Ci a ion: Pé ez-Cu iel, Concha,
Rica do Domínguez-Ga cía, and Ana
Velasco-Molpece es. 2023. Explo ing
he Poli ical Deba e o e he
COVID-19 Vaccina ion on Twi e :
Emo ions and Pola iza ion in he
Spanish Public Sphe e. Social Sciences
12: 85. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
socsci12020085
Academic Edi o :
And eu Case o-Ripollés
Recei ed: 15 Decembe 2022
Re ised: 31 Janua y 2023
Accep ed: 1 Feb ua y 2023
Published: 8 Feb ua y 2023
Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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social sciences
A icle
Explo ing he Poli ical Deba e o e he COVID-19 Vaccina ion
on Twi e : Emo ions and Pola iza ion in he Spanish
Public Sphe e
Concha Pé ez-Cu iel , Rica do Domínguez-Ga cía and Ana Velasco-Molpece es *
Depa men o Pe iodismo II, Facul ad de Comunicación, Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41092 Se illa, Spain
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac :
In a scena io ma ked by COVID-19, communica ion has posed a eal challenge o ins i u-
ions. Since he i s case o COVID-19, Spain has aced he eno mous challenge o an unp eceden ed
heal h, economic, and social c isis. The public sphe e has pu i s us in accina ion as he only
chance o he coun y’s eco e y. To de e mine he ole played by poli ical leade s in he deba e
on accina ion and ci izens’ pe cep ion o c isis managemen , his a icle analyzes he messages
pos ed on Twi e by he ou leade s o he pa ies wi h he mos ep esen a ion in pa liamen : Ped o
Sánchez (PSOE), Pablo Casado (PP), San iago Abascal (Vox), and Yolanda Díaz (Podemos). Using a
me hodology o compa a i e con en analysis on Twi e , a sample was es ablished ha began a
he s a o he accina ion p ocess and inocula ion wi h he i s dose, and co e ed he en i e yea
ha ollowed. The esea ch esul s, which con as ed wi h hose collec ed in demog aphic su eys,
e lec ed an inc ease in pola iza ion and elec o al use o he accine, which ook p ecedence o e he
awa eness- aising discou se ypical o public campaigns.
Keywo ds: COVID-19; accina ion; public communica ion; pola iza ion; Twi e
1. In oduc ion
The public dilemma su ounding COVID-19 accina ion, he con usion, and pola -
iza ion o poli ical discou se on social media cons i u ed he hallma ks o an ins i u ional
communica ion p ocess also in c isis (Case o-Ripollés 2020). Ha ing su passed he i s
s age o he pandemic ma ked by he unknown na u e o he i us and he digi al in o -
ma ional chaos (La ondo U e a e al. 2021), a second phase eme ged wi h he accine as
i s p o agonis . In on o he con ainmen measu es employed o s op he i us (social
dis ancing, con inemen , o a el es ic ions), he accine was pos ula ed as he main hope
o end he pandemic (Ca asco-Polaino e al. 2021). The p io i y o accina ion occupied
he poli ical agenda (Thelwall e al. 2021), which con inued o p omo e he s o y elling o
con lic among leade s, pa ies, and go e nmen s.
Simila o p e ious c ises (B onia owski e al. 2018;Cheng e al. 2018;Wang e al. 2017;
Ghenai and Mejo a 2018), he o igin o he i us, expec a ions o he accine, o p e en i e
measu es we e sou ces o misin o ma ion, especially on social media (D edze e al. 2016;
Kang e al. 2017). This in o ma ional diso de led he WHO o include dis us o accines
in he lis o he en leading h ea s o global heal h (F ied ich 2019).
Vaccines a e an oppo uni y o democ a ic sys ems o explain echnical p ocedu es
and global heal h, and o ein o ce hei ole as an ins umen o anspa ency and good
go e nance (Wes phalen and Libae 2008). Howe e , acing social audiences and aking
Twi e as he p ima y suppo o p opaganda and cybe he o ic (López Me i 2016),
poli ical communica ion a o s pe sonaliza ion and spec acula iza ion s a egies o e
esou ces ha gua an ee eliabili y (Amado 2016;Más-Manchón and Gue e o-Solé2019).
Ins i u ional poli ical discou se shows signs o imp o isa ion, insecu i y, and disconnec ion
om expe s. The opinion o specialis s, p o essionals, and scien is s is unde alued
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/socsci12020085 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/socsci
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 2 o 17
because i does no ep esen he ‘people’ (Waisbo d 2018). Disin o ma ion and denialism,
he ba le o global in luence, as well as pola iza ion a e in ensi ying (Ali and Ga i i 2020).
Doub s and suspicions conce ning accines a e mixed wi h public dis us o ins i u ions.
Poli iciza ion o unce ain y u he weakens a democ a ic sys em ha was al eady in
decline (Colomina 2021;Wa dle 2017).
