGO con ex . These cons uc s
a e s a egic s uc u es, human capi al, and change managemen . S a egic cons uc s ep‑
esen he adi ional s a egic managemen heo y. Change managemen was shown o be
a s ong ac o o he adequa e se up and managemen o s a egic s uc u es, and human
capi al ep esen s a new ac o speci ic o INGOs.
Keywo ds: s a egic planning; s a egic o mula ion; sys ema ic li e a u e e iew; empi ‑
ical; in e na ional non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions; human capi al; s a egic s uc u es;
change managemen
1. In oduc ion
The las decade has wi nessed a subs an ial inc ease in in e na ional ac i i ies by
non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs) globally (Dö le & Heinzel,2023). In e na ional
non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions (INGOs) oday, ha e become a signi ican and neces‑
sa y pa adigm impac ing global a ai s, due o ecen u bulen challenges anging om
wa s, geopoli ical ensions, and he apid p og ess o inno a ions (San o o e al.,2018).
In gene al, s a egic managemen (such as es ablishing a ision, mission plan and o e ‑
all decision‑making) in INGOs is complex and challenging (Beagles,2022). This is due o
how s a egy and de elopmen a e pe cei ed by a ious s akeholde s. Achie ing objec‑
i es is me wi h compe ing ideas in e ms o how hey can be a ained, while a he same
ime, he no ion o demons a ing success o s akeholde s is luid such ha many di e ‑
en ways can be used o achie e ha (Lewis e al.,2021;Be ghmans e al.,2017;S odda d,
2010). Supe imposing his na u al en i onmen o INGOs on o oday’s as ‑paced wo ld,
and inc easing global challenges, makes he managemen o INGOs mo e complex as i
becomes mo e di icul o mee mo ing a ge s (goals). T anscending all bo de s wi h he
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020034
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 2 o 36
aim o engage in he solu ion and managemen o a wide ange o issues, such as, socio‑
economic, and poli ical, we ind ha a he co e, INGOs can be de ined by hei olun a y,
non‑p o i na u e, engaging in ac i i ies ac oss a b oad spec um o sec o s. A he hea o
he INGOs dialogue, we ind hei dis inc i e na u e and ope a ional essence, con a y o
o ‑p o i o ganiza ions, commi ed o ad ancing public, social, and global bene i s. Any
su plus is ein es ed in o he o ganiza ion o con inuous imp o emen (Anheie ,2015).
Ye , he bounda ies be ween INGOs, non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions (NGOs), and o he
simila ins i u ions a e becoming blu ie , as hei de ini ions and oles a e inc easingly
o e lapping, and a e he e o e wo hwhile elabo a ing on, e en hough i is ou side he
scope o his s udy.
O ganiza ions can be ei he o ‑p o i o no ‑ o ‑p o i (NFP). The e m no ‑ o ‑p o i
o ganiza ions has been used synonymously wi h non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions. The e
is, howe e , a la ge a ie y o NGOs, which makes i di icul o p o ide a i ing de ini ion.
Abiddin e al. (2022) p o ide a comp ehensi e analysis o NGOs, while O and Vale o
(2018) do he same o NGOs; hey expand hei analysis o INGOs, whe e hey explo e
di e en ypes o NGOs ollowed by a desc ip ion o he dis inc i e ea u es o INGOs. I
seems ha he concep o NGOs (and by ex ension, INGOs) is o e lapping and in e ela ed
wi ho he ypeso o ganiza ionssuchas ci il socie y o ganiza ions (SCO) (Smi h & Hamel,
2023;Toeple e al.,2020) and NPOs (Acke man,2023;Bo nowska & Seile ,2021).
In hei analysis ( ha is based on he John Hopkins Global Socie y Index), O and
Vale o (2018) discuss six majo c i e ia which make an o ganiza ion a ci il socie y o gani‑
za ion. Based on c i e ia iden i ied h ough ha analysis, he o ganiza ion may be o mal
o in o mal, wi h s a ha a e wo king on a olun a y basis o paid, ope a es wi hin a
lexible inancial s uc u e o ees, and cha ges o p oduc s and/o se ices, aligns wi h
philan h opy and p i a e dona ions, is con ex ‑sensi i e in luenced by ac o s such as le‑
gal en i onmen and popula ion suppo , may pe o m a ious ypes o unc ions, and can
assume local (coun y o egional) legal o m.
Acco ding o F umkin (2002) and G ønbje g (2016), non‑p o i o ganiza ions exhibi
eigh cha ac e is ics, namely pa icipa ion ha is non‑coe ci e and p ima ily olun a y,
does no ha e an owne ship s uc u e wi h access o equi y, is no p o i ‑o ien ed which
is dis ibu ed o s akeholde s, may ope a e unde p i a e o public auspices, and includes
a ision ha seeks o make he wo ld a be e place by changing people, iews, alues,
beha io , and knowledge. SCOs and NFPs ha e he concep s o olun ee ism, ope a ional
mechanisms, and philan h opy o making he wo ld a be e place, in common.
We sha e he same obse a ion wi h (O & Vale o,2018), ha oday, he e a e e y
small di e ences be ween SCOs, NPOs, and NGOs. Ye , he way NGOs a e pe cei ed
di e sac oss coun ies and egions (Abiddin e al.,2022). Fo example, in heUni edS a es
(US), an NGO is iewedas an o ganiza ion ha ope a es in e na ionally. NGOs can play in
anysphe eincludingbu no limi ed o he en i onmen , socialissues, ad ocacy, o poli ics.
They may also ocus and be in luen ial locally ( a ge ing speci ic coun y ac i i ies such as
he p omo ion o poli ical change) o in e na ionally (i.e., o imp o e communi ies a ound
he wo ld). The e o e, NGOs ( om a US pe spec i e) a e in essence e y simila o NPOs
and SCOs, bu hey ope a e in e na ionally.
Wi h he onse o globaliza ion, and wi h o ganized g oups no di ec ly unde he
in luence o go e nmen , he po en ial o in e na ional ac i i ies a ose, pa ing he way
o INGOs. INGOs di e om o he o ganiza ions such as NGOs and NFPs in ha hey
can use esou ces om de eloped coun ies o help less de eloped coun ies ac oss he
en i e ange o he U.N. Sus ainable De elopmen Goals. Due o hei in e na ional se up,
de eloped coun ies ha e u ilized INGOs as in e media ies o hei in e na ional de el‑
opmen p og ams.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 3 o 36
The ole o INGOs in in e na ional de elopmen and aid is c i ical, p ima ily due o
he ac ha domes ic o ganiza ions a e de icien and as such, INGOs a emp o espond
o global eme gencies mo e e ec i ely, such ha hei globaliza ion is mo i a ed by he
pu sui o new dono s, expansion o esou ce pools, and enhancemen o compe i i eness,
beyond na ional bo de s (Galkina & Yang,2020; D. Han e al.,2020).
Resea ch a ound INGOs is no adequa e. A subs an ial numbe o s udies can be
ound ela ed o business in e na ionaliza ion. Howe e , he unique pa hways h ough
which INGOs expand hei global oo p in ha e ga ne ed limi ed a en ion (Po o & da
Rocha,2021;Teegen e al.,2004). Ye , conside ing hei con ibu ions o add essing c i ical
global issues, such as clima e change, access o educa ion and heal hca e, po e y, and
human igh s, ele an s udies ela ed o issues such as hei poli ical in luence, ope a ions,
and global impac (Galkina & Yang,2020) a e ela i ely ew.
Due o he complex and ambiguous na u e o INGOs, he de elopmen o a s a egy,
e ec i e managemen , and change p o es o be qui e challenging. INGOs may be he only
sec o whe e decision‑making based on da a is less p ac iced, and made based on poli ical
condi ions, he iden i y o he o ganiza ion, s akeholde s, and o he en i onmen al condi‑
ions. F om an o ganiza ional pe spec i e, INGOs seem o p io i ize “doing no ha m” o e
achie ing measu able goals (Ba be & Bowie,2008;B illian & Young,2004). This makes
he s udy o s a egic managemen in INGOs e y impo an .
The no ion o s a egy (o igina ing om “s a egos” which means gene al in G eek)
inds oo s in he mili a y ield. O e ime, his no ion ound i s way in o he business
wo ld (Fue es e al.,2020). Seeking a unique de ini ion o unde s anding o s a egy is
ou side he scope o his wo k. Howe e , we b ie ly elabo a e on he concep wi h he aim
o ansi ioning in o he concep o “s a egic managemen ”.
