1
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Re iew on mic og ids design
and moni o ing app oaches
o sus ainable g een ene gy
ne wo ks
Ijaz Ahmed
1*, Muhammad Rehan
1, Abdul Basi
1, Hasnain Ahmad
1, Waqas Ahmed
1,
Nasim Ullah
2*, Ma ian Piecha
3, Voj ech Blazek
4 & Lukas P okop
4
Mic og ids a e powe dis ibu ion sys ems ha can ope a e ei he in a g id-connec ed con igu a ion
o in an islanded manne , depending on he a ailabili y o decen alized powe esou ces, such as
sus ainable o non-sus ainable powe sou ces, ba e y backup sys ems, and powe demands. The
ex ensi e adop ion o in e e -based sys ems poses nume ous echnological challenges, necessi a ing
a cen alized managemen sys em o assu e he sys em eliabili y and moni o ing o he ene gy
deli e y ne wo ks. Thus, his esea ch begins by highligh ing hese signi ican obs acles and hen
analyzes he p esen -day ad ances in mul ile el con ol a chi ec u e o deli e ing on p omised
unc ionali y. This a icle also discusses he de elopmen o inno a i e con ol echnologies, such as
in oducing collabo a i e dis ibu ed app oaches and educing con en ional h ee-s age pa ia chal
adminis a ion o ewe s ages o sys em in eg a ion and unc ioning.
Lis o symbols
DPRs Decen alized powe esou ces
IBS In e e -based sys ems
MGs Mic og ids
CMGC Cen alized MG con olle
SoS Sys em-o -sys ems
ESFs Ene gy s o age acili ies
MASOC Mul i-agen sys ems o ien ed con ol
MPCSs Model-p edic i e con ol sys ems
PCC Poin o common connec i i y
DERs Decen alized ene gy esou ces
TSO T ansmission sys em ope a o
AC Al e na ing cu en
DC Di ec cu en
CRF Change a e o equency
DoS Denial o se ice
EESs Elec ical ene gy sys ems
IEEE Ins i u e o Elec ical and Elec onics Enginee s
RMS Roo mean squa e
CSCs Cu en sou ce con e e s
VSCs Vol age sou ce con e e s
DPCSs Decen alized p ima y con ol sys ems
DSCSs Decen alized seconda y con ol sys ems
DTCSs Decen alized e ia y con ol sys ems
OPEN
1Depa men o Elec ical Enginee ing, Pakis an Ins i u e o Enginee ing and Applied Sciences (PIEAS), Islamabad,
Pakis an. 2Depa men o Elec ical Enginee ing, College o Enginee ing, Tai Uni e si y, P.O. Box 11099,
Tai 21944, Saudi A abia. 3Minis y o Indus y and T ade, P ague 11015, Czech Republic. 4ENET Cen e,
VSB-Technical Uni e si y o Os a a, 708 00 Os a a, Czech Republic. *email: [email p o ec ed];
[email p o ec ed]
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Mic og ids (MGs) deli e dependable and cos -e ec i e ene gy o speci ied loca ions, such as esidences, com-
muni ies, and indus ial zones. Ad ance so wa e and con ol sys ems allow hem o unc ion as a single uni and
o manage he demand and supply o ene gy in eal- ime1. Mos no ably, MGs bene i companies and clien s by
s eng hening dependabili y by in eg a ing mobili y a he ansmission sys em’s local laye , imp o ing ene gy
e iciency using dynamic demand managemen , and lowe ing g eenhouse gas emissions2. MGs can in eg a e
sus ainable and con en ional in e e -based sys ems (IBS) o dependable elec ical ene gy deli e y o egional
clien s. These componen s c ea e a sel -con ained au onomous sys em ha can ope a e independen ly o in
pa allel wi h he p ima y powe g id, depending on he needs and goals3,4. Sus ainable ene gy-based dis ibu ed
MGs p o ide an oppo uni y o inc ease ene gy e iciency, imp o e ene gy secu i y, and educe en i onmen al
impac while p o iding economic bene i s o local communi ies. Relying on he con en ional powe gene a-
ion has se e al ulne abili ies ha can impac ene gy secu i y, inancial s abili y, and public heal h and sa e y.
T ansi ioning o enewable ene gy-based dis ibu ed MGs can help o add ess hese ulne abili ies by p o id-
ing ene gy independence, esilience, and en i onmen al bene i s. Addi ionally, decen alized powe esou ces
(DPRs) can p o ide nume ous bene i s, including ene gy secu i y, economic sa ings, enhanced ene gy access,
and ecological p o ec ion5,6. None heless, enewable ene gy sou ces such as sola , wind, and hyd opowe a e
e e ed o as ”in e mi en ” because hey ely on ime- a ying na u al esou ces. This is a di icul y o he
ene gy ope a o s ha p ese e he esilience o he elec ical ne wo k by balancing he elec ical supply and
demand in eal- ime. In addi ion, ad ancemen s in sma g id echnology make i simple o g id manag-
e s o o esee and egula e luc ua ions in he amoun o enewable ene gy p oduced. This imp o es he g id’s
o e all dependabili y and e iciency7. While MGs o e a p omising op ion o inco po a ing sus ainable DPRs,
signi ican ini ia i es a e needed o c ea e sophis ica ed con ol mechanisms o gua an ee MGs’ sa e, eliable,
and cos -e ec i e unc ioning.
Se e al issues need o be add essed o ealize he ull po en ial o DPRs in MGs. Some o he mos signi ican
challenges a e (1) powe elec onic connec i i y egula ion o in equen as well as non-dispa chable sus ainable
DPRs8, (2) p ese ing ene gy equilib ium o ensu e s able ol age as well as equency le els on he g id9, (3)
educing dis u bances caused by he occu ence o asymme ical and non-con ex demands in compac MGs10, (4)
de eloping sa e communica ion channels o MGs as a p e en a i e measu e agains hacke s11,12 and (5) ealis ic
modeling imbalanced e en s and pe u ba ions in MGs13,14. Cu en esea ch has shown a signi ican p og es-
sion owa ds decen alizing, dis ibu ed, and mul ile el con ol sys ems ha di ide hese ope a ional unc ions
among se e al uni s15–17. When mo e dis ibu ed gene a ion (DG) uni s a e added o MGs, each sub-g id can
each i s own sa e y and egula o y goals wi h li le help om o he sub-g ids. On he o he hand, decen alized
con ol schemes ely on synch onized communica ion be ween componen s o assign con ol unc ions. This
keeps subsys ems om becoming o e loaded18. Once his synch oniza ion is pe o med, cen alized con ol
a chi ec u e (auxilia y con ols) can be applied.
