Cracks in the Foundation: How Relational Communication Dynamics Predict Performance Improvement in Cross‐Functional Teams

Schwei ze , Ve aM. e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
C acks in he Founda ion: How Rela ional Communica ion
Dynamics P edic Pe o mance Imp o emen in C oss‐
Func ional Teams
Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Schwei ze , Ve aM. e al. (2025) : C acks in he Founda ion: How Rela ional
Communica ion Dynamics P edic Pe o mance Imp o emen in C oss‐Func ional Teams, Jou nal o
Supply Chain Managemen , ISSN 1745-493X, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 61, Iss. 3, pp. 36-54,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jscm.12341
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Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen , 2025; 61:36–54
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jscm.12341
36
Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen
ORIGINAL ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
C acks in he Founda ion: How Rela ional Communica ion
Dynamics P edic Pe o mance Imp o emen in
C oss- Func ional Teams
Ve aM.Schwei ze 1 | FabiolaH.Ge po 2 | NaleLehmann- Willenb ock3 | Sande de Leeuw4,5 |
MichaélaSchippe s6 | JiachunLu2
1Co po a e De elopmen , Uni e si y o Cologne, Cologne, Ge many | 2WHU – O o Beisheim School o Managemen , Vallenda / Düsseldo ,
Ge many | 3Indus ial and O ganiza ional Psychology, Uni e si y o Hambu g, Hambu g, Ge many | 4Ope a ions Resea ch and Logis ics, Wageningen
Uni e si y, Wageningen, The Ne he lands | 5No ingham Business School, No ingham T en Uni e si y, No ingham, UK | 6Ro e dam School o
Managemen , E asmus Uni e si y, Ro e dam, The Ne he lands
Co espondence: Jiachun Lu ([email protected])
Recei ed: 27 Decembe 2023 | Re ised: 15 Janua y 2025 | Accep ed: 29 Janua y 2025
Funding: This wo k was suppo ed by Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha P ojec #3004/2- 1.
Keywo ds: beha io al supply chain managemen | communica ion pa e n| c oss- unc ional eams| in e ac ion coding| lag sequen ial analysis| la en
g ow h modeling
ABSTRACT
C oss- unc ional eams a e i al decision- making uni s in supply chain managemen , and schola s emphasize he need o un-
de s and how eam p ocesses shape pe o mance imp o emen . Despi e p omising esea ch on communica ion wi hin c oss-
unc ional eams, scan a en ion has been paid o eal- ime communica ion pa e ns—in eg al o beha io al supply chain
managemen —which a e undamen al o eam p ocesses in p ac ice. This a icle posi s, d awing on in e ac ion i ual heo y,
ha ea ly communica ion pa e ns a e co ela ed wi h he pe o mance ajec o ies o c oss- unc ional eams, sugges ing a po-
en ial in luence. The au ho s es ed his idea in a complex supply chain managemen simula ion ea u ing c oss- unc ional
eams. They employed a no el coding app oach o cap u e empo al in e ac ions, which yielded 25,641 coded e bal beha io s
om c oss- unc ional eam mee ing in e ac ions. To iden i y sys ema ic communica ion pa e ns, lag sequen ial analysis was
pe o med on his co pus o da a. The esul s show ha he equency o ela ional communica ion was associa ed wi h weake
pe o mance imp o emen in c oss- unc ional eams ac oss six simula ion i e a ions. E en mo e in e es ingly, when ela ional
communica ion was equen ly ollowed by ask- o ien ed communica ion, no associa ion wi h eam pe o mance imp o emen
was obse ed. Fu he , c oss- unc ional eams in which ela ional communica ion was mo e equen ly ollowed by coun e -
p oduc i e communica ion showed no ably weake pe o mance imp o emen s. Focusing on in e ac ional low wi hin eam
dynamics, his esea ch challenges he common belie ega ding he alue o b oadly e alua ing c oss- unc ional eams. As such,
i ad oca es o adop ing bo h a beha io al and a empo al lens o unco e how c oss- unc ional eams can p e en de imen al
in e ac ions in hei daily ope a ions.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is
p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC.
Jiachun Lu was added as a co- au ho in he p ocess o de eloping his a icle, in ecogni ion o he expe ise in supply chain managemen and he signi ican con ibu ions o he w i ing. She
played a key ole in ew i ing he manusc ip , e ising i in esponse o eedback, and conduc ing quali a i e ollow- up in e iews o con ex ualize and si ua e ou quan i a i e indings. Michaéla
Schippe s is included as a co- au ho in ecogni ion o he con ibu ion o he ini ial concep ualiza ion o he s udy. She was no ac i ely in ol ed in he da a collec ion, analysis, o w i ing o his
manusc ip .
37
1 | In oduc ion
C oss- unc ional eams—g oups d awn om di e en depa -
men s—a e c ucial in supply chain ope a ions, ye hey o en
ace challenges ha unde mine hei e ec i eness. The di e se
knowledge base o c oss- unc ional eam membe s helps na -
iga e challenging si ua ions, such as supply chain dis up ions
o supplie selec ion (Kau mann, Wagne , and Ca e  2017;
an den Adel, de V ies, and an Donk2022). A he same ime,
c oss- unc ional eams o en ace majo challenges due o di -
e en pe spec i es and pe cei ed dissimila i ies among eam
membe s (Lonsdale, Sande son, and Es ahbodi 2024). These
challenges can hinde c oss- unc ional in eg a ion and o ga-
niza ional pe o mance (Meh a and Meh a2018). Recognizing
he c i ical ole o eam p ocesses and dynamics, schola s ha e
begun examining how o le e age hese mechanisms o achie e
e ec i e eamwo k despi e he challenges. Thei wo k p o ides
aluable insigh s ha showcase he impo ance o cen alized
decision- making, eam e o , eam con lic , and knowledge
c ea ion (A umugam, An ony, and Linde man 2016; de V ies
e al.2022; F anke, Ecke d, and Foe s l2022).
A ew s udies ha e also in es iga ed he ole o di ec in-
e ac ions among eam membe s, pa icula ly ocusing on
communica ion (Malho a, Ahi e, and Shang2017). Two no e-
wo hy obse a ions a ise om he exis ing esea ch on com-
munica ion in c oss- unc ional eams. Fi s , eam p ocesses
a e shaped by dynamic communica ion pa e ns (Lehmann-
Willenb ock 2025). Howe e , eme ging supply chain s udies
end o educe communica ion in c oss- unc ional eams o
gene ic, b oad e alua ions. Many s udies ha e sugges ed ha
communica ion is deemed e ec i e when i is posi i e, open,
ac i e, and equen bu de imen al when i is nega i e, si-
loed, passi e, and in equen (B uccole i, Riccobono, and
G ößle 2019; D iedonks, Ge e s, and Weele2010; Malho a,
Ahi e, and Shang 2017; Meh a and Meh a 2018; Mon oya,
Massey, and Lockwood2011). This a icle challenges his con-
sensus, a guing ha such b oad e alua ions may o e simpli y
he complexi ies o communica ion by o e looking he in e -
ac ional and empo al con ex s in which i un olds. To p o ide
a mo e nuanced unde s anding o communica ion e ec i e-
ness (o lack he eo ) in c oss- unc ional eams, his a icle
examines communica ion pa e ns— ha is, he sequences
o e bal exchanges be ween eam membe s in eal ime
(Lehmann- Willenb ock2025).