Acco ding o Chandle (1962), “S a egy is he de e mina ion o he basic long‑ e m
goals and objec i es o an en e p ise, and he adop ion o cou ses o ac ion and he alloca‑
ion o esou ces necessa y o ca ying ou hese goals”. S a egy en e ed he managemen
li e a u e as a way o e e ing o wha one did o coun e a compe i o ’s mo es (S eine ,
2010). Min zbe g (1994) explains ha people use ‘s a egy’ in se e al di e en ways. The
mos common a e as ollows: s a egy is a plan; s a egy is a pa e n o ac ions o e ime;
s a egy is posi ion; and s a egy is pe spec i e, ha is, ision and di ec ion.
Fundamen ally, all ypes o NGOs (including INGOs) ha e a ision and a mission,
es ablish clea objec i es, and a e s a egy‑cen ic. The e o e, i is impo an o a icula e
he dis inc ion be ween hese concep s as we e e o hem h oughou he pape , wi h he
hope o p o iding be e cla i y o in ended use and meaning. Mission, ision, and objec‑
i es a e dis inc concep s ha a e ime‑ ela ed and in e connec ed wi h he o ganiza ion’s
s a egy. Vision is a look in o he u u e o he o ganiza ion ep esen ing i s long‑ e m (5,
o mo e yea s) desi ed u u e s a e, and ou lining i s pu pose o an achie able posi i e
change (Aslan,2023;Asogwa e al.,2021). The ision is b ough by managemen , and ide‑
ally wi h he ep esen a ion and engagemen o all s akeholde s. The mission o an INGO,
which is a s a emen , is mo e speci ic and may iden i y i s a ge bene icia ies while de in‑
ing i s co e pu pose as a means o achie e i s ision (As aw e al.,2017). Objec i es a e
measu able ou comes ha se e o ope a ionalize he mission (Asogwa,2023). E iden ly,
he ision‑mission‑objec i es linkages a e hie a chical and depend on each o he (Ahmad,
2023). S a egy and s a egic planning a e he in eg a ion o hese h ee concep s ( e i‑
cal in eg a ion) and hei e ec i e alignmen o ensu e accoun abili y, anspa ency, ocus,
and cohe ence (Gallo e al.,2018). As a sys em, oday INGOs implemen pe o mance
managemen ini ia i es o ealize his alignmen . Consequen ly, a pe o mance manage‑
men sys em/pla o m (also discussed in he conclusion sec ion on p ac ical implica ions)
becomes he digi al manage o he o ganiza ion’s s a egic di ec ion.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 4 o 36
When i comes o he concep o s a egic managemen , we ind many app oaches
associa ed wi h ha concep , such as s a egic planning, s a egic o mula ion, s a egic
lea ning, and s a egic ision (J. B yson & Geo ge,2020), which ha e long been used as
ools o e i alizing p i a ely owned co po a ions and go e nmen ‑owned public agen‑
cies wi h he aim o imp o ing he achie emen o es ablished goals and alue c ea ion.
Adap ing om J. B yson and Geo ge (2020), we p o ide a comp ehensi e iew o
s a egic managemen : “S a egic managemen is an app oach o he building o a s a egy
by INGOs ia hei in eg a ion o i s o mula ion, de elopmen , planning, implemen a ion,
and lea ning”. His o ically s a egic planning has been he p ima y ac i i y associa ed
wi h s a egicmanagemen . Howe e , as we see om he de ini ion, s a egic managemen
is mo e encompassing, holis ic, and in eg a ed.
S a egy managemen “in ol es a commi men o signi ican amoun s o o ganiza‑
ional esou ces o he ul illmen o o ganiza ional goals and pu poses h ough app op i‑
a e means…[and]……ha e an impac on many aspec s and unc ions o he o ganiza ion,
and in luencei s di ec ion, adminis a ion, ands uc u ein undamen always”(Dess e al.,
1997;Sh i as a a & G an ,1985;G an ,2001).
Pe o ming a quick li e a u e e iew using he Web o Science co e collec ion using
he keywo ds “s a egic” AND “managemen ” in he i le, hen il e ing he esul s in h ee
consequen s eps by keywo ds “in e na ional” hen “o ganiza ion” hen “go e nmen al”,
yields ele en esul s, only wo o which a e ele an . This ep esen s a quick iew o he
body o knowledge, which sugges s ha esea ch in s a egic managemen o INGOs is
lacking. To ha e ec , we pe o m in Sec ion 3a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew (CLR)
o p o ide mo e de ails ela ed o ou s udy he ein. Sea ching o ecen CLRs on s a e‑
gic managemen and INGOs shows ha e y ew we e pe o med (Susan o e al.,2023:
S a egic Managemen Concep s; Rêgo e al.,2021; and Saade,2020: Digi al T ans o ma‑
ion and S a egic Managemen ; Bo ges e al.,2021: S a egic Use o A i icial In elligence
in he Digi al E a; Keding,2021: A i icial In elligence and S a egic Managemen ; Cosenz
& No o,2016: Modeling o S a egic Managemen ; Enge e al.,2016: Co po a e Sus ain‑
abili y in o S a egic Managemen ; Keupp e al.,2012, S a egic Managemen and Inno a‑
ion; J. M. B yson e al.,2010: Public S a egic Managemen ), and none was ound o be
ela ed o INGOs.
Based on he abo e, and wi h a ocus on INGOs, in his s udy we d aw on he in‑
eg a ed app oach o s a egic managemen , o be e unde s and s a egic ac o s in he
con ex o INGOs (Wan e al.,2022). We use Bailey e al. (2000) mul i‑dimensional ame‑
wo k, which cap u es majo esea ch e idence ac o s o hei in e dependence in decision‑
making. Thei wo k implies con inui y in how s a egies a e de eloped and managed,
indica ing pa e ns o pe cei ed o ganiza ional decision‑making o sus ainable s a egic
managemen .
Comp ehensi ely, s a egic managemen , in gene al and depending on whom you
e e ence, en ails mission, ision, s a egy, goals, o mula ion, analysis, go e nance and
policies, s akeholde managemen , ex e nal and in e nal en i onmen s, ex e nal and ins i‑
u ional p essu es, o ganiza ional cul u e, leade ship, digi al ans o ma ion, sus ainabil‑
i y, sys em in eg a ion, social esponsibili y, and pe o mance managemen . Howe e , in
his s udy, we ocus on six INGO‑ ele an disc e e dimensions o s a egic managemen (S.
L. Ha ,1992;Bailey e al.,2000;Wan e al.,2022): command, planning, inc emen alism, po‑
li ical, cul u al, and en o ced choice. These dimensions we e iden i ied o e lec he na u e
o s a egic managemen and would p o ide guidance o ou s udy con ex which includes
INGOs. The models hey used we e applied o o ganiza ions in gene al (and mos ly used
o he p i a e o ‑p o i sec o ), bu no speci ically o INGOs.

Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 5 o 36
Fo he pu pose o comple eness, hese dimensions can be b ie ly desc ibed as ollows:
The Command Dimension ela es o he deg ee o con ol exe cised by senio managemen ,
who ha e he esponsibili y o shaping he o ganiza ional cul u e. Planning heo y p o‑
ides con lic ing ad ice, sugges ing, on he one hand, ha o mal s a egic planning is pos‑
i i ely associa ed wi h pe o mance in dynamic en i onmen s (V on is e al.,2017; S. Ha
& Banbu y,1994; C. C. Mille & Ca dinal,1994; D. Mille & F iesen,1983) and on he o he
ha i is mo e sui ed o s able en i onmen s which implici ly assume p edic abili y and
ha an inc emen alis app oach is mo e app op ia e o dynamic and discon inuous en i‑
onmen s (F ed ickson & Iaquin o,1989;Min zbe g,1973). Inc emen alism ocuses mo e
on aspec s o o mula ing s a egies in manageable inc emen s (Ba ney,1997;G an ,2001;
Menon e al.,1999;Nu ,1993) and ecognizing ha s a egic goals and objec i es o he
o ganiza ion a e no likely o be p ecise bu gene al in na u e (Bailey e al.,2000). This ap‑
p oach sugges s planning lexibili y, o eedom o change s a egic plans which Ba inge
and Bluedo n (1999) ound, p omo es en ep eneu ial in ensi y. Poli ical Powe ela es o
he le el o nego ia ion be ween di e en powe ul g oups and he o ma ion o coali ions
o pu sue hei sha ed objec i es. The cul u al dimension ep esen s he pa e n o sha ed
alues and belie s ha help indi iduals unde s and o ganiza ional unc ioning (Co in &
Sle in,1993). A s ong cul u al commi men may inc ease o ganiza ional membe s ‘buy‑
in’ o s a egies and should inc ease he le el o consensus (Menon e al.,1999) and allow
manage s o ocus on he subs ance o hei decision (Iaquin o & F ed ickson,1997). En‑
o ced Choice en ails ac o s in he en i onmen ha would encou age he adop ion o
o ganiza ional choice s uc u es and ac i i ies, and which would no encompass coe cion,
compe i i eness, o economic and no ma i e p essu es (Meye e al.,1993).