Acco ding o he speci ic Digi al News Repo Spain (Neg edo e al. 2020), 44% o
he su eyed popula ion s a ed ha hey ound a lo o qui e a lo o misin o ma ion
ega ding COVID-19 on social media, and blame poli icians (42%), he media (36%), and
he go e nmen (34%) o he hoaxes. Fo i s pa , he epo p epa ed by he Spanish
Founda ion o Science and Technology (FECYT) measu ed he e olu ion o a i udes
owa ds accina ion in Spain h ough h ee ep esen a i e su eys (n = 12.162) (Lobe a
Se ano and Ál a ez 2021). Addi ionally, he epo ad anced heo ies on accep ance
o esis ance o he popula ion (Ramon au e al. 2021;Lo ini e al. 2018;Ho nsey e al.
2018;Be sch e al. 2018), highligh ing he concep o us in ins i u ions (a di use us in
he se o poli ical o ganiza ions, he WHO and he Eu opean Union, municipali ies, he
go e nmen o Spain, and he au onomous communi ies) associa ed wi h a mo e a o able
a i ude owa ds accina ion.
Inco ec in o ma ion o alsehoods om au ho i ies had a nega i e impac on he
cou se o he pandemic, as indi iduals adop ed beha io s based on he da a and in o ma-
ion hey ecei ed and he e ec s hey p oduced on social media (Cuau hémoc Mayo ga
2021;Ce on e al. 2021). In his con ex o con usion, conspi acy, and e icence, he epo
ga he ed ecommenda ions on he inc eased isibili y o ins i u ions’ e o s a he in e -
na ional, na ional, and local le els, in addi ion o he e ec i eness and uni y in he igh
agains he pandemic, and he gua an ee o public con ol mechanisms agains disin o -
ma ion. In his line o esea ch, he objec i e was o analyze he poli ical discou se on
COVID-19 accina ion om he main leade s wi h ep esen a ion in he Spanish Pa liamen
on Twi e and check he pe cep ion o he audiences h ough he i al esponse on he
ne wo k and sociological su eys.
1.1. Impac o he Vaccina ion Poli ical Campaign on Twi e : The Axis o Misin o ma ion
The con o e sy o e he bene i s o d awbacks o social ne wo ks p ojec ed in he a ea
o poli ical communica ion main ains an open deba e abou disin o ma ion ueled by he
COVID-19 pandemic (Sala e ía e al. 2020). The dys unc ion o he ins i u ional poli ical
message ega ding accines (Cos a-Sánchez and López-Ga cía 2020), he disconnec ion
wi h expe s and science (Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2022a), and he deg ee o con on a ion be ween
leade s on Twi e a e aspec s ha equi e academic e iew.
In he heal h sphe e, he p e ious li e a u e has analyzed he con e sa ion in he public
sphe e on Twi e abou speci ic accines and in gene al (Bello-O gaz e al. 2017;Milani e al.
2020;Tomeny e al. 2017). Be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, heal hca e p o essionals we e
al eady ea ing pa ien s who had been misin o med online, a phenomenon known as “D
Google” (Lee e al. 2014). Howe e , in e iews conduc ed by he New Yo k Times (h ps:
//ny i.ms/2FJFVNb, accessed on 28 Janua y 2023) wi h mo e han a dozen doc o s and
esea che s specializing in disin o ma ion om he Uni ed S a es and Eu ope e ealed ha
hey had ne e seen such a high olume as ha ela ed o COVID-19. These p o essionals
blamed leade s such as Donald T ump o ampli ying al e na i e heo ies, digi al pla o ms
o no doing enough o end alse in o ma ion, and people o so easily belie ing wha hey
consumed online.
Due o i s ecen na u e, he e has no ye been an oppo uni y o analyze he poli ical
and ci izen dialogue ega ding COVID-19 accines. Beyond he ad an ages o he ne wo k,
due o i s ins an aneousness, i ali y, and engagemen (Campos-Domínguez 2017), Twi e
has been use ul o he scien i ic communi y o de ec inco ec concep ions o use s and
ac as de ac o s o alse in o ma ion, since he numbe o people who go o he In e ne
looking o in o ma ion ega ding accina ion is inc easing (G aells-Ga ido e al. 2019;
Bu nap e al. 2016;Kouzy e al. 2020;Jolley and Douglas 2014).
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 3 o 17
A s essed and igh ened popula ion seeks shel e in s ong and compe en leade s,
capable o leading he coun y in he ace o an unce ain scena io (Ama e al. 2020). This
oppo uni y was being exploi ed by leade s o manage emo ions and con e Twi e in o
an elec o al ool a a ime o pandemic. Recen s udies ha e al eady con i med a clea
di e gence be ween ins i u ional messages conce ning COVID-19 (Cas illo-Espa cia e al.
2020a), consis ing o adminis a i e o se ice in o ma ion, and he con en o a mo e
emo ional na u e, which ci izens end o in e ac wi h mo e (Cas illo-Espa cia e al. 2020b).