Gene ally, DG uni s a e linked o he MG sys em ia powe elec onics-based de ices. Depending on hei
ole in he ne wo k, hese de ices mus be con olled di e en ly. Ensu ing eliabili y and es ablishing p ecise
powe exchange be ween hese uni s equi e a cen al con ol o egula e he po en ial di e ence and ampac-
i y a he ou pu s o hese de ices (in e e s)19. The ea lie con ol app oaches implemen ed o MGs mainly
es ic ed hemsel es o adi ional d oop app oaches o powe elec onic coupling DPRs20. Such schemes we e
based on he p emise ha he p oduc ion suscep ibili y o a con e e is en i ely induc i e. T adi ional d oop
was shown o be insu icien o accomplishing co ec dynamic ene gy sha ing when sys em impedance dis-
c epancies exis ed among con e e s ha we e linked in a pa allel con igu a ion. As a esul , a ious schola ly
s udies ha e sugges ed al e na i e e sions o s anda d d oop app oaches o accomplish his con ol goal21–23.
MGs based on geog aphically sca e ed in e e s equi e complex con ol s a egies o add ess hei cohe ence
and synch oniza ion limi a ions. Hence, i leads o an inc ease in he adap a ion o new non-d oop da a-d i en
con ol s a egies24–27.
In e media e con ol in an MG e e s o he p ocedu es ha egula e he MG’s powe low o main ain s abili y
and dependabili y. Seconda y con ol occu s a he ha dwa e le el, keeping he o e all p oduc ion and demand
ha mony. Seconda y con ol’s p ima y objec i e is o p ese e s eady equency and ol age le els inside he
MG by con olling he powe p oduc ion o a ious DPRs, including sola panels, wind u bines, and ene gy
s o age sys ems. The seconda y con ol sys em con inuously checks he powe consump ion and supply in he
MG and egula es he p oduc ion o he DPRs o gua an ee ha he o al powe p oduced is equal o he powe
consump ion28. Dis ibu ed seconda y con ol echniques wi h da a ansmission ha e eplaced he cen alized
MG con olle (CMGC) used in con en ional seconda y con ol29. Te ia y con ol, applied o maximizing he
sys em’s p o i abili y wo ldwide, migh also be included in CMGC. I in e ac s only wi h ups eam in as uc u e
o acili a e wo kable MG by alloca ing esou ces mos e ec i ely30.
The pu pose o his esea ch is o p esen an o e iew o he de elopmen o con ol me hods in MG and o
conduc a sys ema ic e alua ion o he a ious s a egies o MG con ol ha ha e been p oposed in he published
li e a u e. Many publica ions ha e co e ed he nume ous MG con ol echniques in dep h31–34. Se e al sys em-o -
sys ems (SoS)-o ien ed discussions on MG con ol echniques a e ound in35; ne e heless, he p ima y emphasis
is on adap ing SoS o MGs. The esea che s o 5 co e ed he undamen als o MGs while also add essing eme ging
issues and po en ial om a ious ields, including law, economics, and egula ion. MG con ol inno a ion was
e iewed in36, wi h an emphasis on ene gy s o age acili ies (ESFs). A comp ehensi e li e a u e analysis on he
ully unc ioning-based axonomy o MG con ol was p esen ed in37. In ligh o he g owing in e es in MG con-
ol, his s udy p esen s a concise assessmen o he s a e o he a in MG con ols, as well as a discussion o i s
implica ions and he obs acles s anding in he way o u he s udy. The scope o his s udy includes he ollowing:
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1. In e mi en enewables p oblems, issues wi h he eliabili y o powe and equency, po en ial di e ence
i egula i ies, and cybe -secu i y p oblems a e only some o he cons ain s and implica ions ha sus ainable
ene gy MG has on he la ge ene gy g id.
2. I desc ibes ad anced cen alized con ol echniques like mul i-agen sys ems o ien ed con ol (MASOC),
model-p edic i e con ol sys ems (MPCSs) a he con e e and s a egic le els, consensus-o ien ed
app oaches, and machine lea ning-enabled moni o ing app oaches.
3. I iden i ies and classi ies di e en con ol app oaches om cu en esea ch in o one o he ollowing con-
ol s ages: (1) p ima y con ol, (2) seconda y o in e media e con ol, and (3) e ia y o auxilia y con ol.
Mo eo e , his ca ego iza ion is help ul o schola s because i allows hem o dis inguish be ween con ol
alues, based on he ime leng h a which hei ope a ions occu and he a chi ec u e c i e ia hey mus mee .
4. I assesses he di icul ies expe ienced in MG con ol o sugges po en ial esea ch opics.
The emainde o he s udy is s uc u ed as ollows: “The heo y o MGs” co e s he undamen als and designs
o MGs. The hi d sec ion discusses he issues associa ed wi h sus ainable MGs in eg a ed wi hin he ene gy-
deli e ing acili ies, while “P e equisi es o DPR implemen a ion in g id codes” summa izes IEEE DG connec-
i i y c i e ia. “Ad ance hie a chical con ol” desc ibes mul ile el MG con ol, inco po a ing all con en ional
connec i i y s anda ds and esilien con ol le els o minimize connec i i y p oblems. The las sec ion sum-
ma izes he esea ch.
The heo y o MGs
MG is a decen alized ene gy ne wo k ha can unc ion independen ly o in coope a ion wi h a b oade elec-
ici y ne wo k38. MGs a e DPRs ha include pho o ol aic powe , wind gene a o s, ba e ies o s o ing ene gy,
and backup sys ems, and a e linked o a smalle -scale dis ibu ion ne wo k. MG sys ems o e g ea e au onomy
o e ene gy p oduc ion and ansmission o p o ide dependable, economical, and sus ainable ene gy o he
local popula ion. Independen o he p ima y powe g id, MGs can unc ion in “island mode”, unning hei
own sys ems and p o iding hei own ancilla y se ices like peak sha ing and demand managemen 39. P oduc-
ion esou ces, ESFs o smoo hing ou powe oscilla ions and unbalance, demands, and a poin o common
connec i i y (PCC) o joining and de aching MGs om he p ima y ne wo k o le i unc ion in g id linked
manne o islanded ope a ion a e all pa s o a ypical MGs design40. In addi ion, an MG cen al con olle
(MGCC) is o en se up o egula e he MG powe equilib ium and DPRs e ec i ely. Mic o sou ces ack DPR
unc ioning s a es and send ha da a o he MGCC, which hen uses ha da a o send ou minimal se -poin s
o he indi idual DPR con olle s41.