Based on he abo e, and conside ing he majo hemes o ou s udy pu pose, namely
s a egic managemen and INGOs, we posi he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
RQ1:Wha is he cu en s a e‑o ‑ he‑a in s a egic managemen and INGOs?
This is add essed by pe o ming a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew, allowing us o
explo e he body o li e a u e on s a egic managemen as i ela es o in e na ional non‑
go e nmen al o ganiza ions. The ou come o RQ1 en ails adop ing a se o ele an pub‑
lica ions ha we u ilize o be e unde s and eme ging hemes and esea ch gaps. The
ou comes om he i s esea ch ques ion will lead us o he second esea ch ques ion:
RQ2:Wha a e he p ac ical s a egic managemen ac o s in he INGO con ex ?
Resea ch ques ion 2 speci ies ‘p ac ical’, implying ha o iden i y hese ac o s, we
app oach specialis s and expe s in he a ea and engage hem o answe his ques ion. We
pe o m his ia a small ques ionnai e which is analyzed o be e unde s and s a egic
managemen in INGO p ac ice and o ex ac hose ac o s.
Based on he ou comes o he p e ious wo esea ch ques ions, we hen in eg a e ou
indings o answe he ollowing hi d esea ch ques ion:
RQ3:Wha a e he eme ging hemes and ac o s o p ac ical INGO s a egic managemen ?
We aim o iden i y a concep ual model o show he INGO ac o s and hei ela ion‑
ships. The concep ual model p o ides esea che s wi h a new line o inqui y and p ac i‑
ione s wi h an o e a ching iew o wha needs o be conside ed o managing hei pe ‑
o mance.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
Ou pape analyzes s a egic managemen ac o s o INGOs in wo pa s namely ia
a comp ehensi e and objec i e li e a u e e iew, and a su ey‑based empi ical s udy.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 6 o 36
2.1. Sys ema ic Li e a u e Re iew
The e iew o he body o knowledge ele an o his s udy is based on he ou pu s
o sea ches and da a collec ed om Web o Science (WoS), c oss‑examined agains Google
Schola . The ou pu esul s we e based on a icles, and con e ence p oceedings alone. The
li e a u e e iew sea ch esul s we e analyzed acco ding o keywo ds in he i le o he
a icles. The app oach we ollowed o ou li e a u e e iew is simila o he epo ed
sys ema ic li e a u e e iews u ilized by Ryley e al. (2020), Linnenluecke e al. (2020), and
Saade e al. (2023) despi e ou ini ial explo a o y indings ha he ield o ou cu en s udy
o in e es is na ow and e y limi ed in he a ea o INGOs.
We adap ed ou li e a u e e iew om he SLR app oaches in o he s udies in he ield
(Abou Jaoude & Saade,2019;Saade & Nijhe ,2016), wi h small changes adap ed o ou con‑
ex , and as such we will no epea he de ails he ein bu summa ize hem in Table 1. We
iden i y six s eps in ou li e a u e e iew p ocess, namely, concep coding, scoping, con‑
cep sea ch plan, inclusion/exclusion c i e ia, e inemen , and analysis o a inal e ained
se o a icles (mo e de ails a e a ailable in (Wong e al.,2015).
Table 1. S eps o he SLR.
S eps Desc ip ion Pu pose
Concep Coding B oad sea ch Iden i ica ion o key e ms
Scoping Iden i ying he bounda ies o key
e ms Delimi ing key wo ds
Concep Sea ch
Plan De eloping s a egy o sea ching Speci ying sea ch s eps
Inclusion/Exclusion Es ablishing and applying se o
c i e ia o apply sea ch esul s Fil e ing sea ch esul s
Re inemen Reading a icles in ull and u he
conside a ion o e ain o no Selec ing inal se o
a icles
Analysis P ocessing e ained se o a icles
o insigh and building on he
wo k o p e ious esea che s Bibliome ic analysis
The aim o concep coding is o make a b oad sea ch o iden i y all possible key e ms
o in e es gi ing us a map o he concep s uc u es and ela ionships. Ou aim is o o ‑
mula e a coding o key e ms ep esen ing he concep s o be u ilized in he de ailed sea ch.
The wo d “managemen ” o example, added o “s a egy” would esul in many a icles
no ela ed o INGOs wi h mos o he a icles ound in he a eas o o ganiza ional heo y,
which is usually ocused on he p i a e sec o .
In e ms o delimi ing he bounda ies o ou keywo ds’ scope, “s a egy”, and “man‑
agemen ” alone esul ed in many a icles. In ou SLR s a egy, we u ilized he WoS (c oss‑
examined and con i med wi h Google Schola and Scopus) o conduc he in‑dep h and
mo e speci ic sea ch namely, on he keywo ds “s a egic managemen ”, hen added o he
e m “INGO” spelled ou and as an ac onym. We u he eplaced he INGO e m wi h
“UN” (also spelled ou and as an ac onym) wi h he logical pa ame e ‘AND’. We also
eplaced “UN” wi h “public adminis a ion” o ensu e ha we cap u e all publica ions
a ound ou in e es .
Subsequen ly, ou nex s ep was p ima ily ocused on a icle educ ion (by applying
di e en il e s sequen ially), and inal cleanup, he eby lea ing only he a icles sui able
o analysis. We limi ed ou ini ial sea ch esul s o a icles published in pee ‑ e iewed
jou nals and con e ences. We hen excluded any a icles ha we e in he a eas o compu e
science, and enginee ing, and we kep a icles ha deal wi h s a egic managemen as
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 7 o 36
applied o INGOs. The inal se o a icles o syn hesis and analysis was ead comple ely
o see i i was deemed i o ou esea ch goals.
I iswo hwhile no ing ha ou comp ehensi eli e a u e e iewisin line wi h heSys‑
ema ic Li e a u e Re iew me hodology s udied by Xiao and Wa son (2019) and Nigh in‑
gale (2009) who p o ide guidance on wha cons i u es an SLR and how o conduc i , and
K aus e al. (2020) who elabo a e on he a o c a ing an SLR in en ep eneu ship e‑
sea ch. Mo eo e , ou li e a u e e iew p ocess includes mos o he PRISMA p o ocol
elabo a ed by Page e al. (2021) which en ails he ollowing: he p ope o mula ion o
esea ch ques ions (RQ1 and RQ3), iden i ica ion o eligibili y c i e ia, sea ch s a egy de‑
elopmen , s udy selec ion, da a ex ac ion, syn hesis o esul s and epo w i ing.
2.2. Pilo S udy
Fo he pilo s udy, we ollowed a su ey me hodology whe e alida ed ques ions
(which we e de eloped o he con ex o he p i a e sec o ) based on p io esea ch we e
adap ed and adminis e ed o p o essionals in he INGO/NGO sec o .
The ques ions lis ed in Table 2below we e p og ammed in o an online ques ionnai e
builde ool and we e used o su ey INGO p o essionals. The ques ionnai e builde u i‑
lized in his s udy is Wenjuanxing (问卷星) which is popula in China as an online pla o m
ha businesses, esea che s, and educa o s can use o c ea e and dis ibu e online su eys,
exams, and assessmen s. Conside ing he Chinese in o ma ion echnology in as uc u e,
his ool is pa icula ly in e es ing due o i s abili y o in eg a e seamlessly in o WeCha
(China’s leading social media pla o m) he eby p o iding g ea ad an ages o b oaden
he each o pa icipan s and hei engagemen wi h he ques ionnai e. The ques ionnai e
builde included ea u es ha allowed us o con igu e he p ocess o con iden iali y and
imely dis ibu ion o pa icipan s which was conduc ed ia a link and manage he com‑
ple ion o he su eys op imally.
