Exploring the Political Debate over the COVID-19 Vaccination on Twitter: Emotions and Polarization in the Spanish Public Sphere

Ci a ion: Pé ez-Cu iel, Concha, Rica do Domínguez-Ga cía, and Ana Velasco-Molpece es. 2023. Explo ing he Poli ical Deba e o e he COVID-19 Vaccina ion on Twi e : Emo ions and Pola iza ion in he Spanish Public Sphe e. Social Sciences 12: 85. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/ socsci12020085 Academic Edi o : And eu Case o-Ripollés Recei ed: 15 Decembe 2022 Re ised: 31 Janua y 2023 Accep ed: 1 Feb ua y 2023 Published: 8 Feb ua y 2023 Copy igh : © 2023 by he au ho s. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land. This a icle is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms and condi ions o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps:// c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/ 4.0/). $ € £¥ social sciences A icle Explo ing he Poli ical Deba e o e he COVID-19 Vaccina ion on Twi e : Emo ions and Pola iza ion in he Spanish Public Sphe e Concha Pé ez-Cu iel , Rica do Domínguez-Ga cía and Ana Velasco-Molpece es * Depa men o Pe iodismo II, Facul ad de Comunicación, Uni e sidad de Se illa, 41092 Se illa, Spain *Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] Abs ac : In a scena io ma ked by COVID-19, communica ion has posed a eal challenge o ins i u- ions. Since he i s case o COVID-19, Spain has aced he eno mous challenge o an unp eceden ed heal h, economic, and social c isis. The public sphe e has pu i s us in accina ion as he only chance o he coun y’s eco e y. To de e mine he ole played by poli ical leade s in he deba e on accina ion and ci izens’ pe cep ion o c isis managemen , his a icle analyzes he messages pos ed on Twi e by he ou leade s o he pa ies wi h he mos ep esen a ion in pa liamen : Ped o Sánchez (PSOE), Pablo Casado (PP), San iago Abascal (Vox), and Yolanda Díaz (Podemos). Using a me hodology o compa a i e con en analysis on Twi e , a sample was es ablished ha began a he s a o he accina ion p ocess and inocula ion wi h he i s dose, and co e ed he en i e yea ha ollowed. The esea ch esul s, which con as ed wi h hose collec ed in demog aphic su eys, e lec ed an inc ease in pola iza ion and elec o al use o he accine, which ook p ecedence o e he awa eness- aising discou se ypical o public campaigns. Keywo ds: COVID-19; accina ion; public communica ion; pola iza ion; Twi e 1. In oduc ion The public dilemma su ounding COVID-19 accina ion, he con usion, and pola - iza ion o poli ical discou se on social media cons i u ed he hallma ks o an ins i u ional communica ion p ocess also in c isis (Case o-Ripollés 2020). Ha ing su passed he i s s age o he pandemic ma ked by he unknown na u e o he i us and he digi al in o - ma ional chaos (La ondo U e a e al. 2021), a second phase eme ged wi h he accine as i s p o agonis . In on o he con ainmen measu es employed o s op he i us (social dis ancing, con inemen , o a el es ic ions), he accine was pos ula ed as he main hope o end he pandemic (Ca asco-Polaino e al. 2021). The p io i y o accina ion occupied he poli ical agenda (Thelwall e al. 2021), which con inued o p omo e he s o y elling o con lic among leade s, pa ies, and go e nmen s. Simila o p e ious c ises (B onia owski e al. 2018;Cheng e al. 2018;Wang e al. 2017; Ghenai and Mejo a 2018), he o igin o he i us, expec a ions o he accine, o p e en i e measu es we e sou ces o misin o ma ion, especially on social media (D edze e al. 2016; Kang e al. 2017). This in o ma ional diso de led he WHO o include dis us o accines in he lis o he en leading h ea s o global heal h (F ied ich 2019). Vaccines a e an oppo uni y o democ a ic sys ems o explain echnical p ocedu es and global heal h, and o ein o ce hei ole as an ins umen o anspa ency and good go e nance (Wes phalen and Libae 2008). Howe e , acing social audiences and aking