Second, he discou se on c oss- unc ional eams mainly ocuses
on o mal, ask- o ien ed aspec s o eamwo k (e.g., A umugam,
An ony, and Kuma 2013; de V ies e al.2022), which may ob-
scu e he ole o ela ional dynamics in eam pe o mance (e.g.,
Gi o d e al.2022; Kau mann, Wagne , and Ca e 2017). To ac-
coun o such ela ional dynamics in eams and ollow he call
o mo e a en ion o beha io al in e ac ion phenomena, his a -
icle examines ela ional communica ion pa e ns. Speci ically,
i asks wo main ques ions: (1) Which ela ional communica ion
pa e ns mani es in c oss- unc ional eams? and (2) How do hese
pa e ns in luence eam pe o mance imp o emen ?
To answe hese ques ions, his a icle d aws on in e ac ion
i ual heo y (Collins 2005) and inco po a es insigh s om
eam and communica ion esea ch (e.g., Bales1950; an Dun
and Wilde om 2021). The cen al a gumen p esen ed is ha
speci ic ela ional communica ion pa e ns (de ined as how
one eam membe eac s o ano he eam membe 's ela ional
communica ion, signaling one o m o in e ac ion i ual) a e
c i ical in ea ly c oss- unc ional eam mee ings. These pa e ns
se he ounda ion o eam pe o mance imp o emen , de-
ined as a posi i e change in eam pe o mance o e ime ( an
Iddekinge e al.2009). In line wi h co e eam lea ning p inci-
ples, we an icipa e ha all eams will imp o e (Ma ks, Ma hieu,
and Zacca o2001), bu ou ocus is on why some imp o e mo e
han o he s. A s onge imp o emen in pe o mance o e ime
e lec s a posi i e eam ou come, whe eas a weake imp o e-
men is seen as de imen al, as i indica es alling below he im-
p o emen baseline and lagging behind o he eams. Following
he li e a u e, ela ional communica ion is di e en ia ed om
ask- o ien ed communica ion and coun e p oduc i e com-
munica ion (e.g., Bales 1950; an Dun and Wilde om 2021).
Acco dingly, we in es iga e how ela ional s a emen s ollowed
by ei he ask- o ien ed o coun e p oduc i e esponses (see
Figu e1) in luence eam ou comes.
Me hodologically, his a icle in es iga es communica ion
pa e ns in 32 c oss- unc ional eams pa icipa ing in a com-
plex supply chain managemen simula ion (i.e., The F esh
Connec ion [TFC]; see de V ies e  al.2022; an den Adel, de
V ies, and an Donk2022). Using a no el app oach o in e ac-
ion coding, his a icle assigns speci ic communica ion codes o
each e bal sense uni , accoun ing o he en i e s eam o eam
in e ac ions. I assesses he communica ion pa e ns o 130 in-
di iduals du ing hei i s and las eam mee ings in he simu-
la ion, o aling 42 h and 28 min o eco ded mee ings and 25,641
coded beha io s. The quan i a i e analyses we e complemen ed
wi h ad hoc quali a i e insigh s.
This a icle makes h ee main heo e ical con ibu ions. Fi s ,
i challenges he p e ailing concep ualiza ion o eam p ocesses
and dynamics in he supply chain li e a u e by adop ing a mic o-
le el ocus on in e ac ion i uals, pa icula ly communica ion
pa e ns. This app oach mo es beyond he b oad e alua ions o
communica ion emphasized in p io s udies. In doing so, his
a icle also esponds o ecen calls o esea ch on he impac
o eam communica ion on pe o mance imp o emen (e.g., an
Dun and Wilde om2021). Second, his a icle con ibu es o he
ongoing deba e abou he in e play o ela ional and ask- ocused
p ocesses in c oss- unc ional eams (B uccole i, Riccobono,
and G ößle  2019; Lonsdale, Sande son, and Es ahbodi2024).
By highligh ing he impo ance o ela ional communica ion,
i ex ends p io esea ch ha p edominan ly ocuses on ask-
o ien ed ac o s, o e ing a complemen a y unde s anding o
e ec i e c oss- unc ional eams (e.g., Lonsdale, Sande son, and
Es ahbodi2024; an Dun and Wilde om2021). Thi d, by in o-
ducing in e ac ion i ual heo y alongside in e ac ion coding
and pa e n analysis me hodology o he supply chain manage-
men ield, his a icle o e s a no el app oach o unde s and-
ing c oss- unc ional eams. Speci ically, by demons a ing he
c ucial ole o communica ion pa e ns, i encou ages u u e
esea ch o en ich heo e ical and me hodological pe spec i es
on c oss- unc ional eam p ocesses and dynamics and hei im-
pac on eam pe o mance imp o emen . In he nex sec ion, we
ou line he heo e ical ounda ions o ou s udy and de elop ou
hypo heses.
38 Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen , 2025
2 | Li e a u e and Hypo heses
2.1 | Team P ocesses and Dynamics in
C oss- Func ional Teams
As c oss- unc ional eams a e widely used in o ganiza ions o
manage supply chains, i has become c ucial o unde s and wha
di e en ia es e ec i e eams om less e ec i e ones (D iedonks,
Ge e s, and Weele2010). Resea ch on c oss- unc ional eams,
which a e in e depa men al g oups join ly managing supply
chain decisions, has g own since he ea ly 2000s (e.g., Ca e
e al.2024; de V ies e al.2022; Lu, Kau mann, and Ca e 2021;
Wu, Loch, and Ahmad2011). A close e iew e eals wo im-
po an obse a ions.
Fi s , mos a icles in es iga e speci ic cha ac e is ics o c oss-
unc ional eams (i.e., membe s' knowledge, skills, abili ies, pe -
sonali y, and demog aphic cha ac e is ics, Ma hieu e al.2017)
o eme gen s a es in c oss- unc ional eams (i.e., dynamic cog-
ni i e, a ec i e, and mo i a ional s a es such as cohesion and
goal alignmen , Rapp e al.2021). Fo example, Kau mann and
Wagne (2017) demons a e ha speci ic eam a ibu es—such
as a ec i e di e si y and emo ional in elligence—p edic cohe-
sion, which in u n enhances pe o mance. Howe e , he dom-
inan ocus on eam cha ac e is ics and eme gen s a es canno
speak o mo e dynamic and luid eam p ocesses and dynamics
(i.e., eam membe s' in e dependen ac s e lec ed in cogni i e,
e bal, and beha io al ac i i ies such as decision- making and
communica ion (Ma hieu e al.2017). These p ocesses and dy-
namics a e essen ial o c oss- unc ional eam success because
hey de e mine how e ec i ely a di e se knowledge base is
ansla ed in o eam pe o mance (e.g., Malho a, Ahi e, and
Shang2017). This pinpoin s a c i ical need o no el heo e ical
app oaches and empi ical insigh s.
Taking s eps owa d unde s anding eam p ocesses and dynam-
ics, supply chain schola s ha e s a ed paying a en ion o com-
munica ion wi hin eams (D iedonks, Ge e s, and Weele2010;
Malho a, Ahi e, and Shang 2017; Mon oya, Massey, and
Lockwood 2011; Sande son, Es ahbodi, and Lonsdale 2022).