A con ex is hen p oduced o eme ging ake news ha has empowe ed an i-democ a ic
policies, equaling he numbe o p o essional news i ems om acc edi ed media (Fe nández-
To es e al. 2021;Howa d e al. 2018). An example is he conspi acy heo ies pu o wa d by
Donald T ump linking he o igin o SARS-CoV-2 o a Chinese labo a o y and he announce-
men o medica ions wi hou scien i ic e idence. In addi ion, c i icism conce ning he
e icacy o accines om o he coun ies o hei a i ude o poli icizing and downplaying
he i us a e hallma ks o his poli ical leade ’s populis discou se. The e o e, poli ics and
poli icians a e p esen ed as a sou ce o misin o ma ion and p opaganda on social media,
especially du ing elec ion pe iods (Pé ez-Cu iel and Ga cía-Go dillo 2020).
Rega ding he na ional and local scope, gi en ha accina ion was amed in a con ex
o mixed managemen (go e nmen al and au onomous communi ies), he ea men o
accines on Twi e was a di ec p ojec ion o wha had happened in e na ionally. The
in luence o a wo-pa y sys em PSOE/PP ha deno es con lic , pola iza ion, and c i icism
o he socialis go e nmen ’s managemen sha ed by he media and by he social audience
is added o he posi ion o eme ging o ces such as Vox and Unidas Podemos, ha poin s o
a “pola ized plu alis ” discou se wi h a p e e ence o cen alized o ideologically aligned
in o ma ion (López-Ga cía 2020;B ennen e al. 2020). Howe e , he conspi a o ial na a i e
o “no o he accine” ha was popula ized by populis s such as T ump o Bolsona o on
Twi e , was ans e ed o Spain wi h a beha io ha eluded he opic in he case o he
ex eme igh (Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2021;Man edi-Sánchez e al. 2021). In his con ex o
an i accine policies, social media ac ed as a eedback mechanism o ideologies ha could
os e pola iza ion and, in u n, in luence use s by inc easing con usion and misin o ma ion
(Wilson e al. 2014;Ge man e al. 2018).
Pa adoxically, a social ne wo k such as Twi e , wi h he capaci y o nodal in e ac ion,
could gene a e echo chambe s and ac i a e he deba e abou accina ion (Ca denal e al.
2019;Pé ez-Dasil a e al. 2020), becoming a ocus o poli ical in e es and a channel o
aligning audiences wi h ideologies. These supposi ions also p o oked con lic ing opin-
ions om he public ega ding Twi e , which hey a ed as no ecommended o heal h
in o ma ion due o he dis us i gene a ed.
In any case, he in luence o poli icians and he elec o al use hey make o Twi e
is added o he ac i ism o a social audience, which also pa icipa es in he c ea ion and
p opaga ion o alse in o ma ion (Pé ez-Cu iel and Limón-Naha o 2019). Topics ela ed
o he o igin o he i us, expec a ions o he accine, he p og ession o he ou b eak
o in ec ious diseases, o p e en i e measu es ha e been subjec o allacies in p e ious
heal h c ises (B onia owski e al. 2018). A he beginning o Ap il 2020, 113 million unique
au ho s had sha ed messages on Twi e ega ding COVID-19 (La son 2020). The eedom
o exp ession allows social ne wo ks o sp ead unchecked e oneous in o ma ion and alse
news (Rosenbe g e al. 2020;Sala e ía e al. 2020). In conclusion, a isk ecosys em is needed
ha pu s ins i u ional dialogue wi h expe s, in o ma i e igo , and da a e i ica ion on
opics ha a ec public heal h and equi es he commi men o poli ical leade ship o s op
he me as a ic sp ead o disin o ma ion on he ne wo k (Bouneg u e al. 2017).
1.2. Pe cep ion o Ci izen’s Social A i udes owa d Vaccina ion. Con ex S udy
In a momen o ins i u ional and poli ical c isis p o oked by he in odemic, ci izens
ha e been le mo e ulne able o he impac o disin o ma ion, especially in he ealm
o social media (Sala e ía e al. 2020). The social audience has no only become an
objec o in luence, bu also a po en ial dissemina o o alsehoods conce ning he i us,
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 4 o 17
con ibu ing o exponen ially inc easing i s social ci cula ion adius (Ma ínez-Cos a e al.
2022). Meanwhile, an inc ease in public con usion and dis us in poli icians and media is
e iden , caused by he digi al imme sion o hoaxes and ake news ega ding COVID-19,
he go e nmen ’s managemen o COVID-19, o he e icacy o accines and accina ion
campaigns (Pé ez-Cu iel and Case o-Ripollés 2022).