P o essionals (p ima ily leade s and senio manage s) om di e en in e na ional
non‑go e nmen al o ganiza ions mos ly in China we e con ac ed by email o WeCha and
we e in i ed o comple e he su ey by clicking on he link. All po en ial pa icipan s we e
also asked o o wa d he email o o he INGO colleagues whom hey el we e sui able o
p o ide insigh ul eedback. Con ac ing po en ial pa icipan s, one by one, was conduc ed
o e a pe iod o eigh mon hs. INGO leade s and senio manage s a e e y busy and, in
mos cases, hesi an o engage in such su eys, bu wi h ollow‑ups, eminde s, and u he
elabo a ion on he su ey p o ocol, hi y‑eigh pa icipa ed.
As a i s s ep o adminis e ing he su ey/ques ionnai e, pa icipan s we e p o ided
wi h a consen o m ha included in o ma ion abou he esea ch se up, he pu pose o he
expe imen , and o he in o ma ion such as he su ey p ocess, con iden iali y, and e hics,
hei igh s o ask any ques ions o conce n, and hei eedom o wi hd aw a any ime
du ing he su ey. We also o e ed pa icipan s he oppo uni y o lea e an email add ess
so we could communica e he esul s o hem.
The con ex o ou s udy en ailed impo an o ganiza ional sensi i i ies ha needed
o be conside ed. These sensi i i ies consis ed o issues such as he isk o he pa icipan s’
o hei employe s’ epu a ion. Mo eo e , he su ey included a ques ion on whe he we
could publish hei o ganiza ion’s name in ou a icles, and only 10 pe cen ag eed. Those
who ag eed o sha e hei o ganiza ion’s name included he Technology and Highe Edu‑
ca ion Ins i u e o Hong Kong, and he Chinese Socie y o Ae onau ics and As onau ics.
None o he esponden s om Eu ope ag eed o publish hei o ganiza ion’s name. As
such, he su ey was conduc ed anonymously. A e da a cleaning, a sample o 38 usable
eco ds was e ained o analysis.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 8 o 36
Table 2. I ems/ques ions used in he pilo s udy.
I em Code Ques ion
1 SO1 We ha e de ini e and p ecise s a egic objec i e
我们的组织有明确、精确的战略目标
2 SO2 We ha e p ecise p ocedu es o achie ing s a egic objec i es
我们有实现战略目标的精确程序
3 SP Ou s a egy is made explici in he o m o p ecise plans
我们的战略目标有精确计划，因此十分明确
4 SDM We make s a egic decisions based on a sys ema ic analysis o ou business
en i onmen
我们在系统分析业务环境的基础上做出战略决策
5 SSCS To keep in line wi h ou business en i onmen , we make con inual small‑scale
changes o s a egy
为与业务环境保持一致，我们会对战略做出小规模改变
6 SC1 Ou s a egies eme ge g adually as we espond o he need o change
我们的战略是随着对改变需求的响应而逐步形成的
7 SC2 Ou s a egy de elops h ough a p ocess o ongoing adjus men
我们的战略在不断调整的过程中不断发展
8SCOMMIT
(SCO) We keep he ea ly commi men o a s a egy en a i e
我们对战略目标的早期承诺是暂时性的
9SCULTURE
(SSOL) Ou o ganiza ion’s his o y di ec s ou sea ch o solu ions o s a egic issues
我们的历史经验能够指导我们寻求战略问题的解决方案
10 SVISION
(SVI)
The s a egy we ollow is di ec ed by a ision o he u u e associa ed wi h he
chie execu i e (o ano he senio igu e)
我们的战略是由主要执行领导（或其他高层人物）对未来的愿景指导的
11 ORGC E ec i e o ganiza ional change equi es ce ain signi ican and d ama ic s eps o
leaps’ a he han mode a e inc emen al ones
有效的组织变革需要重大的、戏剧性的步骤或飞跃，而不是温和的渐进性的
12 INTL Ou o ganiza ion has in e na ional in luence
我所在的组织具有国际影响力
I ems in his s udy (p esen ed in Table 2) we e adap ed om p e ious li e a u e (Wan
e al.,2022;Bailey e al.,2000). Speci ic ques ions we e selec ed o ep esen c i ical issues
ela ed o s a egic managemen in INGOs wi h he goal o ha ing he leas numbe o
ques ions conside ing ha o icials in INGOs ha e no ime o spend on a leng hy su ey.
This decision was made a e alking o a ew o INGOs’ senio managemen and o he
expe s in he ield.
A 5‑poin Like scale o 1 = ‘S ongly Ag ee’, 2 = Ag ee, 3 = Neu al, 4 = Disag ee,
and 5 = ‘S ongly Disag ee’ was u ilized o all i ems. Twel e ques ions (see Table 2) we e
included in his s udy, which a e ela ed o s a egy, change, commi men , cul u e, and
in e na ionaliza ion.
3. Li e a u e Re iew (RQ1)
3.1. Bibliome ic Analysis
To demons a e he scope o he body o knowledge in INGO s a egic managemen ,
we ollowed a unnel app oach e y close o he PRISMA amewo k whe e we i s con‑
duc ed a b oad sea ch o publica ions in he a ea o INGO s a egic managemen , using
he e ms ‘s a egy’, ‘managemen ’, ‘non‑go e nmen al’, and ‘o ganiza ion’, o iden i y he
numbe o eco ds in he da abase ele an o ou a ea o in e es (PRISMA Phase 1: Iden‑
i ica ion and sea ch s a egy SS 1 o 13—See Table 3).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 15 o 36
Table 6. Con .
A icle Ti le Pu pose Findings
C. Han & Gao,
2020
A chai mul iple
media ion model
linking s a egic,
managemen , and
echnological
inno a ions o i m
compe i i eness
To build an in eg a ed
amewo k o discuss
he in luence o h ee
ypes o inno a ions,
i.e., s a egic,
managemen , and
echnological
inno a ions, on o m
compe i i eness.
Al hough s a egic, managemen , and
echnological inno a ions, on o m
compe i i eness we e ca ied ou a di e en
o ganiza ional le els, hey o mula ed a
holis ic amewo k o join ly imp o e i m
compe i i eness. S a egic inno a ion
s eng hened i m compe i i eness h ough
h ee pa allel ou es: managemen
inno a ion, echnological inno a ion, and
se ial media ing mechanisms o
managemen and echnological inno a ions.
The media ion e ec o managemen
inno a ion is signi ican ly s onge han ha
o echnological inno a ion.
Wan e al.,2020 De i ing signi ican
ac o s o managing
change in UN
To iden i y key ac o s
o managing change in
he UN
Th ee signi ican ac o s, communica ion,
empo al sensi i i y, and knowledge we e
ound o ep esen a sha ed common
heo e ical p oposi ion om Ko e ’s,
Lewin’s, and ADKAR models. Ex ac ed
ac o explains he p oposed UN model.
J. B yson &
Edwa ds,2017 S a egic planning in
he Public Sec o
To iden i y and
elabo a e on he
esea ch agenda
ega ding public‑sec o
s a egic planning
using a mo e open
app oach. Impo an
ques ions a ising om
he li e a u e we e
included o p o ide
u he insigh s.
(1) Dimensions o in e nal and ex e nal
con ex s made a di e ence. (2) Di e ences
ac oss o ganiza ion ypes, unc ions,
sub‑uni s, o places we e iden i ied. (3)
Dependence o s a egic planning on policy
ields was obse ed. (4) Resou ces equi ed
o e ec i e s a egic planning. (5) The e a e
e ec s o di e ence be ween s a egic
a i ac s on s a egic planning. (6)
Connec ions be ween s a egic planning and
o he elemen s o s a egic managemen
we e p esen ed.
Johnson,2016
Coope a ion,
co‑op a ion,
compe i ion, con lic :
in e na ional
bu eauc acies and
non‑go e nmen al
o ganiza ions in an
in e dependen wo ld
To de elop a 4Cs
axonomy o when
coope a i e,
co‑op a i e,
compe i i e, o
con lic ual ela ions
a ise be ween NGOs
and in e na ional
bu eauc acies and
examine i wi h he
example o he Food
and Ag icul u al
O ganiza ion (FAO).
The 4Cs axonomy sugges ed ha : sha ed
alues and dis inc esou ce bases led o
coope a ion; Sha ed alues and same
esou ce led o co‑op a ion; no sha ed
alues and no dis inc esou ce bases led o
compe i ion; No sha ed alues and di e en
esou ces led o con lic .

Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 16 o 36
Table 6. Con .
A icle Ti le Pu pose Findings
Johnsen,2015
S a egic managemen
hinking and p ac ices
in he public sec o :
s a egic planning o
all seasons?