The dimensions, powe supply, con ol echnique, and unc ion o MGs a e jus a ew o he many ways
hey can be ca ego ized. MGs can be ei he al e na ing cu en (AC), di ec cu en (DC), o a mix o he wo,
depending on hei esou ces, how much powe hey use, and how i ge s o hem. The li e a u e, howe e , p o-
ides many de ailed and ex ensi e MG a chi ec u al models. Fo example, he models o MGs designs can be
seen in42, whe ein h ee eeds wi h delica e demands and he abili y o island om he ne wo k h ough a ixed
lip we e add essed. I has a numbe o non-c i ical demands ha can be me e en i some hing goes w ong, as
well as ou mic o-sou ces ha can be con olled by pee - o-pee echniques. In43, he in es iga o s p o ide an
iden ical design whe ein sus ainable DPRs supply essen ial and non-c i ical home demands ia h ee dis ibu ion
sys em. MGs wi h a soli a y bus a chi ec u e34, such as hose depic ed in Fig.1a,b, a e widely deployed because
o hei sui abili y o small and in e media e ol age sys ems. Besides (a) mul i-le el a chi ec u e o co e ing
bigge egions wi h spa ially dispe sed DPRs44,45 and (b) mul iple-bus design o inc easing dependabili y in an
u ban egion46, he e a e addi ional possible gene alized MG a chi ec u e. Bo h o hem a e depic ed in Fig.2a,b.
Since AC MGs a e al eady compa ible wi h he a chi ec u e o exis ing AC ne wo ks, mos de elopmen has
been ocused on lea ning mo e abou and g owing hese sys ems. A mo e accu a e dis ibu ion o eac i e and
ac i e powe , as well as enhancemen s in elec ic quali y and equency con ol, is among hese ad ancemen s.
In e ms o dependabili y and e iciency, DC MGs a e supe io o AC MGs. Because DC MGs lack he conce ns
associa ed wi h imbalances, synch oniza ion, and ha monics, hey a e no a ec ed by hese p oblems. Among
he de elopmen s made in DC MGs a e he implemen a ion o synch onized con ol schemes, dependable
powe adminis a ion, and a se o ol age- egula ing algo i hms. Hyb id MGs ha e bo h al e na ing and di ec
cu en ansmission sys ems, and DPRs possess di ec cu en and a e connec ed o an iden ical powe sys em.
As ene gy-s o ing de ices and he DPRs a e easily linked o he hyb id powe g ids ne wo k, he e is less need
o coo dina e. The e o e, hyb id MGs a e an a ac i e app oach o me ging u u e al e na i e powe DPRs and
e-mobili y wi h minimal al e a ion o he exis ing ansmission sys em and o lowe o al expenses47.
E en hough MGs a e dis inguishable om he es o he ansmission ne wo k due o hei s abili y, hei
con ol and ope a ion a e complex. Depending on hei a chi ec u e and unc ion, hey can unc ion in a ious
ways. The mos p ominen modes a e black s a mode, g id suppo , g id connec ion, and island mode16. The
p ima y cons ain s and objec i es o mic o-asse s, demand con olle s, and MGCCs a e o ans e su plus
ene gy o acqui e inadequa e ene gy ia he con e e in a g id-connec ed manne and o manage equencies
and ol ages in s and-alone mode o achie e he egional balance o powe .
P oblems and implica ions o MGs powe ed by sus ainable sou ces on he powe
ne wo k
Unce ain y o sus ainable ene gy sou ces
The unce ain y o he echnologies b ough abou by IBS in MGs has esul ed in majo di icul ies in he unc-
ioning o he elec ical sys em, despi e he ac ha hese ad ancemen s ha e made eno mous s ides. The e
is a possibili y ha he amoun s o ene gy p oduc ion would change, which would make he MG ulne able
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o equency as well as ol age luc ua ions a PCC. Addi ionally, as such inco po a ion o he unp edic abili y
o wind powe in MGs inc eases, he ad e se e ec s o powe su ges in he middle equency band (0.01 and
1 He z) become mo e p onounced48,49. The e o e, con ol mechanisms ha ha e an essen ial unc ion in he
ope a ion o MGs by gua an eeing con inui y and dependabili y need o be de eloped o mi iga e he e ec s o
hese connec i i y complexi ies34,50,51. The unce ain y handling s a egies can be b oken down in o eigh dis inc
classes, which a e as ollows:
1. Inco po a ing a a ie y o a ious o ms o sus ainable powe , all o which will supplemen he o he s o
achie e an imp o ed powe p o ile52,53.
2. Allowing powe ansmission in bo h di ec ions ac oss MGs o ene gy planning54.
3. Using ene gy s o age de ices o la en ou he p oduc ion o sus ainable powe sou ces and signi ican ly
educe in e media e equency a ia ions o anges o 19–38%55–57.
4. Designing dynamic con ol echniques o decoupling linked o wind a ms o sa is y powe sys em c i e ia58.
5. Allowing o demand educ ion o op imize powe equilib ium59.
6. In eg a ion o dispa chable uni s o o e suppo du ing imes o low p oduc ion om sus ainable ene gy
esou ces60,61.
7. Applying MPC-based no malized wind ene gy supply o powe ne wo ks o minimize educed equency
luc ua ions ela ed o in e media e band wind ene gy, which has a highe oscilla ion a e62.
8. Using hyb id app oaches in eg a ing wo o mo e echniques o mi iga e unp edic able powe 63.
Resilience o equency and sys em ine ia
A change in equency has a di ec ela ion (p opo ional) o he sys em ine ia and also esul s om any dis-
c epancy be ween powe gene a ion and consump ion. These shi s in dynamic beha io a e desc ibed by he
ollowing models (1)–(4).