As pa o he p e-in es iga ion p ocess, he epo en i led “E olu ion o he Social
Pe cep ion o Scien i ic Aspec s o COVID-19”, published by he Spanish Founda ion o
Science and Technology (June 2020/Janua y 2021) has been e ie ed. The objec i e o his
wo k was o measu e he e olu ion o he a i udes o ci izens owa ds accina ion in Spain
and o iden i y he main ac o s in ol ed in he eluc ance exhibi ed owa ds COVID-19
accina ion. The epo collec ed he esul s o wo ounds o elephone su eys and one
in-pe son su ey, ep esen a i e o he Spanish popula ion, and co e ed a o al o 12,162
in e iews. The 5C model explained accine hesi ancy in e ms o i e dimensions: us in
accines and he heal hca e sys em, complacency, calcula ion, he cos o accina ion, and
he pe cep ion o accina ion as a collec i e esponsibili y (Be sch e al. 2018). Meanwhile,
he scale measu ing ag eemen wi h conspi acy heo ies was cen e ed on he case o
accines (Shapi o e al. 2016). A summa y o he esul s o he hi d and ou su ey
conduc ed con i med a g ea e accep ance o he accine, inc easing om 23% achie ed in
July 2020 o 83% in May 2021 (1), a ce ain elaxa ion in he compliance wi h p e en ion
measu es, when only hal o he popula ion (49%) assu ed ha hey ha e been able o
a oid sha ing closed spaces wi h non-cohabi an s (2), and he belie in conspi acy heo ies
by a signi ican pe cen age o he popula ion (3). In ac , almos a hi d o he Spanish
popula ion (31%) conside ha masks a e bad o hei heal h, and close o 8% i mly
belie e ha accina ing child en is ha m ul and his ac is hidden. All o his is in a con ex
o disin o ma ion, wi h 58% o Spania ds s a ing ha hey ha e seen o hea d messages
encou aging people no o accina e agains COVID-19.
The applicabili y o his epo o esea ch on he s a egies o he main Spanish poli i-
cal leade s ega ding COVID-19 accina ion on Twi e has been pa icula ly ocused on he
su ey a iable ha deals wi h he le el o us o he public in poli ical ins i u ions. The
esul s con i med a di use deg ee o us in he WHO and EU, passing h ough he go -
e nmen o Spain, he Au onomous Communi ies, and he Municipali ies, which a o ed a
posi ion o e icence among ci izens owa ds accina ion. The FECYT epo se ou a se ies
o ecommenda ions o comba he public’s lack o us in ins i u ions. Among hem, he
pe inen ecommenda ions included p omo ing anspa ency and making he e o s o
ins i u ional and poli ical o ganiza ions and hei e icacy in he igh agains he pandemic
and he deploymen o he accina ion campaign mo e isible; inc easing communica ion
ega ding he unc ioning o public con ol mechanisms, such as he Eu opean Medicines
Agency and he Spanish Agency o Heal h P oduc s; and comba ing umo s ega ding
he nega i e e ec s o accines o hei lack o e icacy, linked o conspi acy heo ies and
disin o ma ion.
The e o e, he da a collec ed om he h ee popula ion su eys published by FECYT
p o ided in o ma ion on ci izens’ beha io owa d he ins i u ional managemen o he
accine con lic and he use o disin o ma ion, which allowed o compa ison wi h he
esponse o use s o messages pos ed by Spanish poli ical leade s on Twi e , in he con ex
o he i s COVID-19 accina ion campaign.
In conclusion, aking his en i e con ex in o accoun , he main objec i e o his a icle
was o del e in o he ole ha Spanish poli ical leade s ha e played in he deba e on
accina ion and he pe cep ion ha he public has conce ning ins i u ional managemen .
Thus, his wo k analyzed, h ough a con en analysis, he messages published on Twi e
by he ou leade s o he pa ies wi h he highes pa liamen a y ep esen a ion in Spain.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The managemen o a global heal h c isis, ma ked by con ainmen s a egies such as
social dis ancing, lockdowns, a el es ic ions, and o he se ices, and by he hope o
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 5 o 17
dis us in accines o end he pandemic, on a ne wo k such as Twi e (F ied ich 2019;
Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2022a) has gene a ed an ins i u ional and poli ical campaign o dissen
among expe s. This campaign’s main iden i ying ea u es a e pola iza ion, ideological
bias, and disin o ma ion, p ojec ed in he dis us o he social audience.
F om his pe spec i e, he ollowing esea ch ques ions a ose:
RQ1.—A e accines a opic o deba e among he main Spanish poli ical leade s on Twi e ?
RQ2.—A e pola iza ion, bias, and misin o ma ion cha ac e is ics o poli ical discou se on
accina ion?
RQ3.—A e he e di e ences be ween he esponse o Twi e use s o poli ical messages
ega ding accines and he public opinion collec ed in demog aphic su eys?