While p o iding aluable insigh s, p io s udies ypically ocus
on he b oad and gene ic cha ac e is ics o communica ion
a he han cap u ing he social in e ac ions ha de ine eam
p ocesses and dynamics (Lehmann- Willenb ock2025). Fo in-
s ance, while D iedonks, Ge e s, and Weele(2010) highligh he
impo ance o communica ion equency and quali y o c oss-
unc ional eam e ec i eness, hei su ey- based measu es a e
no mean o cap u e he empo al and in e ac ional complex-
i y o communica ion. Mo ing beyond su ey- based me hods,
Mon oya, Massey, and Lockwood(2011) examine he equency
o eam communica ion as he numbe o messages sen in a i -
ual eali y simula ion in which membe s had o collabo a e on
a join ask. Howe e , his app oach does no include he spe-
ci ic con en and con ex o eam in e ac ions. Mo e ecen ly,
Sande son, Es ahbodi, and Lonsdale(2022) show ha a decen-
alized, open, and in o mal communica ion s yle is bene icial
o c oss- unc ional eamwo k e ec i eness. This s eam o
wo k unde sco es he c i ical ole o communica ion in c oss-
unc ional eams. The p esen a icle ex ends his by concep-
ualizing eam communica ion as an in e ac ional, con ex ual,
and dynamic phenomenon (Lehmann- Willenb ock2025).
A second obse a ion om he e iew o esea ch on c oss-
unc ional eams is ha mos s udies p io i ize ask- o ien ed
p ocesses (e.g., decision- making, knowledge c ea ion) o e e-
la ional phenomena (e.g., p o iding suppo , sha ing eelings).
This emphasis is su p ising gi en ha bo h ha d skills (i.e.,
ask- o ien ed skills, such as business p ocess mapping) and
so skills (i.e., ela ional skills, such as communica ion) in
eams a e essen ial o ope a ional pe o mance (B uccole i,
Riccobono, and G ößle  2019). Lonsdale, Sande son, and
Es ahbodi(2024) simila ly highligh he impo ance o bal-
ancing askwo k (e.g., a sou cing s a egy) and eamwo k (e.g.,
communica ion) o ensu e c oss- unc ional eam e ec i e-
ness. Thus, while schola s inc easingly ecognize ha he suc-
cess o c oss- unc ional eams elies on bo h ask- o ien ed and
FIGURE 1 | Resea ch model. [Colou igu e can be iewed a wileyonlinelib a y.com]
39
ela ional ac o s, he esea ch landscape pays much g ea e
a en ion o he ask domain. This imbalance is e lec ed in he
calls o mo e esea ch on he o en- o e looked ela ional side
o supply chain managemen (A ge inos and Gokpina 2017;
Gi o d e al.2022; Jacobs, Yu, and Cha ez2016). Thus, while
a b oad consensus exis s on he impo ance o communica ion
and ela ional dynamics o pe o mance in c oss- unc ional
eams, he p esen a icle challenges con en ional concep u-
aliza ion by ocusing on ela ional communica ion pa e ns
as cen al o unde s anding he co e p ocesses and dynamics
wi hin c oss- unc ional eams.
2.2 | Communica ion Pa e ns in
C oss- Func ional Teams
In e ac ion i ual heo y p o ides a comp ehensi e heo e ical
lens h ough which o examine eam p ocesses and dynam-
ics by explaining social phenomena h ough he s uc u e o
conc e e si ua ions (Collins 2005; Go man 1967; K ishnan
e al.2021). Speci ically, i posi s ha in e ac ion i uals (i.e.,
pa e ns o in e pe sonal beha io s such as communica ion)
a e essen ial o he de elopmen and e ec i eness o social
g oups, as hey p omo e sha ed emo ional expe iences and a
join a en ional ocus among indi iduals (Collins2005; Wang
e al.2023). While o igina ing in sociology, in e ac ion i ual
heo y has ecen ly gained ac ion in gene al managemen
and o ganiza ional beha io esea ch (K ishnan e al.2021;
Lehmann- Willenb ock e al.2017; Me iu and Ro hba d2013;
Wang e al.2023). Fo example, Me iu and Ro hba d(2013)
apply i o in es iga e eam engagemen in so wa e de elop-
men eams, highligh ing he ole o equen , in o mal in e -
ac ions in os e ing engagemen and d i ing p oblem- sol ing
b eak h oughs. Gi en i s co e p oposi ions and applica ions,
in e ac ion i ual heo y helps explain how communica ion
pa e ns wi hin a c oss- unc ional eam (i.e., how one eam
membe eac s o ano he membe 's s a emen , which signals
one o m o in e ac ion i ual) o m he basis o eam pe o -
mance imp o emen .
In e ac ion i ual heo y no only o e s a solid heo e ical basis
o examining i ualized in e ac ions, such as communica ion
pa e ns wi hin eams, bu i also p o ides a solu ion o a com-
mon challenge p esen in p io s udies on eam communica-
ion. Speci ically, he li e a u e seems o ocus p ima ily on he
absolu e equencies o speci ic ypes o communica ion. This
app oach o e looks how communica ion is embedded in he
in e ac ional low o a eam (i.e., how o he eam membe s e-
spond o a communica i e ac ). One no able excep ion is Benne
e  al. (2008), who ind ha , while communica ion equency
does no accoun o di e ences in eam e ec i eness, speci ic
pa e ns o in o ma ion seeking and sha ing e eal how ce ain
eams s abilize hei pe o mance. In ano he s udy, Kau eld
and Lehmann- Willenb ock (2012) show ha mo e ela ional
communica ion in eams is associa ed wi h lowe eam sa is-
ac ion. Subsequen esea ch sugges s ha his coun e in ui i e
inding may a ise om an exclusi e ocus on communica ion
equencies, which o e looks he in e ac ional con ex (i.e.,
communica ion pa e ns), he eby leading o an incomple e o
po en ially misleading in e p e a ion (Lehmann- Willenb ock
and Allen2018).
This a icle ex apola es om hese esea ch s eams o p opose
ha ansla ing he e minology and a ionale o in e ac ion
i ual heo y o supply chain managemen p o ides a use ul
heo e ical ounda ion o iden i ying ele an communica ion
pa e ns ha in luence c oss- unc ional eam pe o mance
(Hoogeboom and Wilde om2020). In addi ion, as in e ac ion i -
ual heo y i sel emains silen on he con en o success ul e -
sus unsuccess ul communica ion pa e ns, o wha a e e med
eam i uals, his a icle complemen s his heo y by d awing on
undamen al insigh s om communica ion esea ch.
Be o e discussing communica ion pa e ns in c oss- unc ional
eams, he basic componen s o hese pa e ns should be ou lined.
Based on he undamen als o human in e ac ion (Bales1950),
he supply chain li e a u e ypically dis inguishes be ween wo
o e a ching unc ions o communica ion in eams: (i) collabo-
a ing on and coo dina ing eam asks and (ii) main aining ela-
ionships wi hin he eam. Fo example, Pagell e al.(2015) no e
ha ela ional coo dina ion in eams, which is deemed c ucial
o achie ing ope a ional success, depends on bo h o mal ask-
o ien ed s uc u es and in e pe sonal ela ionships. Simila ly,
B uccole i, Riccobono, and G ößle (2019) a gue ha an e ec-
i e and e icien eam equi es membe s o demons a e bo h
echnical and so skills. Mo e ecen ly, Lonsdale, Sande son,
and Es ahbodi(2024) di e en ia e be ween askwo k and eam-
wo k, highligh ing hei join impo ance in enhancing supply
chain eam e ec i eness.