(1)
I
=

R2dm =R2M
,
AC BUS BAR
PV G id Fuel Cell Ba e y
S o age
DC
↓
AC
MC
MC MCMC
PCC
MC
MC
MCMC
MCMC
LC T/F
PHEV Ba e y
S o age
Dump
Load
Hyb id Ene gy
S o age
U ili y
G id
STATCOM
and V
suppo
AC
↓
DC
MGCC
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
AC
MC:Mic osou ce Con olle LC: Load Con olle
T/F: T ans o me
AC BUS BAR
PV G id Fuel Cell Ba e y
S o age
DC
↓
AC
MC MC
PCC
MC
MC
MC
LC T/F
PHEV Ba e y
S o age
Dump
Load
Hyb id Ene gy
S o age
U ili y
G id
STATCOM
and V
suppo
AC
↓
DC
MGCC
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
AC
MC:Mic osou ce Con olle LC: Load Con olle
T/F: T ans o me
(a) Soli a y busAC
PV G id Wind
Gene a o SC S o age
DC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
DC
↓
DC
MCMC MCMC
PCC
MC
MC
LCLC
T/F
AC -Load U ili y
G id
LC
DC BUS BAR
DC -LoadDC -Load
MGCC
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
AC
PV G id Wind
Gene a o SC S o age
DC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
DC
↓
DC
MC MC
PCC
MC
LC
T/F
AC -Load U ili y
G id
LC
DC BUS BAR
DC -Load
MGCC
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
AC
(b)
Soli a y busDC
Figu e1. MG designs wi h a soli a y bus.
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Synch onous machine ine ia as well as kine ic ene gy a e de e mined ia ma hema ical exp essions (1) and
(2), whe ein R is he adius o he synch onous uni s o a ing po ion, M is he uni s mass in kilog ams, and
αM
is he synch onous uni s ela i ely s able angula o o eloci y. The swing model in exp ession (3) indica es
ha he mean accele a ing ene gy di ec ly impac s he ene gy supply’s eliabili y. The
αM
alue shi s whene e
he e is a misma ch in ol ing he mechanical
PM
and elec ic powe s
PE
. J, he ine ia ac o , is de ined as he
esilience owa ds equency a ia ions caused by conse ed kine ic ene gy in olling elemen bea ings du ing
ene gy disc epancies by model (4), and
ω
is he p oduc ion capabili y o he ene gy ne wo k unde conside a ion.
In con en ional ene gy ne wo ks, he kine ic ene gy o synch onous machines o e s s eadiness subjec o g id
dis u bances o demand and p oduc ion disc epancies, he eby es ic ing he change a e o equency (CRF).
Ne e heless, inc eased adop ion o sola and wind IBS educes he mechanical ine ia, leading o an inc ease
in CRF. The CRF de ined by he ollowing model (5) deno es equency di e gence ( ollowing a quick imbalance
among p oduc ion and demand) as
(2)
K
.E=0.5

Iα
2
M,
(3)
d
d
=0.5

Iα2
M

=PM−PE
,
(4)
J
=
K.E
ω
=
0.5

Iα
2
M

ω
.
(5)
CRF
=
�P×
2J×ω,
T/F
PV G id Fuel Cell Ba e y
S o age
DC
↓
AC
MC
MC MCMC
PCC
MC
MC
MCMC
LCLC
LC
Hyb id Ene gy
S o age
U ili y
G id
AC BUS BAR
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
DC
Load
DC BUS BAR
AC
Load
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
AC
T/F
PV G id Fuel Cell Ba e y
S o age
DC
↓
AC
MC MC
PCC
MC
MC
LC
LC
Hyb id Ene gy
S o age
U ili y
G id
AC BUS BAR
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
DC
Load
DC BUS BAR
AC
Load
DC
↓
AC
DC
↓
AC
(a) Hyb id
PV G id
DC
↓
DC
AC
↓
DC
DC
↓
DC
MC
MC MCMC MCMC
SC S o age
Wind
Gene a o
Rcable, Lcable
LCLC
DC
↓
AC
AC
Load
DC
Load
PV G id
DC
↓
DC
MC
MC
Ba e y
S o age
DC
↓
DC
MCMC
DC
Load
AC
Load
DC
MG#n
Rcable,
Lcable
LCLC LCLC LCLC
DC-AC
DC
MG#2
DC
MG#1
Lcable:Cable Induc ance
Rcable:Cable Resis ance
(b)
Se ies connec ed DC MG
Figu e2. MG designs wi h mul i-bus.

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whe e
P
ep esen s he dispa i ies among p oduc ion and demand and ep esen s he sys em’s equency.
F equency changes a e mo e signi ican and could cause he demands o IBS o b eak when an elec ic g id
con ains a synch onous machine and a sus ainable ene gy supply ha does no add o he sys em’s s abili y.
Thus, an MG wi h a high pe cen age o sus ainable ene gy sou ces needs o ope a e eliably du ing a signi ican
CRF. The au ho s o he s udy64 p esen ed a ho ough analysis o he many me hods h ough which wind a ms
and speci ic wind u bines can implemen equency managemen con ol schemes. The V/ modal con ol sug-
ges ed in65 has been used o main ain sa e ol age and equency le els in an MG. Because sus ainable DPRs a e
non-linea , a ba e y is used o smoo h ou he esul ing equency luc ua ions. O he me hods o educe MG
lag ime include
1. Con ol s a egies o synch onous machines ha u ilized i ual ine ia we e adop ed in in eg a o s66.
2. Use o ba e ies o ene gy s o age o aid in he equency managemen o MGs powe ed by pho o ol aic
cells67.
3. An in e e ’s ene gy phase can be egula ed by simula ing non-linea ha monics wi h he sys em equency
as ha o he na u al equency68.
MG sys em ol age s abili y
Long-dis ance powe cables a e he main cause o ol age ins abili y in adi ional ene gy g ids. MGs ha e negli-
gible ol age dips due o hei sho eede linkages. Ye , he e may be an inc ease in ol age ins abili y challenges
i MGs become mo e p ominen in he ansmission ne wo k o he p esen day. MGs nowadays expe ience
ol age imbalances due o issues like ex emely low s able and luc ua ing ol ages, poo synch oniza ion o DPR
powe low agains ol age (QV) d oop cu es, he ailu e o IBS DPRs o keep a cons an ol age h oughou
he ba e y bank, and he DPRs’ inabili y o accommoda e o u u e load g ow h69.