To explo e how
s a egic managemen
hinking mani es s
i sel in s a egic
managemen p ac ice
in he public sec o .
S a egic managemen in he public sec o
ex ensi ely used s a egic planning, bundled
wi h ce ain o he schools o hough . (1) The
s udy suppo ed he no ion ha s a egic
planning was dominan in s a egic hinking.
(2) Bo h he cogni i e and en ep eneu ial
schools we e ela i ely unimpo an in
s a egic hinking in he public sec o .
Cas ellini,2014
S akeholde heo y and
s a egic managemen
in hi d sec o : an
analysis on I alian
coope a i e
associa ions
To iden i y how he
coope a i e
associa ions in I aly
implemen hei
s a egic objec i es.
Mos impo an s eps and ools o planning
and con olling cycle we e iden i ied; a
de ini ion o he S a e o he A was
o mula ed in ela ion o coope a i e
associa ions ac i i ies; oppo uni ies o
con ol ools and hei applica ions we e
iden i ied.
Cuganesan
e al.,2012
S a egic managemen
accoun ing and
s a egy p ac ices
wi hin a public sec o
agency
To examine he ole o
managemen
accoun ing in
o ganiza ional
p ac ices ha enac
s a egy.
I expanded he exis ing knowledge o he
speci ic oles o s a egic managemen
accoun ing in s a egizing. Managemen
accoun ing c ea ed sha ed unde s anding by
objec i ying, mobilizing, and connec ing
s a egic conce ns ac oss s a egic p ac ices
and p ac i ione s. I media ed di e se
s a egic in e es s and ecas s a egic
p ac ices. I ac i ely econs i u es s a egic
p ac ices and engende s new o ms o
managemen accoun ing, c ea ing bo h
change and con inui y o s a egizing.
Young e al.,
2012
Is s a egy being
implemen ed h ough
p ojec s? Con a y
e idence om a leade
in New Public
Managemen
To epo on he
e ec i eness o he
p ojec managemen
and in es men
amewo ks in he S a e
o Vic o ia.
(1) The Vic o ian p ojec managemen and
in es men p ac ices we e compa able wi h
and some imes be e han he bes p ac ices.
(2) The p ojec s gene ally may ail o
con ibu e o o ganiza ion s a egic
ou comes. (3) E en deemed success ul
p ojec s p o ided no assu ance o
suppo ing he o ganiza ional s a egy.
Boyne &
Walke ,2010
S a egic managemen
and public se ice
pe o mance: he way
ahead
To e iew a gumen s
and e idence on he
mos e ec i e
s a egies ha
o ganiza ions adop ed
o pu sue hei
objec i es and se ou
an agenda o esea ch
owa d be e
pe o mance.
The e iew o e idence indica ed ha some
small s eps ha e been aken on a long
jou ney, bu ha u he s eps should be
aken by clea ly heo izing he ela ionship
be ween s a egy and publicness, and by
being cognizan o na ional con ex .
Pois e ,2010
The u u e o s a egic
planning in he public
sec o : linking s a egic
managemen and
pe o mance
To look a he mid‑ e m
u u e o s a egic
planning in he public
sec o om a
manage ial pe spec i e
o e he nex decade o
he yea 2020.
Mo ing om planning s a egy and
measu ing he pe o mance o ongoing
p og ams on he one hand, o implemen ing
s a egy and using pe o mance in o ma ion
o imp o e pe o mance, on he o he , will
be essen ial o public agencies o
signi ican ly inc ease hei capaci y o mee
new and un o eseen challenges and c ea e
public alue in he nex 10 yea s.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 17 o 36
Table 6. Con .
A icle Ti le Pu pose Findings
Nag e al.,2007
Wha is s a egic
managemen , eally?
Induc i e de i a ion o
a consensus de ini ion
o he ield.
To answe he ques ion
o why s a egic
managemen enjoyed
g ea success, i was
commonly asse ed
ha he s udy on i was
agmen ed and lacked
a cohe en iden i y. To
de ine s a egic
managemen and hen
supplemen i wi h an
examina ion.
The indings sugges ed ha s a egic
managemen ’s success as a ield eme ged
om an unde lying consensus ha enabled
i o a ac mul iple pe spec i es, while s ill
main aining i s cohe en dis inc i eness.
Fa joun,2002 Towa d an o ganic
pe spec i e on s a egy
To p opose an o ganic
pe spec i e ha
combines he insigh s
and cohe ence o he
mechanis ic
pe spec i e wi h he
mo e ele an o ganic
ideas.
I is ound ha he o ganic pe spec i e
o e ed a cohe en iew o co e s a egy
issues. Th ee pilla s o an o ganic
pe spec i e o e ed dis inc i e iew: (1) he
o ganic concep o s a egy s essed ac ion,
coo dina ion, and adap a ion. (2) The OESP
(o ganiza ion‑en i onmen ‑s a egy‑
pe o mance) showed how di e en
lowe ‑le el models s emmed om a mo e
in eg a ed and dynamic o e iew o he
ield’s main cons uc s and ela ionships. (3)
The o ganic model o s a egic managemen
highligh ed he ecu en and in eg a ed
aspec s o he p ocess and sugges ed a mo e
holis ic iew o s a egy i sel .
C. Oli e ,1997
Sus ainable
compe i i e ad an age:
combining ins i u ional
and esou ce‑based
iews
To p opose a p ocess
model o i m
he e ogenei y ha
combines he insigh s
o esou ce‑based iew
wi h he ins i u ional
pe spec i e o he
o ganiza ion heo y.
Bo h esou ce capi al and ins i u ional
capi al a e indispensable o sus ainable
compe i i e ad an age.
A. J. Oli ie &
Schwella,2018
Closing he s a egy
execu ion gap in he
public sec o
To de elop a
concep ual model in
he public sec o in
esponse o he
signi ican gap be ween
s a egy planning and
execu ion.
The e we e nine elemen s key o closing he
s a egy execu ion gap: leade ship, s a egic
planning, p ojec managemen , alignmen ,
pe o mance managemen (MERIL), d i e,
engagemen , isk managemen , and
s akeholde managemen . A concep ual
model was de i ed by in eg a ing he abo e
nine componen s.
UN S a egic planning
guide o manage s
To p o ide p ac ical
echniques based on
global managemen
bes p ac ices o all
UN o ice s,
depa men s, and
missions.
‑‑‑
Based on he li e a u e e iew abo e, we a e able o ex ac common hemes and a ‑
eas o in e es . Howe e , we no ice ha he adi ional hemes o s a egic managemen ,
especially hose ha ha e oo s in he esou ce‑based iew o he i m, con inue o domi‑
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 18 o 36
na e he li e a u e. These adi ional hemes emain he cen al ocus o mos s udies and
include planning, o mula ion, execu ion, and moni o ing and con ol.
Howe e , based on ou ini ial obse a ions and mo e de ailed analysis o he con en
epo ed in he ollowing sec ion, we will selec s a egic managemen a eas ha a e mo e
ep esen a i e o INGOs: S a egy S uc u es (SS—blue), Human Capi al (HC—G een),
and Change Managemen (CM—Red). These ep esen he e olu ion o he INGO d i en
by s a egic implemen a ion. Table 7p o ides a mapping o he in e p e ed su ey i ems
agains he cons uc s o he h ee new hemes.
Table 7. Mapping o ques ions’ concep s o e ained a icles.
SS SS SS HC CM CM CM HC HC SS SS SS
# SO1 SO2 SP SDM SSCS SC1 SC2 SCO SSOL SVI ORGC INTL
1✓✓✓✓✓
2✓✓✓
3✓✓✓
4✓
5✓ ✓
6✓✓✓
7✓
8✓
9✓
10 ✓
11 ✓ ✓
12 ✓
13 ✓
14
15 ✓ ✓
16 ✓
17 ✓
18
19 ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
20 ✓ ✓
21 ✓ ✓
SS: S a egic Fac o s; HC: Human Capi al; CM: Change Managemen .
4. Empi ical Analysis—Pilo S udy (RQ2)
A su ey app oach was ollowed u ilizing he i ems/ques ions ha we e adap ed o
ou con ex and p esen ed in Table 2. Ou analy ical goals a e o examine he esponses
om INGO p o essionals o gain a be e unde s anding o he ield om p ac ice. Mo e‑
o e , h ough ou analy ical app oach, we would examine he possible ex ac ion o ac‑
o s wi h he aim o de eloping a measu emen ins umen o u u e use in esea ch
and p ac ice.