Twi e as he p ima y suppo o p opaganda and cybe he o ic (López Me i 2016), poli ical communica ion a o s pe sonaliza ion and spec acula iza ion s a egies o e esou ces ha gua an ee eliabili y (Amado 2016;Más-Manchón and Gue e o-Solé2019). Ins i u ional poli ical discou se shows signs o imp o isa ion, insecu i y, and disconnec ion om expe s. The opinion o specialis s, p o essionals, and scien is s is unde alued Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/socsci12020085 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/socsci Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 2 o 17 because i does no ep esen he ‘people’ (Waisbo d 2018). Disin o ma ion and denialism, he ba le o global in luence, as well as pola iza ion a e in ensi ying (Ali and Ga i i 2020). Doub s and suspicions conce ning accines a e mixed wi h public dis us o ins i u ions. Poli iciza ion o unce ain y u he weakens a democ a ic sys em ha was al eady in decline (Colomina 2021;Wa dle 2017). Acco ding o he speci ic Digi al News Repo Spain (Neg edo e al. 2020), 44% o he su eyed popula ion s a ed ha hey ound a lo o qui e a lo o misin o ma ion ega ding COVID-19 on social media, and blame poli icians (42%), he media (36%), and he go e nmen (34%) o he hoaxes. Fo i s pa , he epo p epa ed by he Spanish Founda ion o Science and Technology (FECYT) measu ed he e olu ion o a i udes owa ds accina ion in Spain h ough h ee ep esen a i e su eys (n = 12.162) (Lobe a Se ano and Ál a ez 2021). Addi ionally, he epo ad anced heo ies on accep ance o esis ance o he popula ion (Ramon au e al. 2021;Lo ini e al. 2018;Ho nsey e al. 2018;Be sch e al. 2018), highligh ing he concep o us in ins i u ions (a di use us in he se o poli ical o ganiza ions, he WHO and he Eu opean Union, municipali ies, he go e nmen o Spain, and he au onomous communi ies) associa ed wi h a mo e a o able a i ude owa ds accina ion. Inco ec in o ma ion o alsehoods om au ho i ies had a nega i e impac on he cou se o he pandemic, as indi iduals adop ed beha io s based on he da a and in o ma- ion hey ecei ed and he e ec s hey p oduced on social media (Cuau hémoc Mayo ga 2021;Ce on e al. 2021). In his con ex o con usion, conspi acy, and e icence, he epo ga he ed ecommenda ions on he inc eased isibili y o ins i u ions’ e o s a he in e - na ional, na ional, and local le els, in addi ion o he e ec i eness and uni y in he igh agains he pandemic, and he gua an ee o public con ol mechanisms agains disin o - ma ion. In his line o esea ch, he objec i e was o analyze he poli ical discou se on COVID-19 accina ion om he main leade s wi h ep esen a ion in he Spanish Pa liamen on Twi e and check he pe cep ion o he audiences h ough he i al esponse on he ne wo k and sociological su eys. 1.1. Impac o he Vaccina ion Poli ical Campaign on Twi e : The Axis o Misin o ma ion The con o e sy o e he bene i s o d awbacks o social ne wo ks p ojec ed in he a ea o poli ical communica ion main ains an open deba e abou disin o ma ion ueled by he COVID-19 pandemic (Sala e ía e al. 2020). The dys unc ion o he ins i u ional poli ical message ega ding accines (Cos a-Sánchez and López-Ga cía 2020), he disconnec ion wi h expe s and science (Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2022a), and he deg ee o con on a ion be ween leade s on Twi e a e aspec s ha equi e academic e iew. In he heal h sphe e, he p e ious li e a u e has analyzed he con e sa ion in he public sphe e on Twi e abou speci ic accines and in gene al (Bello-O gaz e al. 2017;Milani e al. 2020;Tomeny e al. 2017). Be o e he COVID-19 pandemic, heal hca e p o essionals we e al eady ea ing pa ien s who had been misin o med online, a phenomenon known as “D Google” (Lee e al. 2014). Howe e , in e iews conduc ed by he New Yo k Times (h ps: //ny i.ms/2FJFVNb, accessed on 28 Janua y 2023) wi h mo e han a dozen doc o s and esea che s specializing in disin