Con en ional ene gy g ids manage eac i e p oduc ion by adjus ing end ol ages a he gene a ion o adjus ed
demand. Howe e , MGs espond o any sys em-wide al e a ion in he DPR node ol ages. As ne wo k ol age
adjus men s a e linked o decen alized ene gy esou ce (DER) ol age egula ions, a well-coo dina ed se o DER
QV cu es is equi ed o educe ol age dispa i y be ween buses, limi eac i e cu en low, and damp ol age
swings70. Ce ain aspec s o an MG ne wo k deg ade he agg ega e ol age pa e n and ne powe gene a ion
when in e up ions occu 71.
Con en ional app oaches o managing eac i e ene gy exchange luc ua ions ac oss a ious DPRs in an MG
use QV d oop ea u es. The ollowing model in (6) can be used o exp ess his45:
In Eq. (6),
υ1
and
υ2
ep esen he po en ial di e ence magni ude o wo e ices in MGs in as uc u es
isola ed by ene gized line impedance
Z=R+jX
, and
θ
ep esen s he phase angle ac oss he
υ1
and
υ2
.
MGs wi h iny le els o and subs an ial induc i e injec o s o eede s
X≫R
allow R o be igno ed in a o
o
sin θ≈θ
and
cos θ≈1
45. The e o e, eac i e ene gy is p opo ional o he po en ial, bu he assump ion ha
induc i e links d i e MGs is deba able because in e e s migh ha e di e en yield impedances. As a esul , his
s anda d d oop p ocess equen ly ails o a ain he an icipa ed p ecision le el in dis ibu ing eac i e ene gy.
Se e al enhanced d oop and non-d oop moni o ing s a egies ha e been implemen ed o pa allel-linked in e -
e s in DG ne wo ks. Addi ional in o ma ion on his opic will be p o ided in “Ad ance hie a chical con ol”.
In addi ion, because ol age assessmen s change ac oss he MGs ne wo k, hey could no indeed be u ilized o
ensu e a balanced dis ibu ion o global eac i e ene gy. I he highes ol age dip o an MG ne wo k can indeed
be speci ied by knowing he sys em pa ame e s o ha sys em, hen he ol age pa e n can be kep unde ea-
sonable pa ame e s.
Quali y o powe and oscilla ions
The p e alence o asymme ical and luc ua ing demands has inc eased he incidence o powe quali y issues in
small-scale island-mode MG ne wo ks. As he ha monics p oduced by IBS g ow o unaccep able le els, hey lead
o powe ou ages, ipped ci cui b eake s, los communica ions, and o e loading. Sup aha monics (po en ial
di e ence and cu en pa e n dis up ion in he spec um o 1–140 kilo-He z) a e c ea ed when dis ibu ed
sus ainable ene gy supplies a e p esen in an in e media e ol age sys em72. Ha monics ou pu has been subjec ed
o he ules and egula ions es ablished by he g id sys em o gua an ee ha he g id’s cu en and ol age pa e ns
a e compa ible. Ha monic dis u bance o ol age le els and cu en mus be a mos i e pe cen acco ding o all
egula ions and c i e ia, excep o he mo e s ingen ules in he UK, which manda e ha p esen ha monics
mus be a mos h ee pe cen 73.
The e a e cu en ly minimal es ic ions o c i e ia o sup a-ha monics in he ene gy g id. Because o his,
addi ional esea ch and s udies in o his opic a e equi ed o sa is y cus ome s’ demands in a dependable and
adap able way. The esea che may ind i help ul o consul publica ions74,75 o a comp ehensi e summa y o
he published li e a u e conce ning powe quali y educ ion app oaches.
P oblems wi h cybe secu i y
A cybe sys em con ols all ne wo ked da a, ne wo king sys ems, and physical powe elemen s, including IBS,
ene gy s o age de ices, and demands. The signi ican in e dependence be ween hose schemes inc ease he
likelihood o p oblems, including ansmission b eakdowns, comp omised da a secu i y, and excessi e da a
(6)
Q
=
υ
R
2
+X
2[−Rυ2sin θ+X(υ1−υ2cos θ)]
.
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managemen . Th ea s o MGs, analyzed h ough a cybe -physical ne wo k lens, ha e been he subjec o mul iple
publica ions76,77. Resea che s ha e add essed hem as ollows in78:
1. Cybe a acks h ough side channels allow an ad e sa y o delibe a ely obs uc elemen s o a sys em’s adap-
i e p ocessing o conceal powe ne wo k dis u bances.
2. A acks, known as dis ibu ed denial o se ice (DoS), can cause au ho ized use s o lose login o a ne wo k
o an ex ended pe iod.
3. A acks agains measu es designed o leak p i a e in o ma ion, which, when success ul, manipula e de ec ing
o con olling da a and cause he unc ioning o he physical p ocess o become un eliable.
4. Th ea s posed by i uses and code, including S uxne , a e inc easing, causing po ions o he MGs o sel -
des uc .
5. A acks ha in ol e he exploi a ion o in o ma ion lead o weaknesses in he embedded de ices o g ids.
I is widely acknowledged ha ensu ing he sa e y o MGs, which can be conside ed o hyb id cybe -physical
in as uc u es, is a signi ican challenge. As a esul , mos ecen esea ch has concen a ed on de eloping
me hods o iden i ying and isola ing a malicious ac i i y. Fo example, he esea che s in79,80 p opose new col-
labo a i e algo i hms o loca ing and minimizing he e ec s o cybe a acks, o en known as “s eal h a acks”,
in he auxilia y equency as well as ol age egula ion sublaye s, espec i ely. Model (7) demons a es ha
coope a i e ol age, as well as equency auxilia y egula o s, can accomplish he ollowing ope a ional objec-
i es unde common unc ioning si ua ions:
In Eq. (7),
M∗
is he equi ed wo ldwide sys em equency and
W∗
DC
,
Wa
, and y a e he app op ia e global
ne wo k ol age, a e age e e ence ol age, and associa ed laye . This me ic may iden i y cybe a acks like
denial o se ice and blocking. Howe e , s eal h a acks can sneak in o he ne wo k wi hou ale ing use s and
comp omise a ious senso s and communica ion channels. Ne e heless, in he e en o a cybe a ack, he
consensus mechanism buil on coope a ion shi s o model (8) as
In Eq. (8),
y=1
shows a ack componen wi h he no a ion
Ma
y
and
Va
DC = V∗
DC
. Howe e , i does no
p o ide an adequa e condi ion o de e mine he junc ions o an a ack, as e e y emnan ma ching equi es a
global knowledge. In his scena io, a sign o an a ack is he con olle ’s e o a se ing he inal alue o a ixed
e e ence ol age.