T ansla ing his dis inc ion in o conc e e eam p ocesses, schol-
a s iden i y wo ypes o e bal communica ion in eams, namely,
(1) ask- o ien ed communica ion o accomplish ask wo k and
achie e a high- quali y solu ion, such as sol ing p oblems o
sha ing knowledge, and (2) ela ional communica ion o show
app ecia ion o o he eam membe s and imp o e in e pe sonal
ela ions, such as p o iding suppo o sha ing humo wi hin a
eam (Bales1950; Liao e al.2023; an Dun and Wilde om2021).
While bo h ask- o ien ed and ela ional communica ion a e in-
he en ly goal- di ec ed and aim o imp o e askwo k and ela-
ionships (e en hough he in ended e ec is no gua an eed),
hey alone do no p o ide a comple e pic u e o communica ion
wi hin c oss- unc ional eams. This is because communica-
ion can also be classi ied as coun e p oduc i e (Kau eld and
Lehmann- Willenb ock 2012; an Dun and Wilde om 2021).
(3) Coun e p oduc i e communica ion dis up s ask p og ess o
damages ela ionships, o en h ough dis ac ing o c i icizing
(e.g., Bakh ia , Webs e , and Hadwin 2018; Bales 1950). This
ipa i e di e en ia ion o communica ion ypes has also been
no ed by an Dun and Wilde om(2021), inding ha e ec i e
leade s in lean wo k loo eams a e cha ac e ized by low le els
o coun e p oduc i e communica ion and a balance o ela ional
and ask- o ien ed communica ion.
D awing on in e ac ion i ual heo y (Collins2005), his a i-
cle ex ends he es ablished di e en ia ion o h ee communi-
ca ion ypes by in es iga ing how communica ion pa e ns can
boos , main ain, o diminish he pe o mance imp o emen
o c oss- unc ional eams. I speci ically ocuses on ela ional
communica ion pa e ns (i.e., pa e ns s a ing wi h ela ional
communica ion; Bales1950). While ela ional communica ion
is ele an ac oss a ious eam ypes, i s ole is pa icula ly
i al o c oss- unc ional eams o wo main easons. Fi s , he

40 Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen , 2025
supply chain li e a u e epea edly sugges s he impo ance o
ela ional ac o s o c oss- unc ional eam pe o mance. Fo
example, Kau mann and Wagne  (2017) show how emo ional
in elligence inc eases he e ec i eness o p ocu emen eams,
while A ge inos and Gokpina  (2017) emphasize ela ional
dynamics as he key o o e coming ailu es in su gical eams.
Simila ly, Oli ei a, A gy es, and Lumineau(2022) unde sco e
he impo ance o iendly communica ion wi hin supply chain
eams o success ully adap ing o dis up ions, and Gi o d
e al.(2022) s ess he need o s udy eam dynamics o be e in-
eg a ion and pe o mance. Second, ela ional communica ion
plays a g ea e ole o c oss- unc ional eams compa ed wi h
o he o ms o eamwo k, as membe s in such eams ha e o pa -
icula ly a oid communica ion p oblems in o de o syne gize
hei di e se esou ces and compe encies when join ly pe o m-
ing supply chain asks (e.g., Lu, Kau mann, and Ca e 2021).
When pe o ming asks, in e ac ions wi hin c oss- unc ional
eams ideally se e he o e a ching goal o achie ing ope a-
ional excellence (Amb ose, Ma hews, and Ru he o d 2018).
Thus, based on he heo e ical a ionale ou lined ea lie , his
a icle sugges s ha a common communica ion pa e n in c oss-
unc ional eams in ol es a ela ional s a emen ollowed by a
ask- o ien ed esponse (i.e., a ela ional → ask- o ien ed com-
munica ion pa e n). Fu he , gi en he ine i able clash o di -
e en goals and opinions in c oss- unc ional eams (Kau mann,
Wagne , and Ca e 2017), his a icle also p oposes ha ano he
impo an communica ion pa e n en ails a ela ional s a e-
men ollowed by a coun e p oduc i e s a emen (i.e., a ela-
ional → coun e p oduc i e communica ion pa e n).
2.3 | Hypo hesis De elopmen
Schola s in supply chain and gene al managemen ha e em-
pi ically shown ha ea ly in e ac ion pa e ns in eams se he
s age o subsequen in e ac ions and ou comes (e.g., E icksen
and Dye 2004; Lu, Kau mann, and Ca e 2021; Ma hieu and
Rapp2009; an Dun and Wilde om2021). Building on his line
o esea ch, his a icle ocuses on ela ional communica ion in
he ea ly phases o c oss- unc ional eamwo k and i s impac on
subsequen eam pe o mance imp o emen . This esea ch ex-
amines eam imp o emen as a c ucial eam ou come because,
in line wi h eam lea ning p inciples, a posi i e de elopmen
in eam pe o mance ac oss ime is expec ed, bu i is no clea
which ac o s lead o s onge o weake imp o emen (de Leeuw,
Schippe s, and Hooge o s 2015). Following he consensus o
ex an esea ch, his a icle i s conside s he o e all equency
o ela ional communica ion in ea ly eam in e ac ions and hen
shi s he ocus o communica ion pa e ns (D iedonks, Ge e s,
and Weele2010; Mon oya, Massey, and Lockwood2011).
The equency o ela ional communica ion is de ined as he
numbe o ela ional s a emen s pe eam in he i s mee ing
(Kau eld and Lehmann- Willenb ock 2012). Gi en he mixed
esul s and con lic ing heo e ical iews o p e ious wo k on
ela ional communica ion in eams (e.g., Jämsen, Si unen, and
Blomq is 2022; Kau eld and Lehmann- Willenb ock2012), he
ela ionship be ween he me e equency o ela ional commu-
nica ion and eam pe o mance imp o emen can be hypo he-
sized in wo opposing ways.
On he one hand, he emo ional ocus mechanism pos ula ed
in in e ac ion i ual heo y sugges s ha success ul ela ional
communica ion can boos a eam's sha ed emo ional ocus and
emo ional ene gy (Collins 2005). Ele a ed emo ional ene gy
le els among eam membe s, in u n, os e e ec i e eam-
wo k (Kau mann, Wagne , and Ca e 2017; Me ho e al.2021).
Mo eo e , subs an ial e idence shows ha ela ional commu-
nica ion p omo es well- being and us , which a e essen ial
o eam pe o mance (Aga wal and Na ayana2020; Jämsen,
Si unen, and Blomq is  2022; Sias 2005; Vuo ela 2005).
Consis en wi h hese indings, e ec i e eams ha e been ound
o engage in mo e ela ional communica ion (Lu, Kau mann,
and Ca e  2021; S audinge 2005). Thus, bo h heo e ical a -
gumen s om in e ac ion i uals and empi ical e idence un-
de sco e he po en ial bene i s o ela ional communica ion o
eam e ec i eness. Pu o mally:
Hypo hesis 1. The equency o ela ional communica ion
du ing ea ly eam in e ac ions is posi i ely ela ed o he pe o -
mance imp o emen o c oss- unc ional eams; ha is, mo e e-
la ional communica ion is associa ed wi h s onge pe o mance
imp o emen .