All su ey esponden s wo ked in an INGO, pas o p esen , and hold a medium (14)
o senio (17) managemen posi ion, o aling 87% o esponses being om uppe manage‑
men . Twen y‑ h ee o he esponden s we e male, he eby gi ing a male‑ o‑ emale a io
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 19 o 36
o 2 o 1. A ound one‑ hi d o he esponden s ha e a Ph.D. deg ee, and jus o e hal
(53%) ha e a Mas e ’s deg ee. Mos o he esponden s we e om China (some we e om
Finland and Canada) had a Wes e n educa ion wi h good o excellen English language
skills, and ha e o e 10 yea s o na ional and in e na ional expe ience.
As such, he analy ical s a egy applied o he esponses en ails wo s eps: (1) De‑
sc ip i e s a is ics, (2) plo ing o his og ams o he esponses o obse e any disc epancies,
ou lie s, pa e ns, and o he possible anomalies o he ac ual da a, (3) iden i ying any ela‑
ionships be ween he i ems/ques ions, and (4) pe o ming an explo a o y ac o analysis
(EFA) o ex ac ac o s ele an o ou INGO con ex .
4.1. Desc ip i e
Table 8shows he esul s o he desc ip i e s a is ics p esen ing he mean, mode, s an‑
da d de ia ion, skewness, and ku osis. Mo eo e , in he las column on he igh , we
p o ide a summa ized in e p e a ion o he da a.
Table 8. Desc ip i e analysis o su ey esponses.
Va iable Mean SD SKW KRT In e p e a ion Summa y
SO1 1.35 0.54 1.2 0.53
S ong ag eemen on s a egic objec i es,
wi h low a iabili y and posi i e skew
owa ds ag eemen . Responses a e
concen a ed a ound ‘S ongly Ag ee’.
SO2 1.62 0.72 1.19 1.87
High ag eemen wi h s a egic objec i es,
bu mo e dispe sed han SO1. Responses
a e s ill posi i ely skewed owa ds
ag eemen , wi h mos concen a ed
a ound ‘Ag ee’.
SP 1.76 0.8 0.83 0.21
Gene al ag eemen wi h s a egic
planning. Some esponden s a e neu al,
and he dis ibu ion is mo e balanced,
showing a mode a e posi i e skew.
SDM 1.76 0.76 0.45 −1.1
Ag eemen wi h s a egic
decision‑making, wi h mo e e enly
dis ibu ed esponses. Skewness is low,
and ku osis indica es a la e
dis ibu ion.
SSCS 1.7 0.62 0.28 −0.54
Mos esponden s ag ee wi h small‑scale
s a egy changes, wi h li le skewness
and a la e dis ibu ion. Neu ali y is
less common bu p esen .
SC1 2 0.7 0.5 −0.45
Ag eemen wi h s a egic change, bu
esponses a e mo e balanced be ween
ag ee and neu al, wi h mode a e
posi i e skew.
SC2 2.02 0.72 0.55 −0.35 Like SC1, he e is gene al ag eemen , bu
mo e neu ali y is obse ed, wi h
mode a e a iabili y and posi i e skew.
SCOMMIT 2.15 0.91 0.95 0.55
Ag eemen on s a egic commi men ,
hough esponses a e mo e a iable wi h
some neu al and disag eeable esponses.
Highe skewness sugges s mo e
esponden s lean owa d posi i e
ag eemen .
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 20 o 36
Table 8. Con .
Va iable Mean SD SKW KRT In e p e a ion Summa y
SSOL 2.12 0.81 1.18 1.65
Gene al ag eemen on s a egic cul u e, bu
wi h no iceable a iabili y and a skew
owa ds ag eemen . Responses a e clus e ed
a ound ag ee, bu neu ali y and highe
sco es appea mo e o en.
SVISION 2 0.77 0.45 −0.8
Ag eemen wi h s a egic ision, wi h
mode a e sp ead o esponses and a mo e
balanced skew. The ku osis sugges s a la e
dis ibu ion, meaning mo e a ied esponses.
O gC 2.2 1.08 0.6 −1.07
Neu al‑ o‑ag ee esponses on o ganiza ional
change. Some o he esponden s exp essed
neu ali y o disag eemen , esul ing in a
mo e balanced dis ibu ion.
INTL 2.25 0.91 0.95 0.55
Mixed esponses on in e na ional in luence.
While he e is ag eemen , a no able
p opo ion o esponden s a e neu al o
disag ee, and he posi i e skew e lec s mo e
ag eemen o e all.
SD: S anda d De ia ion; SKW: Skewness; KRT: Ku osis.
The su ey da a e eal ha esponden s gene ally “S ongly Ag ee” o “Ag ee” wi h
mos s a egic hemes, wi h he mean alues o mos a iables below 2.00. The mos e‑
quen esponse (mode) is 1 (“S ongly Ag ee”) o key ca ego ies like s a egic objec i es
(SO1 and SO2), s a egic planning (SP), and s a egic decision‑making (SDM), sugges ing
s ong o e all suppo o hese a eas. The low s anda d de ia ion alues ac oss mos a i‑
ables indica e ha esponden s answe ed consis en ly, wi h li le a ia ion in hei le el
o ag eemen . Howe e , a iables like s a egic cul u e (SCULTURE) and o ganiza ional
change (O gC) exhibi highe a iabili y, e lec ing mo e di e se opinions.
The skewness o mos a iables is posi i e, meaning esponses a e skewed owa ds
ag eemen , hough some esponden s selec ed mo e neu al o disag eeing op ions. This
is pa icula ly e iden in ca ego ies like s a egic change (SC1, SC2) and s a egic commi ‑
men (SCOMMIT), whe e he skew is less p onounced, e lec ing a mo e balanced se o
opinions. Fo hese a iables, he esponses ange mo e widely be ween “Ag ee”, “Neu‑
al”, and e en “Disag ee”, wi hku osis indica ingdis ibu ions ha a e ei he peaked( o
concen a ed ag eemen , such as SO2) o la e ( o a mo e e en sp ead, such as SDM).
The mos impo an indings show ha while s a egic objec i es and s a egic plan‑
ning ecei e s ong suppo , a eas in ol ing s a egic change, commi men , and o gani‑
za ional change see mo e mixed esponses. The da a sugges ha esponden s a e less
ce ain o di ided on hese change‑ ela ed aspec s, wi h some showing neu ali y o e en
disag eemen . Fo ins ance, in e na ional in luence (INTL) has a mean o 2.25 and a pos‑
i i e skew, e lec ing ha while he e is ag eemen , a signi ican numbe o pa icipan s
exp essed neu al o disag eeing opinions. Simila ly, he ku osis alues ac oss he boa d
e eal ha some a eas (such as SO2) ha e a high concen a ion o simila esponses, while
o he s (such as SDM and SSCS) show a la e dis ibu ion, sugges ing less consensus.
4.2. Plo ing o His og ams
Figu e 1depic s he his og ams o he esponses o all wel e ques ions. On he one
hand, o mos esponses he gene al endency cen e ed a ound S ongly Ag ee and Ag ee
indica ing o e all ag eemen wi h he ques ions, sugges ing an o e all posi i e sen imen
owa ds o ganiza ional s a egic impe a i es. This is especially p ominen o SO1 (S a e‑
gic Objec i es 1), SO2 (S a egic Objec i es 2), SP (S a egic Planning), and SDM (S a egic
Decision‑Making). These esul s sugges ha pa icipan s posi i ely iew in he con ex o

Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 21 o 36
INGOs, s a egic objec i es, planning, and decision‑making p ocesses indica ing a le el o
con idence in he o ganiza ion’s s a egic s uc u es.
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 o 37
Figu e 1. His og ams o su ey esponses.
On he o he hand, S a egic Commi men (SCOMMIT), S a egic Cul u e (SCUL-
TURE), and O ganiza ional Change (O gC) ha e a wide dis ibu ion cu e o he e-
sponses, wi h mo e pa icipan s being neu al o he ela ed ques ions and wi h some pa -
icipan s indica ing ha hey disag ee and e en s ongly disag ee wi h he ques ions. This
dis ibu ion cu e is indica i e o a cau ious pe cep ion o issues ela ed o o ganiza ional
change, commi men o s a egy, and he in luence o cul u e on s a egy, which seems o
be a conce n in he INGO con ex . In o he wo ds, he e is less consensus, and some indi-
iduals migh eel less a o ably abou how INGOs implemen s a egic s uc u es. F om
his, we may sugges ha his may also be indica i e o he impo ance o human capi al
in he con ex o INGO ans o ma ion and change.