As a esul , mi iga ing he e ec s o s eal h ope a ions on equency and ol age equi e bo h a collabo a i e
secu i y o ulne abili ies elemen and an e en -d i en obus con ol sys em81,82. A supplemen a y equency
moni o ing buil on a pe sis ence measu e is a me hod made by he esea che s o 83 o islanded AC MGs.
Acco ding o he indings, he e is a one- o-one ela ionship be ween imp o ing he du abili y sco e and imp o -
ing he suscep ibili y o con e gence o cybe a acks ha in ol e inse ing alse da a. In addi ion, he denial o
se ice, eplay, and alse da a o in o ma ion injec ion a acks ha e been modeled and analyzed o po en ial
e ec s on he sys em cha ac e is ics o ol s, equency, and p oac i e and eac i e ene gies in isola ed AC MGs
in84. The equency ne wo k was shown o be he highes sensi i e o m o da a link, while he eac i e ene gy
line was ound o be he lowes suscep ible. The MG ne wo k will emain s able hanks o a supplemen a y
con olle based on a lexible ansmission line. This will con inue ill he cybe a ack has indeed been loca ed
and elimina ed. The i s s a egy o coping wi h cybe challenges in MGs includes inding and coun e ing
cybe -secu i y a acks. The second s a egy includes es ablishing decen alized adap able con ol schemes o
minimizing he nega i e impac s o malicious a acks wi hou sensing, classi ying, and hen a emp ing o emo e
o es o e he ulne able agen s84,85. Iden i ying and coun e ing cybe -secu i y a acks becomes a way o sol e
cybe p oblems in MGs.
Ye , MGs equi e a sel -healing capabili y o con inue unc ioning e en when unde a ack. In o de o es o e
a sys em in he mode n e a, he es o a ion p ocess mus be ully au onomous and p og ammed, un ela ed o
any ansmission sys em ope a o (TSO)86. Plug-and-play managemen and ansien eliabili y o con e e s a e
necessa y o de elopmen , howe e , g id- o ming con igu a ion swi ching may be au onomous a he in e e
le el. Main aining MG unc ioning equi es g id-le el coope a ion and an unde s anding nume ous powe
sou ces wo king in conce .
P e equisi es o DPR implemen a ion in g id codes
A he deli e y le el, classical elec ical ene gy sys ems (EES) lacked backup and ac i e p oduc ion acili ies. Ye ,
as mo e and mo e MGs a e connec ed o he powe g id, he e will be an inc eased demand o powe sys em
p o essionals o ensu e he con inued e iciency and secu i y o he sys em. The Ins i u e o Elec ical and Elec-
onics Enginee s (IEEE) is de eloping he necessi ies and p ocesses necessa y o p ope ly inco po a e DPRs
in o cu en ene gy sys ems o homogeneously supply consume s’ ene gy demands.
The me hods87,88 aim o es ablish wo essen ial unc ions; he deli e y unc ion, which is necessa y o com-
pu ing and p o iding p ede ined DPRs and a iable load demand, and he con e sion unc ion, which is asked
wi h handling he swi ch among g id-engaged and s andalone modes. The ollowing a e he mos essen ial DPRs
unc ional opics89,90:
(7)
lim
x→∞
My( )=M
∗
, lim
y→∞
Wa ,dci

y

=W
∗
DC
(8)
M
y( )=My( )+yMa
y, lim
y→∞
Va ,dci

y

=Va
DC
.
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1. Reac i e powe managemen and ol age egula ion
2. P oduc ion o eac i e powe
3. Flexibili y in ol age and equency o he powe sys em
4. Capaci y o wi hs and aul s and dis u bances
5. Ene gy eliabili y in he powe sys em.
6. Isola ion and sa e y measu es
The DPR’s p ima y du y unde he design codes is o main ain a cons an ol age h ough he managemen o
ac i e and eac i e alloca ion. By main aining he powe low inside he po en ial limi a ions as s ipula ed by he
TSO, he IBR acili y mus main ain he powe ac o consis en ly. The sys em ough o be capable o egula -
ing he low o eac i e powe in esponse o changes in ol age (VQ mode) as well as ac i e powe (PQ mode)
(please e e o Fig.3a,b)34,91.
DPRs a e equi ed o in use (o e -exci ed) o collec (unde -exci ed) eac i e ene gy inside he dynamic
powe po en ial limi s de ined in Table1 o ac i e ou pu powe anges up o he highes limi 92. The classes
p o ide speci ic a ibu es and capaci ies o ol age luc ua ions wi hin he accep able ange o ope a ion. These
speci ica ions apply o DPRs classed unde s anda d pe o mance equi emen s Class 1 and 2. The ope a ional
limi s co espond o wo king a an ac i e powe ou pu abo e i e pe cen bu below wen y pe cen o he a ed
ac i e powe . In his ange, he DPRs mus be able o exchange eac i e powe up o he lowes le el speci ied in
Table1. This minimum alue is de e mined by mul iplying he ac i e powe ou pu by he a io o he minimum
eac i e powe o wen y pe cen o he designed ac i e powe . The numbe s 44 and 25 in he column indica e
he abili y o abso b eac i e powe , exp essed as a pe cen age o he de ice’s nominal appa en powe a ing
(kVA). This is he second ne wo k code c i e ion.
The leas consis en ac i e powe po en ial (Pmin) o 5% o ecommended ac i e powe (P a ed) can always
be exceeded by he deli e ed ac i e powe (kW). TSO can con ol he need o eac i e elec ici y bo h egionally
and globally. Reac i e ene gy p oduc ion du ing signi ican DPR in eg a ion alls wi hin class 2, whe eas he
lowes p oduc i i y c i e ia o class 1 can be ound in mode a e DPR pa icipa ion.