On he o he hand, in e ac ion i ual heo y emphasizes he
impo ance o join a en ional ocus o eam e ec i eness
(Collins 2005). Thus, ela ional communica ion could hinde
eam pe o mance i pe cei ed as “o - opic” o un ela ed o ask
comple ion (Kau eld and Lehmann- Willenb ock2012; Me ho
e al.2021). Mo eo e , he equen use o ela ional communica-
ion can os e g oup hink in eams (Key on1999). Suppo ing
his pe spec i e, Kau eld and Lehmann- Willenb ock (2012)
ind a nega i e ela ionship be ween ela ional communica-
ion and eam mee ing sa is ac ion. Simila ly, an Dun and
Wilde om (2021) obse e ha ela ional communica ion im-
pedes he pe o mance o lean wo k loo eams. D awing on
his al e na i e a ionale oo ed in he a en ional mechanism
p oposed by in e ac ion i ual heo y, his a icle p esen s he
ollowing compe ing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1 compe ing. The equency o ela ional commu-
nica ion du ing ea ly eam in e ac ions is nega i ely ela ed o he
pe o mance imp o emen o c oss- unc ional eams; ha is, mo e
ela ional communica ion is associa ed wi h weake pe o mance
imp o emen .
While he ole o he equency o ela ional communica ion
emains ambiguous, he co e ene o in e ac ion i ual heo y
holds ha ela ional communica ion pa e ns (i.e., how one
eam membe eac s o ano he membe 's ela ional communi-
ca ion) may play a mo e dominan ole in o e all eam ou comes
(Collins2005). Recen supply chain li e a u e echoes his idea,
highligh ing he “impo ance o dynamic in e ac ions wi hin and
ac oss o ganiza ional uni s” o ope a ional pe o mance ( an
Dun and Wilde om2021, 88; Hoogeboom and Wilde om2020).
Fo he p esen esea ch, his sugges s a need o examine be-
ha io al pa e ns beyond he me e equency o speci ic com-
munica ion ypes and o assess hei impac on c oss- unc ional
eam pe o mance. Speci ically, ela ional communica ion may
a ec eam pe o mance no only h ough i s equency bu also
h ough i s embeddedness in he eam in e ac ion low and i s
po en ial o igge ask- o ien ed communica ion.
41
The e o e, he second hypo hesis o his a icle conside s sys-
ema ic pa e ns o ela ional and ask- o ien ed communica ion
and hei ela ionship o eam pe o mance imp o emen . An
example o a ela ional → ask- o ien ed communica ion pa e n
(see Figu e1) du ing a c oss- unc ional eam mee ing would be
ha when he eam is acing inc easing ups eam supply dis-
up ions, a eam membe migh encou age o he s o pa icipa e
in he discussion (i.e., ela ional communica ion). Ano he eam
membe may espond by sugges ing ways o imp o e isk man-
agemen s a egies (i.e., ask- o ien ed communica ion). This
communica ion pa e n exempli ies a posi i e upwa d eam in-
e ac ion i ual whe ein eam membe s inc easingly acknowl-
edge sha ed goals and build posi i e emo ional expe iences
wi hin he eam (Collins2005, 50). Such in e ac ion i uals c e-
a e bo h emo ional ene gy and a en ional ocus, es ablishing a
solid ounda ion o con inuous imp o emen , he eby boos ing
eam pe o mance imp o emen (Go man1967). The e o e, i
is expec ed ha unc ional communica ion pa e ns (i.e., ela-
ional → ask- o ien ed communica ion pa e ns) du ing he ini-
ial phase o eamwo k in c oss- unc ional eams a e associa ed
wi h g ea e pe o mance imp o emen in subsequen phases:
Hypo hesis 2. Rela ional → ask- o ien ed communica ion
pa e ns du ing ea ly eam in e ac ions a e posi i ely ela ed o
he pe o mance imp o emen o c oss- unc ional eams; ha is,
mo e o such pa e ns a e associa ed wi h s onge pe o mance
imp o emen .1
In iew o he h ee communica ion ypes in eams ( ela-
ional, ask, and coun e p oduc i e), ela ional communica ion
pa e ns can also comp ise a ela ional communica i e ac ,
ollowed by a coun e p oduc i e one. A ela ional → coun e -
p oduc i e communica ion pa e n in c oss- unc ional mee -
ings is illus a ed, o example, in a si ua ion in which one eam
membe encou ages ano he pe son's pa icipa ion on he opic
o ou sou cing ou bound wa ehousing (i.e., ela ional commu-
nica ion), and he o he pe son esponds by d i ing o in o side
con e sa ions wi h o he eam membe s o e en in e up ing o
unde mining he speake 's encou agemen (i.e., coun e p oduc-
i e communica ion). Such a communica ion pa e n ep esen s
a nega i e downwa d in e ac ion i ual because eam membe s
lose hei sense o sha ed goals and d i away om collec i e
emo ional exp ession (Collins2005; K ishnan e al.2021). This
dis up ion o sha ed eam ocus and emo ional ene gy likely
hinde s pe o mance imp o emen . The e o e, c oss- unc ional
eams ha mo e equen ly expe ience ela ional → coun e p o-
duc i e communica ion pa e ns in he ini ial eamwo k phase
a e expec ed o show weake pe o mance imp o emen o e
he subsequen phases:
Hypo hesis 3. Rela ional → coun e p oduc i e communica-
ion pa e ns du ing ea ly eam in e ac ions a e nega i ely ela ed
o he pe o mance imp o emen o c oss- unc ional eams; ha
is, mo e such pa e ns a e associa ed wi h weake pe o mance
imp o emen .
Figu e 1 summa izes he esea ch model and p oposed
hypo heses.
3 | Me hods
This esea ch adop s a p agma ic philosophy, ecognizing
ha a ious in e p e a ions o he wo ld exis and ha no sin-
gle pe spec i e can p o ide a comple e pic u e o a phenom-
enon (Kaushik and Walsh 2019). Acco dingly, i combines
quan i a i e analysis in he main s udy wi h an ad hoc qual-
i a i e s udy o add ess he esea ch ques ion om comple-
men a y angles.
3.1 | Sample and Da a Collec ion
Da a we e collec ed om sel - managed eams o g adua e s u-
den s majo ing in supply chain managemen a VU Uni e si y
in Ams e dam. Pa icipan s engaged in six ounds o a eam
simula ion called TFC o e 3 weeks embedded in a supply chain
managemen cou se (see Figu e2 o he s udy p ocedu e). A
s uden sample is app op ia e o beha io al esea ch, pa icu-
la ly o es ing heo ies such as in e ac ion i ual heo y, which
does no equi e a p o essional sample o i s scope condi ions
(Thomas2011). Mo eo e , ec ui ing a p o essional sample o
such a eam simula ion would be ex emely challenging due o
ime commi men s and coo dina ion di icul ies o o e 100
p o essionals.
TFC has been widely used in he psychology ield (e.g., B azhkin
and Zimme man2019; Schippe s and Rus2021), and i has e-
cen ly gained a en ion in supply chain esea ch (e.g., de V ies
e al.2022; an den Adel, V ies, and Donk2022). In he p esen
s udy, pa icipan s we e i s andomly assigned o sel - managed
eams o h ee o i e membe s. I indi iduals had p io o mal
collabo a ion, adjus men s we e made o ensu e ha hey we e
no placed on he same eam, hus main aining compa abili y.