Looking u he in o he clus e ing o esponses in he lowe alues, we ocus on he
po en ial challenges d i en by esis ance o s a egic change and cul u e. Small-Scale
Changes o S a egy (SSCS) and S a egic Change (SC1, SC2) show s ong ag eemen bu
Figu e 1. His og ams o su ey esponses.
On he o he hand, S a egic Commi men (SCOMMIT), S a egic Cul u e (SCUL‑
TURE), and O ganiza ional Change (O gC) ha e a wide dis ibu ion cu e o he e‑
sponses, wi h mo e pa icipan s being neu al o he ela ed ques ions and wi h some pa ‑
icipan s indica ing ha hey disag ee and e en s ongly disag ee wi h he ques ions. This
dis ibu ion cu e is indica i e o a cau ious pe cep ion o issues ela ed o o ganiza ional
change, commi men o s a egy, and he in luence o cul u e on s a egy, which seems o
be a conce n in he INGO con ex . In o he wo ds, he e is less consensus, and some indi‑
iduals migh eel less a o ably abou how INGOs implemen s a egic s uc u es. F om
his, we may sugges ha his may also be indica i e o he impo ance o human capi al
in he con ex o INGO ans o ma ion and change.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 22 o 36
Looking u he in o he clus e ing o esponses in he lowe alues, we ocus on
he po en ial challenges d i en by esis ance o s a egic change and cul u e. Small‑Scale
Changes o S a egy (SSCS) and S a egic Change (SC1, SC2) show s ong ag eemen bu
wi h a no iceable p opo ion o neu al esponses. This indica es ha while he e is gen‑
e al suppo o SC, some esponden s indica ed ha hey a e ce ain abou he necessi y
o change on a b oade scale.
Mo eo e , he INTL a iable has a mo e sp ead‑ou dis ibu ion, wi h esponses ang‑
ing om ag eemen o neu al and e en some disag eemen . This sugges s ha espon‑
den s may ha e a ied opinions on he in luence o in e na ional ac o s on s a egy, wi h
some eeling less ce ain abou he o ganiza ion’s in e na ional posi ioning o in luence.
The esul sindica e ha INGOs ha e s ong suppo o hei s a egic objec i es, plan‑
ning, and decision‑making p ocesses, wi h many esponden s exp essing high con idence
in hese a eas. A eas ela ed o s a egic change, o ganiza ional cul u e, and commi men
show mo e mixed eac ions, signaling po en ial a eas o u he cla i ica ion, engagemen ,
o adjus men o gain b oade buy‑in. O ganiza ional change and in e na ional in luence
a e a eas whe e neu al and disag eeing esponses a e mo e p e alen , indica ing a need
o mo e communica ion o eassu ance ega ding hese aspec s o he o ganiza ion’s s a ‑
egy. O e all, while he sen imen owa ds s a egy is la gely posi i e, he e a e a eas e‑
la ed o change and ex e nal in luence ha could bene i om u he a en ion o ensu e
mo e uni ied suppo om pa icipan s.
4.3. Co ela ion Analysis
Figu e 2p esen s wo hea map g aphs o he co ela ions be ween he i ems, namely
he Pea son co ela ion coe icien ( op g aph) and i s associa ed le el o signi icance (p‑
alues) (bo om g aph). The hea map o he Pea son co ela ion coe icien s show he
s eng h o linea ela ionships be ween he di e en a iables. A s ong posi i e co ‑
ela ion o 0.76 is obse ed be ween SO2 (S a egic Objec i es) and SP (S a egic Plan‑
ning). Wi h ega ds o s a egic change, a s ong co ela ion is obse ed be ween SC1
and SC2 (0.75), and SC1 and SSCS (Small‑Scale Change) (0.69). Nega i e co ela ions a e
weake and less p e alen , bu SVISION has nega i e co ela ions wi h SO2 (−0.37) and SP
(−0.28), indica ing s a egic ision migh be pe cei ed di e en ly om s a egic objec i es
and planning.
Conside ing he hea map o p‑ alues indica ing s a is ical signi icance, a p‑ alue o
less han 0.05 indica es a signi ican co ela ion. Signi ican co ela ions include SO1 wi h
SO2 (p= 0.0003), SO1 wi h SP (p= 0.0038), and SO2 wi h SP (p= 0.0000). SC1 wi h SC2 (p
= 0.0004) and SC1 wi h SSCS (p= 0.0028) a e also signi ican co ela ions. Highe p‑ alues
(da ke a eas in he hea map) sugges co ela ions ha a e no s a is ically signi ican , like
SO1 wi h INTL (p= 0.96) and SDM wi h INTL (p= 0.97), meaning he e is li le e idence
ha hese a iables a e ela ed.
S ong s a egic alignmen is indica ed by he high co ela ions be ween s a egic ob‑
jec i es, planning, and decision‑making. This sugges s ha esponden s who ag ee wi h
one s a egic dimension end o ag ee wi h he o he s. S a egic change a iables (SC1,
SC2, SSCS) a e also s ongly ela ed, which may indica e ha pa icipan s iew change
as a cohesi e concep . S a egic ision (SVISION) shows some nega i e co ela ions wi h
s a egic planning and objec i es, sugges ing some di e gence in how esponden s pe ‑
cei e s a egic ision compa ed o o he s a egic elemen s. In e na ional in luence (INTL)
does no ha e signi ican co ela ions wi h mos a iables, indica ing i migh be iewed
as an ex e nal o independen ac o by esponden s.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 23 o 36
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 24 o 37
Figu e 2. Co ela ion analysis hea map—Pea son coefficien ( op) and co esponding signi icance
p- alues (bo om).
4.4. P incipal Componen Analysis
Using he s a is ical echnique o P incipal Componen Analysis (PCA) we a e able
o iden i y he ac o s associa ed wi h INGO s a egic managemen and educe he dimen-
sionali y o a da ase ( esponses om su ey pa icipan s) while e aining as much a i-
ance as possible. Using he PCA echnique, he o iginal a iables a e g ouped in o ac-
o s/componen s ha measu e he same cons uc . These ac o s a e analyzed based on
he assump ion o linea i y and a e anked by assessing he a iance hey explain. Va i-
ance is analyzed such ha he i s ac o explains he la ges po ion o he a iance, ol-
lowed by o he ac o s ( ep esen ed as co ela ed g oups o i ems/ques ions) explaining
he nex amoun o a iance, p esen ed in a iance explained in descending o de . The
social sciences discipline has accep ed he PCA as a s anda d analy ical ool, and esea ch-
e s in he a ea u ilize i o manipula e and in e p e complex da ase s in o simple in e -
p e a ions, by unco e ing unde lying s uc u es and mechanisms, and educing edun-
dancy in co ela ed a iables while a he same ime dealing wi h mul i-collinea i ies
ound in he ela ionships among he a iables o in e es (Jolliffe, 2002).
In he PCA o he explo a o y ac o analysis, we pe o med a a imax o a ion (pa -
icula ly sui able in a eas whe e he goal is o iden i y la en a iables o unde lying
Figu e 2. Co ela ion analysis hea map—Pea son coe icien ( op) and co esponding signi icance
p‑ alues (bo om).
4.4. P incipal Componen Analysis
Using he s a is ical echnique o P incipal Componen Analysis (PCA) we a e able
o iden i y he ac o s associa ed wi h INGO s a egic managemen and educe he dimen‑
sionali y o a da ase ( esponses om su ey pa icipan s) while e aining as much a i‑
ance as possible. Using he PCA echnique, he o iginal a iables a e g ouped in o ac‑
o s/componen s ha measu e he same cons uc . These ac o s a e analyzed based on
he assump ion o linea i y and a e anked by assessing he a iance hey explain. Va i‑
ance is analyzed such ha he i s ac o explains he la ges po ion o he a iance, ol‑
lowed by o he ac o s ( ep esen ed as co ela ed g oups o i ems/ques ions) explaining
he nex amoun o a iance, p esen ed in a iance explained in descending o de . The so‑
cial sciences discipline has accep ed he PCA as a s anda d analy ical ool, and esea che s
in he a ea u ilize i o manipula e and in e p e complex da ase s in o simple in e p e a‑
ions, by unco e ing unde lying s uc u es and mechanisms, and educing edundancy in
co ela ed a iables while a he same ime dealing wi h mul i‑collinea i ies ound in he
ela ionships among he a iables o in e es (Jolli e,2002).