Taking hese p emises in o accoun , a iple ocus con en analysis me hodology ha
was quan i a i e–quali a i e and discu si e (Sil e man 2016;K ippendo 2012;Flow-
e dew and Richa dson 2017;Van Dijk 2015) was applied, which was suppo ed by he issue
ame/game ame heo y (Ca w igh e al. 2019). The social ne wo k Twi e was chosen,
gi en he impo ance i has achie ed o poli ical communica ion in elec o al p ocesses and
in heal h c ises (Alonso-Muñoz e al. 2017;D’Hee and Ve degem 2015;Chen e al. 2020).
To del e deepe in o he ole played by poli ical leade s and expe s du ing he COVID-
19 accina ion p ocess, we op ed o s udy he Twi e accoun s o he ou Spanish poli ical
leade s wi h he highes pa liamen a y ep esen a ion in he Cong ess o Depu ies (Ped o
Sánchez, Pablo Casado, San iago Abascal, and Yolanda Díaz). Rega ding he empo al
pe iod analyzed, he sampling began wi h he s a o he accina ion p ocess and he
adminis a ion o he i s dose in Spain (27 Decembe 2020) and ex ended h oughou he
ollowing yea (27 Decembe 2021). Al hough his ime ame did no encompass he en i e
accina ion p ocess, he wel e mon hs o sampling cap u ed he momen s o g ea es
poli ical media ocus on immuniza ion and we e signi ican , bo h in e ms o quan i y and
quali y, o suppo he conclusions o he s udy.
Using he Twi onomy applica ion, all wee s pos ed by hese leade s du ing he
speci ied pe iod o ime we e downloaded, cons i u ing a gene al sample composed o
4283 messages. F om he e, sc eening was pe o med, selec ing hose wee s ha included
he keywo ds ‘ accine’, ‘ accines’, o ’ accina ion’. F om he gene al sample, a speci ic
sample o 166 wee s ega ding he accina ion p ocess, sp ead ac oss he ou leade s on
Twi e , was de i ed and adjus ed o he indica ions o p e ious me hodological models,
which ecommended ha , in he collec ion o da a in discou se s udies, quali y should be
p io i ized o e quan i y (Bake 2006;Clea y e al. 2014;Sil e man 2016). This p emise
was he e o e applicable o he analysis o emo ions, an indica o ha he ci ed expe s
conside ed ep esen a i e o he leade ’s beha io o in luence he ci izen y.
F om his p emise, a coding manual was designed ha allowed he analysis o he
na a i e ha Spanish poli ical leade s de eloped h oughou he accina ion p ocess,
composed o 11 quan i a i e, quali a i e, and discu si e a iables. The s a is ical p og am
chosen o he p ocessing and exploi a ion o he da a was IBM SPSS S a is ics (Ve sion 25).
The ca ego iza ion able was s uc u ed in o h ee main blocks: issue ame ( opic),
game ame (s a egies) and discu si i y ( eelings and one), and message di usion ( i al-
i y). These h ee me hodological ools answe ed he h ee esea ch ques ions. To cla i y
he adequacy o he me hodological plan, Table 1 ela es he esea ch ques ions o he
analysis indica o s.

Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 6 o 17
Table 1. App oach o ope a ionaliza ion o esea ch ques ions.
Resea ch Ques ion (RQ) Indica o s
(RQ1) A e accines a opic o deba e among he main
Spanish poli ical leade s on Twi e ? Issue ame ( opics)
(RQ2) A e pola iza ion, bias, and misin o ma ion
cha ac e is ics o poli ical discou se on accina ion?
Game ame (s a egies) and
discu si i y ( one and eelings)
(RQ3) A e he e di e ences be ween he esponse o
Twi e use s o poli ical messages abou accines and he
public opinion collec ed in demog aphic su eys?
Vi aliza ion capaci y
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Fo he s udy o he issue ame and ac ics (game ame), a p e-analysis phase was
conduc ed in which a andom sampling o 50 wee s was aken om he gene al sample
(n = 166) o de e mine and check he main ca ego ies o each a iable. To deepen he
na a i e o he leade s, he bias o wee s and discu si e emo ions we e also s udied,
adap ing p e ious esea ch o he cha ac e is ics o he sample being s udied (Yes e and
F anch 2018;Mo e -Sole e al. 2022).
In o de o es ima e he i aliza ion and in luence capaci y o each wee , a p e iously
used o mula was applied (Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2022b). In his sense, his me ic comple ed a
alid and p o en o mula o aking use esponses in o accoun (Ca asco-Polaino e al.
2018). The i aliza ion capaci y was based on he sum o e wee s mul iplied by 2, plus he
likes and esponses, all di ided by he numbe o pos ed wee s (VC = (sum o e wee s
×
2 + sum o likes + sum o eplies)/sum o wee ed messages). The double alue o e wee s
was jus i ied because Twi e inc eases he isibili y o hese wee s, showing he messages
on he imeline o he pe son who sha es hem.
3. Resul s
The s udy o Twi e p o iles o he main Spanish leade s and poli ical pa ies du -
ing he wel e mon hs analyzed ga e ise o a o al sample o 166 wee s ela ed o he
accina ion p ocess (see Table 2). In his sense, i is no ewo hy ha he socialis leade ,
Ped o Sánchez, was linked o one ou o e e y en wee s published o his p ocess (10.1%).