Fu he mo e, no pa icipan had p io expe ience wi h TFC.
The sample comp ised 130 pa icipan s, alloca ed ac oss 32
eams (mean = 4.06 membe s pe eam, SD = 0.35), wi h an a -
e age age o 23.84 yea s (SD = 1.23) and 31% emale pa icipan s
pe eam.
FIGURE 2 | S udy p ocedu e.
42 Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen , 2025
Each eam in TFC managed a loss- making ui juice company
wi h ou oles: VP Sales, VP Supply Chain, VP Ope a ions,
and VP Pu chasing. In eams o h ee, one membe akes wo
oles; in eams o i e, one membe akes on he obse e ole.
O e six ounds, each simula ing 6 mon hs o managemen
decisions, eams made s a egic supply chain decisions—such
as hose ela ed o supplie s, p oduc ion speed, shel li e, and
palle loca ion—wi h each ole handling an in e dependen
scope (see de Leeuw, Schippe s, and Hooge o s 2015). These
decisions equi ed balancing con lic ing unc ional in e es s
o op imize eam pe o mance (i.e., maximizing he ROI). As
he simula ion emphasizes s a egic lea ning a he han cu-
mula i e pe o mance, p io ounds do no a ec subsequen
ones. O e all, TFC se es as an app op ia e ool o in es-
iga ing communica ion p ocesses and dynamics in c oss-
unc ional eams and hei e ec s on eam pe o mance (de
V ies e al.2022; Schippe s and Rus2021).
Pa icipan s we e in o med ha hei i s and las eam mee -
ings would be ideo- eco ded, and hey we e asked o comple e
a sho su ey a e wa d. They we e assu ed ha hei consen
and he eco dings would no a ec hei ea men o g ading
and ha hei da a would be anonymized o esea ch pu poses
in line wi h GDPR s anda ds. One eam declined o be eco ded
and was excluded om he s udy. Those who consen ed com-
ple ed an in o med consen o m and a b ie demog aphic
ques ionnai e be o e he i s mee ing. They we e hen ideo
eco ded du ing he i s and las mee ings, and a e each, hey
comple ed a su ey on hei emo ional expe iences.
Resea ch assis an s se up he ideo came as wi h buil - in mi-
c ophones be o e he eams a i ed and ensu ed good audio
quali y. Each eam was eco ded sepa a ely. P io esea ch
demons a es ha pa icipan s exhibi low eac i i y o ideo
eco ding in eam mee ings, wi h beha io closely esembling
ha o non- eco ded pa icipan s (Kau eld and Lehmann-
Willenb ock2012). Demand e ec s we e less o a conce n he e
han in expe imen al se ings (Ecke d e al.2021), as pa ici-
pan s we e obse ed in a na u al se ing wi hou o e manip-
ula ion o di ec in e ac ions wi h esea che s (one co- au ho
augh he cou se bu was unawa e o he hypo heses be o e
da a collec ion). Following TFC- based s udies (Schippe s
and Rus2021), simula ion pe o mance ep esen ed a small
po ion o he cou se g ade o incen i ize pa icipa ion and
p e en c oss- eam collabo a ion. Pa icipan s could op ou a
any ime wi hou explana ion.
Fo each o he six ounds, an o e all ROI (i.e., pe o mance
da a) was ex ac ed om he TFC simula ion o each eam
based on hei decisions. O he 33 eams ha ag eed o pa ic-
ipa e, one was excluded a 1 and i e a 6 due o insu icien
audio quali y, esul ing in sample sizes anging om N = 27
eams ( o he ancilla y analyses o he communica ion a 6) o
N = 32 ( o all o he analyses). Team mee ings a e aged 43 min
and 35 s (SD = 4:28, anging om 27 o 45 min). The ideos
om 32 eams a 1 and 27 eams a 6 o aled 42 h and 28 min.
These eco dings we e analyzed using a ine- g ained quan-
i a i e in e ac ion coding p ocedu e (Kau eld, Lehmann-
Willenb ock, and Meinecke2018), esul ing in 25,641 coded
beha io s (i.e., 13,983 a 1 and 11,658 a 6). The inal sample
cha ac e is ics a e p o ided in AppendixS1.
3.2 | Coding o Communica ion
This esea ch employed in e ac ion coding o ex ac
eam membe s' speci ic e bal beha io s du ing mee -
ings, acili a ed by In e ac so wa e (Ve sion 14; Mangold
In e na ional 2010).2 Resea ch assis an s used he ac 4 eam
coding scheme (see Table1) o assign one code o each sense
uni (i.e., he smalles meaning ul speech segmen con aining
a comple e hough ; Bales1950) ha occu ed du ing a eam
mee ing. One sense uni is ypically a simple sen ence con-
sis ing o a subjec and p edica e (e.g., “I ag ee”) o a single
wo d (e.g., “Okay”). In line wi h he bes p ac ices (Gün ne ,
Meinecke, and Lüde s2023), sense uni s we e sepa a ed when
(1) he speake changed; (2) one speake oiced se e al s a e-
men s, each wi h a comple e hough (e.g., gi ing eedback
and hen iden i ying a p oblem); o (3) one speake shi ed he
main a gumen wi hin he same communica ion ype (e.g.,
iden i ying h ee di e en p oblems in a ow). This coding ap-
p oach allowed o uling ou o e lapping codes and pa e ns
(see Table2 o examples o e ba im ansc ip s illus a ing
ask- o ien ed o coun e p oduc i e esponses o ela ional
communica ion).
Fou ained esea ch assis an s conduc ed he in e ac ion
coding o ideo- eco ded mee ings using a subse app oach.
A andom sample o 11 ideos was double- coded by wo e-
sea ch assis an s (i.e., 22 ideos we e coded wice a 1 and
6). The in e - a e eliabili y o hese subse s was sa is ac o y
(κ = 0.76), compa able o p io s udies whe e in e - a e eliabil-
i y ypically anged om 0.70 o 0.90 (e.g., Ge po e al.2019).
Fu he , acco ding o Landis and Koch(1977), κ- alues be ween
0.61 and 0.80 indica e subs an ial in e - a e ag eemen . A e
he coding o all ideo eco dings, he equencies o each e -
bal ype we e agg ega ed a he eam le el (i.e., all indi idual
codes pe ype and eam we e added up). Following bes p ac-
ices (Ge po e al.2019; Meinecke, Lehmann- Willenb ock, and
Kau eld2017), he agg ega ed alues we e s anda dized by di-
iding he numbe o codes pe ype by he mee ing du a ion in
minu es and mul iplying hem by 45 (i.e., he s anda d mee ing
leng h). Raw and ime- s amped da a we e used o sequen ial
analyses.
3.3 | Analysis S a egy
The agg ega ed da a and analysis code o his s udy a e a ail-
able on he Open Science F amewo k.3 A de ailed desc ip ion
o he analysis s a egy is a ailable om he au ho s upon e-
ques , wi h key analy ical elemen s in eg a ed in o he esul s
sec ion below.