The accep abili y c i e ion o bo h ol age and equency on he sys em manda es ha DERs mus con inue
unc ioning e en i he u ili y’s ol age and equency luc ua e wi hin a speci ic ange o alues. None heless, IBS
uni s a e disconnec ed due o g id dis up ions. IBS uni s mus main ain hei unc ionali y as i hey we e ac i e
p oduc ion uni s o p e en he sudden disengagemen om dis up ing he elec ic g id. The h ee possible ol -
age le els, (a) ze o- ol age, (b) low- ol age, and (c) high- ol age, a e included in he FRT equi emen ’s scope92.
Func ional pa ame e s o a DPR beyond he ongoing ope a ion zone a e de ined by he i s , second, and hi d
a ypical unc ioning beha io classes, espec i ely. Fo example, he equi emen s o ex ensi e connec i i y o
DERs a e speci ied unde Class Fi s a ypical ope a ional beha io .
In he IEEE benchma k92, opics such as DC cu en in usion limi s, ol age spikes con ibu ions, ab up ol -
age luc ua ions, s obe gene a ion a PCC, and pe iodic cu en dis u bance a e discussed. DPR should es ic
(a) (b)
Figu e3. DPRs dis inc i e ol age- eac i e-powe p o ile34,91.
Table 1. The lowes po en ial o injec ing and abso bing eac i e powe .
DPRs class Range o ope a ion o ac i e powe (P ) in
pe cen age o nominal alue
(%)
Po en ial o injec ing eac i e powe in pe cen age
o nominal alue
(%)
Po en ial o ole a e eac i e powe in pe cen age o
nominal alue
(%)
1 5 < P < 20 44 25
2 5 < P < 20 44 44
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DC cu en in usion o 0.5% o he maximum nominal gene a ing cu en . The mean RMS ol age a ia ion
a e abo e one second a PCC’s in e media e ol age ange mus no exceed 3% he s anda d le el pe second.
S ep o g adien a ia ions in RMS ol age shall emain less han 5% o he s anda d le el pe second du ing a
one-second o e ime, and he DPR mus en o ce his es ic ion o educed ol age pe o mance. Dis o ion
p oduc a ios a e es ic ed in how much hey can dis o cu en s and he o e all allowed cu en . As DPR is an
ac i e sc een, he elec ical g id adminis a o and DPR adminis a o can collabo a e on any addi ional se ings.
The MG equipmen ’s s andalone and sa e y needs necessi a e he ans e ope a ion’s e ec i e pe o mance,
a oiding des oying o p oducing an elec omagne ic a c o he MG componen s. The ans e ope a ion supe -
ises he unc ioning o he con ol scheme h oughou ansi ioning be ween g id-connec ed, s andalone, and
econnec ed modes. I con ols mig a ion o many si ua ions: (1) islanding by design, (2) islanding by chance,
(3) ein eg a ion, and (4) black s a . Unde pu pose ul islanding, IEEE benchma k92 necessi a es he DPR o
de-ene gize and b eak wi hin 2–5 s o se lemen pe iod. The many essen ial ypical p e equisi es o DPRs a e
ailu e ide- h ough and sa e y unc ionali y.
Ad ance hie a chical con ol
Because MGs come in many di e en shapes and sizes, hei con olle s mus be s ong, lexible, and capable o
essen ial compu a ions a high speeds. Using a hie a chical con ol scheme wi h mul iple ime le els is especially
in e es ing when you hink abou how as hings a e o managing ou comes and how slow hings a e o eco-
nomic scheduling. An MG con olle design wi h da a ansmission, a global con olle , and localized con ol
sys ems can be cen alized o decen alized. An MG wi h cen alized con ol uses a ansmission ne wo k and a
cen al hub. An MG wi h decen alized con ol uses local da a and coope a ion be ween mic o-sou ces, capaci y
con olle s, and MGCCs o con ol asks. While a cen alized se e main ains global con ol pe o mance by
being awa e o e e y ne wo k loca ion, he ulne abili y o massi e-scale MGs o single-poin b eakdowns and
unde a acks ende s he adop ion o cen alized p ocesso s imp ac ical93,94. On he same poin , an en i ely dis-
ibu ed s a egy canno be implemen ed since special ha dwa e is oo expensi e. As a esul , a mode n mix o he
wo s a egies is adop ed. This s a egy is known as mul ile el MG adminis a ion, consis ing o h ee ope a ional
laye s, as illus a ed in Fig.4: (1) p ima y ( ield ype), (2) in e media e (MG ype), and (3) auxilia y (g id ype).
Hie a chical MG con ol sys ems ha e been chosen as he p ima y con ol me hod. S ill, he changing beha -
io o al e na i e ene gy DPRs and demands makes i ha d o se limi s on hie a chical con ol. So, decen alized
and dis ibu ed s a egies a e being used o make i easie o use MG con ol sys ems95,96.
Recen esea ch sugges s how he adi ional h ee le els o he hie a chical managemen scheme a e com-
bined in o smalle sys ems o ealize plug-and-play unc ionali y97. Op imal con ol designs, also known as
lamina moni o ing designs, we e s a ed in98 o he de elopmen o dis ibu ed equipmen and ne wo ks by
inco po a ing limi a ions on da a low among laye s ( o ma ion o con ol schemes and segmen ing a ge s in o
sub- asks). Such in eg a ed con ol sys ems educe con ol messages and adequa ely exp ess con ol algo i hms
be ween sys ems while s ill op imizing. Howe e , in eg a ing le els o imp o e MGs’ speed, e ec i eness, and
accep abili y equi es u he in es iga ion. E en so, hie a chical MGs con ol is s ill he bes 99, as lexible con-
ol s uc u es and p ecise con ol mechanisms a e s ill being made. Hie a chical con ol a ains a good balance
be ween ully cen alized and dis ibu ed con ol mechanisms and manages many cus omizable pa s while
mee ing s ic quali y goals. I has a dependable and obus ne wo king sys em and compa ible ou ing p o ocols.
Thus, he subsequen sec ions elabo a e on hese h ee con ol laye s (p ima y, in e media e, and auxilia y).
Communica ion Wi h Mic og id Cen al Con olle
Mic og id Physical Connec ion
Local
Con olle
Local
Con olle
Local
Con olle
Local
Con olle
DG 1 DG 2 DG 3 DG 4
In e media e Con olMG Type
P ima y Con olField Type
Auxilia y Con olG id Type
T3 > T2
T2 > T1
T1
Measu emen s
Dis u bances
Con olled Inpu s
Figu e4. Hie a chical MG con ol design.