Likewise, he P esiden o he go e nmen also published 117 wee s conce ning accines,
which ep esen ed 70.5% o he speci ic sample.
Table 2. F equency o wee s om each poli ical leade .
Leade To al Twee s Vaccina ion Twee s % o To al Leade Twee s
Ped o Sánchez 1152 117 10.1%
Pablo Casado 1267 42 3.3%
San iago Abascal 732 0 0.0%
Yolanda Díaz 1132 7 0.6%
To al 4283 166 3.8%
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
Rega ding he leade o he opposi ion and he PP, Pablo Casado ocusses on acci-
na ion in only 42 o he 1267 messages he sen on Twi e du ing he 12 mon hs analyzed,
which ep esen ed 3.3%. Rega ding he speci ic sample, he popula leade s con ibu ed
25.3% o he wee s o he s udy. On he o he hand, i should be no ed ha he Vice P esi-
den o he go e nmen and head o he Unidas Podemos lis , Yolanda Díaz, only ocused
on accina ion in 7 o he 1132 messages published h oughou he yea s udied, which
ep esen ed 0.6% o he o al and 4.2% o he speci ic sample. Rega ding he leade o Vox,
San iago Abascal, he silence he adop ed was s iking ega ding accina ion, since he did
no dedica e a single message o his opic ou o he 732 wee s he published h oughou
he yea .
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 7 o 17
Del ing deepe in o he sample ob ained om poli ical leade s, i is wo h conside ing
he dis ibu ion o publica ions h oughou he pe iod o ime s udied (see Figu e 1).
The e o e, he da a showed an inc ease in P esiden Ped o Sánchez’s ac i i y in he mon hs
o Ap il o July, coinciding wi h he pe iod o highes accina ion among he popula ion. On
he con a y, Pablo Casado ocused his message in Janua y, when he Spanish go e nmen ’s
accina ion s a egy was no ye consolida ed.
Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17
on accina ion in 7 o he 1132 messages published h oughou he yea s udied, which
ep esen ed 0.6% o he o al and 4.2% o he speci ic sample. Rega ding he leade o Vox,
San iago Abascal, he silence he adop ed was s iking ega ding accina ion, since he did
no dedica e a single message o his opic ou o he 732 wee s he published h oughou
he yea .
Del ing deepe in o he sample ob ained om poli ical leade s, i is wo h conside -
ing he dis ibu ion o publica ions h oughou he pe iod o ime s udied (see Figu e 1).
The e o e, he da a showed an inc ease in P esiden Ped o Sánchez’s ac i i y in he
mon hs o Ap il o July, coinciding wi h he pe iod o highes accina ion among he pop-
ula ion. On he con a y, Pablo Casado ocused his message in Janua y, when he Spanish
go e nmen ’s accina ion s a egy was no ye consolida ed.
Figu e 1. F equency o wee s om each poli ical leade by mon h.
3.1. Speech by Na ional Leade s on Vaccina ion agains COVID-19
A e analyzing he heme on which he discou se o each o he selec ed leade s was
based (see Figu e 2), i could be obse ed ha Ped o Sánchez mainly ocused on p o iding
in o ma ion ela ing o he accina ion p ocess (42.7%), he dona ion o ials o La in
Ame ican coun ies (12%), esea ch in o new accines (7.7%), o he pu chase o doses
(4.3%). Fu he mo e, he e we e a conside able numbe o cases (20.5%) in which accina-
ion was used o discuss o he na ional issues, such as he economy, o o illus a e mee -
ings wi h o he in e na ional leade s (12.8%). In his line, Pablo Casado also ocused on
he accina ion p ocess (47.6%), he pu chase o ials (4.8%), o he esea ch in o new
ea men (4.8%), bu a he same ime, used he si ua ion o ques ion he go e nmen ’s
managemen in o he na ional (28.6%) o in e na ional (9.5%) ma e s. Meanwhile, Vice
P esiden Yolanda Díaz dedica ed he clea majo i y o he ew messages she pos ed on
p o iding in o ma ion ela ed o he accina ion p ocess managed by he go e nmen
(71.4%), and he es o o he na ional issues (28.6%).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
Decembe -20
Janua y-21
Feb ua y-21
Ma ch-21
Ap il-21
May-21
June-21
July-21
Augus -21
Sep embe -21
Oc obe -21
No embe -21
Decembe -21
Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz
Figu e 1. F equency o wee s om each poli ical leade by mon h.