4 | Resul s
The ollowing esul s eme ged om ou analyses. Table3 dis-
plays desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ions conce ning he a -
e age ROI, communica ion ypes, ela ional communica ion
pa e ns, and eam demog aphics. Figu e3 shows ha he a e -
age weekly ROI o he pa icipa ing eams cons an ly inc eased,
which is in line wi h TFC as a lea ning expe ience. In he ol-
lowing sec ion, linea la en g ow h models we e i s es ima ed
43
o ex ac he ex en o eam pe o mance imp o emen , which
allowed o es ing Hypo hesis1 by assessing he impac o he
me e equency o ela ional communica ion on he ex en o
eam pe o mance imp o emen (i.e., om weake o s onge
imp o emen ). Second, hypo hesis- es ing esul s ega ding
how ela ional → ask- o ien ed and ela ional → coun e p o-
duc i e communica ion pa e ns p edic eam pe o mance
imp o emen a e p esen ed. To complemen hese indings,
TABLE 1 | Ca ego ies o communica ion ypes and co esponding e bal codes.
Rela ional communica ion Task- o ien ed communica ion Coun e p oduc i e communica ion
De ini ion De ini ion De ini ion
Using p aise and o he o ms o
ecogni ion o suppo and show
app ecia ion o o he eam membe s
and o imp o e in e pe sonal
ela ionships
Sol ing p oblems and sha ing o
cla i ying ask- ela ed knowledge o
accomplish askwo k and achie e a
high- quali y solu ion
O - ask communica ion ha dis ac s
om he ac ual askwo k o unci il
communica ion ha jeopa dizes
in e pe sonal ela ionships
Ve bal codes
• Encou aging pa icipa ion
• P o iding suppo
• Ac i e lis ening
• Reasoned disag eemen
• Gi ing eedback
• Humo and laugh e
• Sepa a ing opinions om ac s
• Exp essing eelings
• O e ing p aise
• Pe sonal esponsibili y
Ve bal codes
• Iden i ying a p oblem
• Desc ibing a p oblem
• Iden i ying a solu ion
• Desc ibing a solu ion
• Connec ion wi h p oblems
• Connec ion wi h solu ion
• Weighing cos s/bene i s
• Summa izing
• Visualizing
• Goalse ing
Ve bal codes
• Losing ain o hough in de ails and
examples
• C i icizing
• In e up ing
• Side con e sa ion
• Sel - p omo ion
• No in e es in change
• Complaining
• Emp y alk
• Blaming
• Denying esponsibili y
• Te mina ing he discussion
No e: These ca ego ies a e based on and adap ed om he ac 4 eams coding scheme by Kau eld, Lehmann- Willenb ock, and Meinecke(2018) o e lec he
di e en ia ion o ela ional, ask- o ien ed, and coun e p oduc i e communica ion.
TABLE 2 | Examples o ela ional → ask- o ien ed and ela ional → coun e p oduc i e communica ion pa e ns.
Response ollowing ela ional
communica ion Communica ion pa e n Example
Task- o ien ed O ganiza ional knowledgea
• P o iding suppo ( ela ional)
• Connec ion wi h a solu ion ( ask- o ien ed)
A: This will be e y lexible.
( e e ing o a p ocedu e in TFC
and poin ing a he sc een)
B: Yes, yes. (nodding)
A: Then, we change he
anspo a ion cos s.
De ining he objec i ea
• Ac i e lis ening ( ela ional)
• Desc ibing a solu ion ( ask- o ien ed)
A: We ha e o y o wo k oge he […].
B and C: Hmm … Yeah …
D: Tha 's how we can only change he
di ec paymen . (poin ing a he sc een)
Coun e p oduc i e Sepa a ing opinion om ac s ( ela ional)
• Blaming (coun e p oduc i e)
A: Yeah, I pe sonally do no
know i his is igh .
B: I hough you (emphasized)
should ha e said ha be o ehand.
O ganiza ional knowledgea
• Ac i e lis ening ( ela ional)
• Side con e sa ion (coun e p oduc i e)
A: You can make he decisions
and con ol he changes ( e e ing
o he unc ions o TFC).
B: (Nodding and looking a
A while hey speaks).
C and D: See he e … ( alking
abou a di e en opic).
aIn some cases, he i s s a emen is added o p o ide su icien con ex o unde s and each communica ion pa e n. Only he las wo s a emen s o each example
ep esen hose communica ion pa e ns ha a e ele an o he hypo heses.
50 Jou nal o Supply Chain Managemen , 2025
eams. By sugges ing conc e e communica ion pa e ns o en-
cou age o a oid in such eams, his a icle makes a small ye
meaning ul con ibu ion o suppo ing he sus ainable de elop-
men goal o decen wo k and economic g ow h (UN Gene al
Assembly2015).
Fu he mo e, his a icle o e s insigh s in o success ul c oss-
unc ional collabo a ion beyond he p i a e sec o . Fo in-
s ance, c oss- unc ional collabo a ion is also essen ial in he
public sec o , pa icula ly in change managemen wi hin local
poli ical au ho i ies (Pie cy, Phillips, and Lewis2013). Hence,
he indings and ecommenda ions ega ding speci ic com-
munica ion p ac ices in c oss- unc ional eams may also be
adap ed o he poli ical con ex . This could help shi om
igid op- down policy- making o mo e decen alized decision-
making, he eby o e coming ins i u ional silos (Pie cy,
Phillips, and Lewis2013).
5.4 | Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
The a icle has se e al limi a ions ha p o ide a enues o u-
u e esea ch. Fi s , he simula ion se ing o e s key ad an-
ages o e pu ely expe imen al me hods— o ins ance, i mo e
ealis ically ep esen s c oss- unc ional eamwo k and la gely
minimizes he conce ns abou demand e ec s. Howe e , i also
limi s he abili y o make causal claims, so u u e esea ch could
in es iga e expe imen al o quasi- expe imen al app oaches,
building on hese indings. Fo ins ance, schola s could an-
domly assign newly o med c oss- unc ional eams o aining
designed o enhance awa eness o how o espond o ela ional
communica ion wi h ask- o ien ed a he han coun e p oduc-
i e communica ion. A con ol g oup o eams would engage in
eamwo k wi hou such an in e en ion (bu would, o cou se,
ecei e he aining a e wa d).
Second, he c oss- unc ional eams in he simula ion we e
pu pose ully s uc u ed o ensu e ha he eam membe s had
no p io o mal collabo a ion. Howe e , i canno be uled
ou ha some eam membe s engaged in in o mal in e ac-
ions. Al hough such in o mally gained amilia i y may also
be p esen in c oss- unc ional eams in a eal- li e se ing, p e-
limina y e idence shows ha in o mal in e ac ions can im-
pac c oss- unc ional sou cing collabo a ion (Lu, Kau mann,
and Ca e  2021). Me a- analy ic indings u he indica e
ha he link be ween communica ion and pe o mance be-
comes s onge wi h inc easing eam amilia i y, as eam
membe s communica e mo e e ec i ely (Ma low e al.2018).
Con a ily, F asie e al.(2019) show ha amilia i y does no
necessa ily co ela e wi h he equency o e ec i eness o
communica ion. Oli ei a, A gy es, and Lumineau(2022) also
make he case ha ela ional con ac ing (i.e., us based on
p e ious ela ionships) is less c i ical o eam e ec i eness
han ac ual communica ion in add essing in e o ganiza ional
p ojec dis up ions.