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1. Because hey a e exposed o dis ibu ion cha ac e is ic modi ica ions, linked impedance, and capaci i e
demand luc ua ions, he equency indica ions o dis ibu ed gene a o s can be quickly con e ged o he
s anda d le el o 50 Hz wi h an RL-o ien ed in e media e equency egula ion o MGs, as desc ibed in164.
I is unnecessa y o pump la ge amoun s o ene gy in o he ne wo k because he ope a ional ene gy alues
a e kep unde he speci ica ions.
2. Fo d oop-con olled MAS-o ien ed mega MGs, he wo k in165 sugges ed a decen alized auxilia y con ol
o equency and ol age eco e y depending on RL. Agen s de e mine hei egional ol age and equency
and sha e ha da a. The baseline se ings o bo h equencies and ol ages a e changed a e 0.1 s, while RL-
o ien ed me hods keep he es o he sys ems in check.
3. To esea ch he delayed ad an age-ac o dissen -o ien ed MAS RL echnique desc ibed in166, a ou -line
echa geable ESD simula ion was ca ied ou . When ha monic equency managemen and SOC balance
synch oniza ion can be done join ly in he ace o DoS a acks, he sugges ed sys em can a ain i s ull po en-
ial as a sys em.
Consensus‑based leade and leade less o ien ed app oaches
The MAS idea was conside ed in MGs, and he consensus model has indeed been employed as he undamen al
concep o coope a i e con ol o bo s167. E e y agen uses he da a a ailable locally and he consensus algo i hm
o coope a i ely collabo a e wi h he neighbo s in i s neighbo hood o a i e a a consensus168,169.
Second-le el mul ile el MG managemen has implemen ed a consensus echnique o es o e equency and
ol age cha ac e is ics in MGs. This is especially ue when synch onizing g id building and g id acking in e -
e s, o which consensus-based collabo a i e con ol mechanisms ha e been de eloped. The au ho s o 138 p o ide
a join con ol analysis o g id- o ming and g id- ollowing con e e s, which gua an ees MG plug-and-play
unc ionali y and maximizes ene gy p oduced om sus ainable sou ces. To b ing he ol ages o mul iple DGs
in o ag eemen , we use a pa adigm ede aliza ion echnique o combine con ol condi ions and design a global
second-o de eedback con ol echnique.
Powe adminis a ion in MG ne wo ks is ano he a ea whe e consensus supe ision has been used. Fo
ins ance, in170, he consensus concep has been used o add ess he ene gy dispa ch issue o an MG wi h i e
lines using a quad a ic objec i e model. To s ike a good comp omise be ween p oduc ion and consump ion, we
de e mine he inc emen al cos ha each de ice should upda e. Using a consensus mechanism o maximize he
cos -e ec i eness o MG elec ici y ne wo ks has much p omise. How o use his concep o p o ide synch oni-
za ion among many a iable componen s, such as s o age de ices and gene a ion machines, in an MG ne wo k
is an in iguing a ea o u he s udy.
Conclusion
This s udy p o ided an o e iew o ecen de elopmen s in mic og id adminis a ion and conduc ed an in-
dep h e alua ion o he h ee laye s o he hie a chical sys em: p ima y, in e media e, and e ia y. I es ablished
cen alized, decen alized, and dis ibu ed con ol sys ems, comp ehensi ely ca ego izing nume ous con ol
echniques epo ed in he esea ch and placing hem in hese h ee g oups. Acco ding o academic esea ch,
mul iple d oop-based and non-d oop-based ac i e and eac i e ene gy pooling s a egies exis a he p ima y
le el. Howe e , he e is s ill a po en ial o mo e de elopmen . In addi ion, seconda y-le el con ol was o e ed o
de ec seconda y ol age and equency aul s, esul ing in a ne wo k’s p ima y con ol and ensu ing an e icien
s a egy. Wi h ei he a cen alized o dis ibu ed a chi ec u e, his was accomplished by he MGs’ cen alized
p ocesso s go e ning pa icula componen s o he MG ne wo k. Fu he mo e, e ia y-le el used in a mic og id
ne wo k was add essed, emphasizing i s po en ial o es ablishing he MGs’ ideal powe supply and achie ing he
mos e icien sys em unc ioning. We accomplished his by synch onizing nea by MGs wi h ups eam/dis ibu-
ion ene gy in as uc u e while conside ing he cha ac e is ics o MG ope a ions and o he ci cums ances. I
was also no ed ha using a mix o mode n con ol me hods is on he upswing, which bodes well o making
MGs easie o egula e. Sus ainable, esilien , and adap able MGs de eloping and managing solu ions a e he
way o omo ow. Se e al ac o s, including he inc easing p e alence o g een ene gy sou ces, he de elopmen
o mode n s o age me hods o ene gy, and he ise o elec ic ehicles a e shaping he powe landscape. These
shi s a e being p omp ed by ou sha ed du y o deal clima e change and c ea e a be e omo ow, as well as he
demand o g een and sus ainable ene gy sou ces. As he angua d o his e olu iona y mo emen , MGs ca y
he po en ial o a mo e e ec i e, en i onmen ally sus ainable, and obus ene gy ecosys em. Fu he in es iga ion
is equi ed o asce ain whe he de eloping coope a i e con ol schemes and in eg a ing hie a chical con ol
le els may enhance unc ional esilience in ad anced sus ainable MG sys ems.
Da a a ailabili y
The da a-se s used and/o analysed du ing he cu en s udy is a ailable om he co esponding au ho on
easonable eques . All o da a-se used in he s udy has been ei he p o ided o ci ed in he a icle.
Recei ed: 8 May 2023; Accep ed: 2 Decembe 2023
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Acknowledgemen s
This wo k was suppo ed by he ollowing p ojec s: TN02000025 Na ional Cen e o Ene gy II and CK04000060
De elopmen o analy ical ools o e ec i e ansi ion o elec omobili y. The au ho s also acknowledge he
suppo o Deanship o Scien i ic Resea ch o Tai Uni e si y, Saudi A abia. The au ho s would also like o
acknowledge he use o G amma ly o language imp o emen .
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sion, e iew & edi ing. M.P.: e iew and edi ing. V.B.: o mal analysis, e iew and edi ing, unding acquisi ion.
L.P.: e iew and edi ing.
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