In he PCA o he explo a o y ac o analysis, we pe o med a a imax o a ion (pa ‑
icula ly sui able in a eas whe e he goal is o iden i y la en a iables o unde lying
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 24 o 36
cons uc s—i.e., su ey‑based esea ch) as an o hogonal o a ion me hod. This is a com‑
mon p ac ice in social science esea ch o imp o e he in e p e abili y o he componen s.
Wi hou o a ion, we ind a iables ha c oss‑load, meaning ha hey load on many a i‑
ables simul aneously, o in o he wo ds, hei loadings on mo e han one a iable a e e y
close. To mi iga e his p oblem, he a imax o a ion in he PCA allows o he maximiza‑
ion o he a iance o squa ed loadings on each a iable. In o he wo ds, i esul s in he
dis ancing o he loadings om each o he he eby making he ac o s mo e dis inc and
ending o load he i ems be e on only one ac o . Wi h ha ou come, he ac o s become
easie o unde s and and in e p e wi hin he con ex hey a e being s udied (Kaise ,1958).
I is wo hwhile no ing ha he a imax o a ion assumes ha unco ela ed ac o s a e
s udied (Fab iga e al.,1999).
Table 9shows he ac o loadings a e pe o ming PCA wi h a imax o a ion o
h ee ac o s, including all he o iginal a iables. The loadings indica e he s eng h and
di ec ion o each a iable’s associa ion wi h he ac o s. A high posi i e o nega i e load‑
ing (abo e 0.4 o below −0.4) indica es a s ong ela ionship be ween he a iable and
he ac o .
Table 9. Th ee‑ ac o solu ion.
Fac o 1
S a egic Change
Fac o 2
S a egic Fo mula ion
Fac o 3
S a egic Alignmen
INTL 0.03 **0.36** 0.21
O gC 0.15 0.28 0.3
SC1 **0.58** 0.1 0.08
SC2 **0.53** 0.18 0.1
SCOMMIT 0.27 **0.37** 0.21
SSOL 0.07 0.13 **0.52**
SDM 0.07 0.04 **0.56**
SO1 0 0.15 **0.42**
SO2 0.16 **0.47** 0.06
SP 0.07 **0.43** 0.18
SSCS **0.50** 0.15 0.07
SVISION 0.01 **0.38** 0.05
** highligh s accep able loadings.
We can analyze Table 9wi h wo obse a ions. Fi s , we obse e ha he loadings
a e gene ally low wi h he highes alue o 0.56 in ac o 3 and he lowes 0.36 in ac o
2. The e o e, he loadings on he ac o s a e wi hin a na ow ange. This is a suppo i e
esul as i may indica e disc imina ion be ween he ac o s. No ably, he e a e no c oss‑
loadings and all ac o loadings be ween he minimum o 0.36 and maximum o 0.58 a e
well disc imina ed. Second, and consequen ly due o he loading cha ac e is ics, we did
no ha e o pe o m any ac o educ ion analysis since he h ee ac o s a e dis inc and
exhibi accep able disc imina ion. Fac o 1 loads on h ee a iables, ac o 2 loads on i e
a iables, and ac o 3 loads on h ee a iables. All loadings a e signi ican o less han
0.005 signi icance ac o and a e shown wi h a double s a on each side beside hei alues
in he able.
Fac o s 1 and 3 ha e o e all s ong loadings while ac o 2 loads o a lesse ex en .
Fac o 1 loads on SC1 (S a egic Change 1): 0.58 (s ong posi i e loading); SC2 (S a egic
Change 2): 0.53 (s ong posi i e loading) and SSCS (Small‑Scale Changes o S a egy): 0.50.
Fac o 1 p ima ily ep esen s s a egic change, as all SC1, SC2, and SSCS load s ongly on
his ac o . These esul s sugges ha his ac o explains he ela ionship o s a egy wi h
esponse o inc emen al change and ongoing adjus men .
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 31 o 36
2. The China One Bel One Road (OBOR) o Bel and Road Ini ia i e (BRI): The ongo‑
ing global de elopmen s a egy (c ea ed in 2013) ep esen ing he ancien economic
ade Silk Road, connec s China o Cen al Asia, he Middle Eas , and Eu ope. This
en ails all ade and economic dimensions such as de elopmen , ma ke expansion,
geopoli ical in luence, connec i i y, and inancial in eg a ion. Wi h o e 150 coun‑
ies and in e na ional o ganiza ions collabo a ing unde his ini ia i e, in e na ional
ac i i ies a e being eshaped.
3. O he globale en s: geopoli ical ensions andcon lic s ina eas suchas Uk aine, Gaza,
Sudan, and Yemen; ade ba ie s and a i s leading o ganiza ions o shi hei man‑
u ac u ing bases; global go e nance o a i icial in elligence; accele a ed g ow h in
eme ging ma ke s; ex eme wea he e en s due o clima e change; and echnological
ad ancemen s, digi al ans o ma ion, and cybe secu i y.
These global e en s a e impac ing he wo ld and by ex ension INGO’s in e na ional
s a egy and ac i i ies ac oss economic and poli ical sphe es. The esea ch p esen ed in
his a icle can help INGO senio manage s and leade s in es ablishing a mo e adap i e
s a egy o ace he challenges o oday’s global dynamics. Ou indings sugges ha h ee
s a egic ac o sshouldbeconside ed: s a egic esponseandinc emen aldynamic change
wi h ongoing adjus men (Fac o 1 in Table 9); s a egic commi men owa ds in e na ional
in luence and de elopmen (Fac o 2 in Table 9); and s a egic alignmen ac oss s a egic
objec i es, decision‑making, and solu ions.
The h ee ac o s iden i ied abo e cons i u e a s a egic amewo k ha INGO leade s
can use o c ea e o adjus hei s a egic plan. These h ee ac o s, al hough de i ed om
p i a e sec o esou ce‑based‑ iew heo y, we e adap ed o ep esen mo e accu a ely he
con ex o INGOs. I we conside ac o 2, ollowed by ac o 3, hen ac o 1, we can o ‑
mula e a se o in e connec ed ecommenda ions o p ac i ione s.
Fi s , INGO leade s should make i e y clea in hei s a egic plan ha hey a e com‑
mi ed o ocusing on es ablishing in e na ional in luence ia a ious means. This may in‑
clude a eas o legi imacy, pe o mance, c edibili y, poli ical posi ion (i.e., neu ali y), and
image. Fo example, NGOs and INGOs a e being p essu ed oday by hei s akeholde s o
demons a e he e iciency and e ec i eness o hei wo k ou comes. This has pu p essu e
on all hese o ganiza ions o de elop pe o mance managemen amewo ks ha demon‑
s a e how he o ganiza ion is mee ing i s s a egic goals. As such, INGO leade s need o
le e age in o ma ion echnologies o de elop a pe o mance managemen sys em, which
may be pa o he INGO’s digi al ans o ma ion.
Wi h his in place, INGOleade s, h ough hei pe o mance managemen sys em, can
align hei ision (s a egic le el), o hei p og ams ( ac ical le el—ini ia i es), and hei
p ojec s (ope a ional le el—ac i i ies). This alignmen allows he o ganiza ion o ace he
ou pu s om he p ojec s, he ou comes om he p og ams, o he impac s iden i ied in
hei ision/mission. Many ha e s a ed his pe o mance managemen amewo k imple‑
men a ion in he las decade. This in e nal p og am allows o he INGO o build capaci y,
adap o a equen ly changing ecosys em, and mee s akeholde s’ expec a ions.
Finally, wi h a clea in e na ional commi men o a s a egy, and a pe o mance man‑
agemen sys em o ope a ionalize i , he INGO is eady o he nu u ing o a ole an
change cul u e e ec i e in esponding s a egically o an inc emen ally changing o gani‑
za ional en i onmen ha is con inuously adjus ing o he ex e nal en i onmen (in e na‑
ional challenges).
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, X.Z.; Me hodology, X.Z. and R.G.S.; So wa e, X.Z.; Val‑
ida ion, R.G.S.; Fo mal analysis, X.Z.; In es iga ion, X.Z. and R.G.S.; Da a cu a ion, X.Z. and R.G.S.;

Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 34 32 o 36
W i ing—o iginal d a , X.Z.; W i ing— e iew & edi ing, X.Z. and R.G.S.; Visualiza ion, R.G.S. Su‑
pe ision, R.G.S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed o his s udy due
o he s udy being anonymous and olun a y wi h no isk in ol ed, and included a consen o m.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o medconsen wasob ained omallsubjec sin ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Due o p i acy and con iden iali y conce ns, da a a e a ailable upon
eques om he au ho s.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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