Fu u e esea ch could hus ex end he p esen s udy by explic-
i ly in es iga ing c oss- unc ional eams wi h a ying le els o
amilia i y among eam membe s and explo ing how eam a-
milia i y in e ac s wi h communica ion pa e ns o a ec eam
pe o mance. On he one hand, in line wi h me a- analy ical
indings (Ma low e al.2018), eams wi h highe amilia i y may
exhibi a s onge posi i e ( a he han neu al) associa ion be-
ween ela ional → ask- o ien ed communica ion pa e ns and
eam pe o mance imp o emen . On he o he hand, he nega-
i e ela ion be ween ela ional → coun e p oduc i e communi-
ca ion pa e ns and pe o mance imp o emen may likewise be
mo e p onounced in mo e amilia eams. This is because eam
membe s may a ibu e mo e alue o coun e p oduc i e e-
sponses i hey a e mo e amilia wi h he indi iduals in ol ed
(Xie e al.2020).
In a simila ein, one could a gue ha eams engaging in a supply
chain managemen simula ion may di e om c oss- unc ional
eams in eal o ganiza ional con ex s, whe e membe s b ing
di e se skills and knowledge gained om yea s o expe ience.
While his dis inc ion may be ue, i does no necessa ily limi
he gene alizabili y o he indings. Speci ically, in eal- wo ld
con ex s, eam membe s can be mo e s ongly imp in ed by
hei unc ional backg ounds, making hem mo e p one o con-
lic and coun e p oduc i e communica ion (Bo oş e al.2017;
Majch zak, Mo e, and Fa aj2012). The e o e, he iden i ica ion
o de imen al communica ion pa e ns in he “ligh ouch” sim-
ula ion unde sco es he need o emain ale o e en sub le signs
o nega i e phenomena, such as coun e p oduc i e communica-
ion, in c oss- unc ional eams.
Thi d, in addi ion o eam amilia i y and job- speci ic knowl-
edge, he indings may also be in luenced by indi idual
eamwo k compe encies, ha is, he abili y o in e ac and
coope a e wi h o he s (e.g., con lic esolu ion and ask coo -
dina ion; Aguado e al. 2014). While i was assumed ha he
(pseudo- ) andom alloca ion o eam membe s would lead o an
equal dis ibu ion o eamwo k compe encies ac oss eams, po-
en ial biases could no be en i ely uled ou . The e o e, u u e
esea ch on eam p ocesses and dynamics in c oss- unc ional
eams should speci ically assess membe s' eamwo k compe en-
cies as a po en ial hi d a iable ha in luences bo h communi-
ca ion (pa e ns) and supply chain pe o mance (Fe nando and
Wulansa i2021).
Fou h, his esea ch did no cap u e all possible communica-
ion pa e ns ha migh occu in c oss- unc ional eams. Fo
example, ela ional → ela ional communica ion pa e ns we e
no explici ly conside ed due o me hodological conside a ions
abou o e laps when including his pa e n in he model.5 F om
a heo e ical s andpoin , excessi e use o ela ional → ela ional
communica ion pa e ns may ha e a de imen al e ec on eam
pe o mance imp o emen , as i could de ac om essen ial
ask- ela ed discussion (Eldo , Hodo , and Cappelli 2023; an
Dun and Wilde om 2021). Fu he , he ocus on ela ional
communica ion pa e ns was mo i a ed by he bu geoning in-
e es in he ela ional side o eam p ocesses and dynamics in
supply chain managemen (Lu, Kau mann, and Ca e  2021)
and he limi ed empi ical insigh s in o he e ec s o ela ional
communica ion on eam e ec i eness (Kau eld and Lehmann-
Willenb ock2012). Fu u e esea ch could expand he indings
o his a icle by explo ing pa e ns ha s a wi h ask- o ien ed
o coun e p oduc i e communica ion.
Finally, his esea ch expec s eams o imp o e hei pe o -
mance o e ime, in line wi h gene al eam lea ning p inciples

51
(de Leeuw, Schippe s, and Hooge o s 2015; Ma ks, Ma hieu,
and Zacca o2001). Howe e , his may no hold ue o all ypes
o c oss- unc ional eams o si ua ions in supply chain manage-
men . Fo example, ime- sensi i e ci cums ances, such as when
eams need o ini ia e a mi iga ion plan unde igh deadlines
(Macdonald and Co si2013), may all ou side he scope o his
esea ch, which ocuses on eam lea ning and pe o mance
imp o emen o e ime. Fu u e s udies could explo e how
communica ion dynamics un old in eams whe e he goal is o
achie e immedia e esul s a he han sus ained pe o mance
imp o emen s.
6 | Conclusions
This esea ch ad ances ou unde s anding o c oss- unc ional
eams by examining how he empo al and in e ac ional com-
plexi ies o communica ion a ec eam pe o mance. Focusing
on clea , cons uc i e communica ion can help c oss- unc ional
eams a oid pe o mance se backs and o e new pa hways o
esea ch in o imp o ing eam dynamics. Me hodologically, his
s udy demons a es ha employing an in e ac ion coding ap-
p oach can no only e ec i ely cap u e ac ual communica ion
in e ac ions bu also p o ide a p omising app oach o unco -
e ing he dynamic na u e o eam p ocesses. This no el me h-
odological app oach can en ich he epe oi e o supply chain
managemen esea ch and open p omising a enues o u u e
s udies on c oss- unc ional eams.
In an e a o unp eceden ed supply chain p essu es ueled by
global c ises o apid echnological ad ancemen , op imiz-
ing c oss- unc ional eam dynamics is mo e c i ical han e e .
Membe s' di e se expe ise and pe spec i es cons i u e he
g ea es s eng h o c oss- unc ional supply chain eams, bu
hey also make hese eams pa icula ly suscep ible o com-
munica ion b eakdowns. To ackle his challenge, ou esea ch
poin s o a deepe unde s anding o ela ional communica ion—
how eam membe s con ey and espond o in e pe sonal sig-
nals—and i s p o ound impac on supply chain pe o mance. By
add essing hese ela ional communica ion dynamics, o ganiza-
ions can be e ha ness he po en ial o c oss- unc ional eams,
ensu ing ha hey emain esilien and e ec i e in na iga ing
he unce ain ies and demands o mode n supply chains.
Endno es
1 In an ea lie e sion o his esea ch, we included an addi ional com-
pe ing hypo hesis (H2compe ing) ha p oposed a non- signi ican ela-
ionship be ween pa e ns o ela ional communica ion ollowed by
ask- o ien ed communica ion on pe o mance imp o emen . Based on
e iewe commen s and o s eng hen ou concep ual g ounding, we
decided o emo e his compe ing hypo hesis.
2 While his s udy speci ically ocused on e bal beha io , non- o pa a-
e bal beha io s we e also pa ially conside ed in hose cases whe e
he me e e bal beha io s we e inconclusi e o did no ully ep esen
he con en con eyed by he speake . Fo example, when iden i ying
ela ional beha io s o ac i e lis ening, non- e bal cues like nodding
and eye con ac we e used o adequa ely code he beha io .
3 See he link o ou agg ega ed da a and analysis code: h ps:// os . io/
jgk7n/
4 We conduc ed an ad hoc quali a i e s udy wi h 19 supply chain p o-
essionals (see AppendixS6 o he demog aphic de ails o he pa ici-
pan s). The me hodological app oach and de ailed esul s a e a ailable
om he au ho s upon eques .
5 Analyses o he associa ion o ela ional → ela ional communica ion
pa e ns on eam pe o mance imp o emen a e a ailable om he au-
ho s upon eques .
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