3.1. Speech by Na ional Leade s on Vaccina ion agains COVID-19
A e analyzing he heme on which he discou se o each o he selec ed leade s
was based (see Figu e 2), i could be obse ed ha Ped o Sánchez mainly ocused on
p o iding in o ma ion ela ing o he accina ion p ocess (42.7%), he dona ion o ials
o La in Ame ican coun ies (12%), esea ch in o new accines (7.7%), o he pu chase o
doses (4.3%). Fu he mo e, he e we e a conside able numbe o cases (20.5%) in which
accina ion was used o discuss o he na ional issues, such as he economy, o o illus a e
mee ings wi h o he in e na ional leade s (12.8%). In his line, Pablo Casado also ocused
on he accina ion p ocess (47.6%), he pu chase o ials (4.8%), o he esea ch in o new
ea men (4.8%), bu a he same ime, used he si ua ion o ques ion he go e nmen ’s
managemen in o he na ional (28.6%) o in e na ional (9.5%) ma e s. Meanwhile, Vice
P esiden Yolanda Díaz dedica ed he clea majo i y o he ew messages she pos ed on
p o iding in o ma ion ela ed o he accina ion p ocess managed by he go e nmen
(71.4%), and he es o o he na ional issues (28.6%).
Di ing deepe in o he discu si e s a egies o Spanish leade s ega ding accina ion
(see Figu e 3), i was obse ed ha P esiden Ped o Sánchez mainly be on p o iding
in o ma ion ela ing o his managemen a he head o he go e nmen o Spain (83.8%),
including conce ning he dis ibu ion o doses, he p og ess o he na ional economy, o
in e na ional managemen , while speci ic messages aimed a aising awa eness among
ci izens ega ding he need o immunize hemsel es agains he i us cons i u ed a mino i y
o messages (14.5%). Following his line, Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz ocused a clea
majo i y o he limi ed messages on accina ion o sp ead he go e nmen ’s managemen
(85.7%) compa ed o hose ha aimed o aise awa eness among he popula ion (4.3%).
By con as , Pablo Casado used accina ion o ques ion he managemen o he Spanish
go e nmen (61.9%) o o sp ead he managemen o conse a i e leade s (23.8%) such as
U sula Von de Leyen, Juan Manuel Mo eno Bonilla, o Isabel Díaz Ayuso. I is no ewo hy
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 8 o 17
ha he leade o he PP only dedica ed wo wee s (4.8%) o explaining he impo ance
and con enience o ge ing accina ed agains his disease o ci izens.
Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 17
Figu e 2. Thema ic analysis o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s.
Di ing deepe in o he discu si e s a egies o Spanish leade s ega ding accina ion
(see Figu e 3), i was obse ed ha P esiden Ped o Sánchez mainly be on p o iding in-
o ma ion ela ing o his managemen a he head o he go e nmen o Spain (83.8%),
including conce ning he dis ibu ion o doses, he p og ess o he na ional economy, o
in e na ional managemen , while speci ic messages aimed a aising awa eness among
ci izens ega ding he need o immunize hemsel es agains he i us cons i u ed a mi-
no i y o messages (14.5%). Following his line, Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz ocused a
clea majo i y o he limi ed messages on accina ion o sp ead he go e nmen ’s man-
agemen (85.7%) compa ed o hose ha aimed o aise awa eness among he popula ion
(4.3%). By con as , Pablo Casado used accina ion o ques ion he managemen o he
Spanish go e nmen (61.9%) o o sp ead he managemen o conse a i e leade s (23.8%)
such as U sula Von de Leyen, Juan Manuel Mo eno Bonilla, o Isabel Díaz Ayuso. I is
no ewo hy ha he leade o he PP only dedica ed wo wee s (4.8%) o explaining he
impo ance and con enience o ge ing accina ed agains his disease o ci izens.
In his ein, he analysis o he one o he messages pos ed ega ding accina ion by
Spanish poli ical igu es shows a beha io o maximum pola iza ion. The endency o he
membe s o he go e nmen ansla ed in o an op imis ic ision o he accina ion p o-
cess, which con as ed wi h he s a egy o he leade o he opposi ion, who be on c i i-
cism (see Figu e 4). Thus, Ped o Sánchez’s messages we e mos ly posi i e (93.2%) o neu-
al (5.1%), while he e we e wo wee s wi h a nega i e bias (1.7%) aimed a ques ioning
he s ance o he opposi ion pa ies. Sánchez’s posi i e communica ion s a egy was com-
plemen ed by he a i ude o Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz, as all o he messages we e
posi i e (100%). On he o he hand, he PP leade ocused (64.3%) on nega i e messages
conce ning he go e nmen al managemen o he inocula ion p ocess, compa ed wi h 31%
posi i e messages and 4.8% neu al messages.
42.74% 47.62%
71.43%
45.18%
4.27%
4.76% 4.22%
7.69%
4.76% 6.63%
20.51%
28.57%
28.57%
22.89%
12.82%
9.52%
11.45%
11.97% 8.43%
4.76% 1.20%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Media
Vaccina ion p ocess Vaccina ion pu chase Vaccine Rese a ch O he na ional issues
O he in e na ional issues Vaccine dona ion O he s
Figu e 2. Thema ic analysis o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s.
Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17
Figu e 3. S a egies o Spanish leade s on Twi e .
Figu e 4. Tone o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s.
Wi h he aim o del ing deepe in o he na a i e dissemina ed by Spanish poli ical
leade s when add essing he COVID-19 accina ion p ocess, he emo ions in which hei
messages we e amed we e explo ed. Thus, he da a again showed a pola iza ion be-
ween he messages o he go e nmen and hose o he opposi ion (see Figu e 5). In his
way, he socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, mainly used messages in which he showed his
p ide in wha has been achie ed in e ms o accina ion (45.3%) and his hope ha his will
ansla e in o an imp o emen in he coun y’s si ua ion (32.5%), while he Vice P esiden
Díaz mainly op ed o show he g a i ude o heal h p o essionals (57.1%). Ne e heless, in
he case o he popula leade , clea ly he blame (50%) ook p ecedence, ocusing hei
c i icism o he execu i e managemen on P esiden Sánchez and he Minis e o Heal h.
Despi e his, in hei messages, emo ions o g a i ude (16.7%) o disapp o al (14.3%) we e
also p esen .
14.53%
4.76%
14.29%
83.76%
23.81%
85.71%
0.85%
61.90%
0.85% 9.52%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz
Vaccina ion awa eness Managemen di usion C i icism O he s
93.16%
30.95%
100.00%
5.13%
4.76%
1.71%
64.29%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz
Posi i e Neu al Nega i e
Figu e 3. S a egies o Spanish leade s on Twi e .
In his ein, he analysis o he one o he messages pos ed ega ding accina ion by
Spanish poli ical igu es shows a beha io o maximum pola iza ion. The endency o he
membe s o he go e nmen ansla ed in o an op imis ic ision o he accina ion p ocess,
Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 9 o 17
which con as ed wi h he s a egy o he leade o he opposi ion, who be on c i icism
(see Figu e 4). Thus, Ped o Sánchez’s messages we e mos ly posi i e (93.2%) o neu al
(5.1%), while he e we e wo wee s wi h a nega i e bias (1.7%) aimed a ques ioning
he s ance o he opposi ion pa ies. Sánchez’s posi i e communica ion s a egy was
complemen ed by he a i ude o Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz, as all o he messages we e
posi i e (100%). On he o he hand, he PP leade ocused (64.3%) on nega i e messages
conce ning he go e nmen al managemen o he inocula ion p ocess, compa ed wi h 31%
posi i e messages and 4.8% neu al messages.
Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17
Figu e 3. S a egies o Spanish leade s on Twi e .
Figu e 4. Tone o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s.
Wi h he aim o del ing deepe in o he na a i e dissemina ed by Spanish poli ical
leade s when add essing he COVID-19 accina ion p ocess, he emo ions in which hei
messages we e amed we e explo ed. Thus, he da a again showed a pola iza ion be-
ween he messages o he go e nmen and hose o he opposi ion (see Figu e 5). In his
way, he socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, mainly used messages in which he showed his
p ide in wha has been achie ed in e ms o accina ion (45.3%) and his hope ha his will
ansla e in o an imp o emen in he coun y’s si ua ion (32.5%), while he Vice P esiden
Díaz mainly op ed o show he g a i ude o heal h p o essionals (57.1%). Ne e heless, in
he case o he popula leade , clea ly he blame (50%) ook p ecedence, ocusing hei
c i icism o he execu i e managemen on P esiden Sánchez and he Minis e o Heal h.
Despi e his, in hei messages, emo ions o g a i ude (16.7%) o disapp o al (14.3%) we e
also p esen .
14.53%
4.76%
14.29%
83.76%
23.81%
85.71%
0.85%
61.90%
0.85% 9.52%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz
Vaccina ion awa eness Managemen di usion C i icism O he s
93.16%
30.95%
100.00%
5.13%
4.76%
1.71%
64.29%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz
Posi i e Neu al Nega i e
Figu e 4. Tone o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s.
Wi h he aim o del ing deepe in o he na a i e dissemina ed by Spanish poli ical
leade s when add essing he COVID-19 accina ion p ocess, he emo ions in which hei
messages we e amed we e explo ed. Thus, he da a again showed a pola iza ion be ween
he messages o he go e nmen and hose o he opposi ion (see Figu e 5). In his way, he
socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, mainly used messages in which he showed his p ide in
wha has been achie ed in e ms o accina ion (45.3%) and his hope ha his will ansla e
in o an imp o emen in he coun y’s si ua ion (32.5%), while he Vice P esiden Díaz
mainly op ed o show he g a i ude o heal h p o essionals (57.1%). Ne e heless, in he
case o he popula leade , clea ly he blame (50%) ook p ecedence, ocusing hei c i icism
o he execu i e managemen on P esiden Sánchez and he Minis e o Heal h. Despi e his,
in hei messages, emo ions o g a i ude (16.7%) o disapp o al (14.3%) we e also p esen .
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