o ma ion om he Uni ed S a es and Eu ope e ealed ha hey had ne e seen such a high olume as ha ela ed o COVID-19. These p o essionals blamed leade s such as Donald T ump o ampli ying al e na i e heo ies, digi al pla o ms o no doing enough o end alse in o ma ion, and people o so easily belie ing wha hey consumed online. Due o i s ecen na u e, he e has no ye been an oppo uni y o analyze he poli ical and ci izen dialogue ega ding COVID-19 accines. Beyond he ad an ages o he ne wo k, due o i s ins an aneousness, i ali y, and engagemen (Campos-Domínguez 2017), Twi e has been use ul o he scien i ic communi y o de ec inco ec concep ions o use s and ac as de ac o s o alse in o ma ion, since he numbe o people who go o he In e ne looking o in o ma ion ega ding accina ion is inc easing (G aells-Ga ido e al. 2019; Bu nap e al. 2016;Kouzy e al. 2020;Jolley and Douglas 2014). Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 3 o 17 A s essed and igh ened popula ion seeks shel e in s ong and compe en leade s, capable o leading he coun y in he ace o an unce ain scena io (Ama e al. 2020). This oppo uni y was being exploi ed by leade s o manage emo ions and con e Twi e in o an elec o al ool a a ime o pandemic. Recen s udies ha e al eady con i med a clea di e gence be ween ins i u ional messages conce ning COVID-19 (Cas illo-Espa cia e al. 2020a), consis ing o adminis a i e o se ice in o ma ion, and he con en o a mo e emo ional na u e, which ci izens end o in e ac wi h mo e (Cas illo-Espa cia e al. 2020b). A con ex is hen p oduced o eme ging ake news ha has empowe ed an i-democ a ic policies, equaling he numbe o p o essional news i ems om acc edi ed media (Fe nández- To es e al. 2021;Howa d e al. 2018). An example is he conspi acy heo ies pu o wa d by Donald T ump linking he o igin o SARS-CoV-2 o a Chinese labo a o y and he announce- men o medica ions wi hou scien i ic e idence. In addi ion, c i icism conce ning he e icacy o accines om o he coun ies o hei a i ude o poli icizing and downplaying he i us a e hallma ks o his poli ical leade ’s populis discou se. The e o e, poli ics and poli icians a e p esen ed as a sou ce o misin o ma ion and p opaganda on social media, especially du ing elec ion pe iods (Pé ez-Cu iel and Ga cía-Go dillo 2020). Rega ding he na ional and local scope, gi en ha accina ion was amed in a con ex o mixed managemen (go e nmen al and au onomous communi ies), he ea men o accines on Twi e was a di ec p ojec ion o wha had happened in e na ionally. The in luence o a wo-pa y sys em PSOE/PP ha deno es con lic , pola iza ion, and c i icism o he socialis go e nmen ’s managemen sha ed by he media and by he social audience is added o he posi ion o eme ging o ces such as Vox and Unidas Podemos, ha poin s o a “pola ized plu alis ” discou se wi h a p e e ence o cen alized o ideologically aligned in o ma ion (López-Ga cía 2020;B ennen e al. 2020). Howe e , he conspi a o ial na a i e o “no o he accine” ha was popula ized by populis s such as T ump o Bolsona o on Twi e , was ans e ed o Spain wi h a beha io ha eluded he opic in he case o he ex eme igh (Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2021;Man edi-Sánchez e al. 2021). In his con ex o an i accine policies, social media ac ed as a eedback mechanism o ideologies ha could os e pola iza ion and, in u n, in luence use s by inc easing con usion and misin o ma ion (Wilson e al. 2014;Ge man e al. 2018). Pa adoxically, a social ne wo k such as Twi e , wi h he capaci y o nodal in e ac ion, could gene a e echo chambe s and ac i a e he deba e abou accina ion (Ca denal e al. 2019;Pé ez-Dasil a e al. 2020), becoming a ocus o poli ical in e es and a channel o aligning audiences wi h ideologies. These supposi ions also p o oked con lic ing opin- ions om he public ega ding Twi e , which hey a ed as no ecommended o heal h in o ma ion due o he dis us i gene a ed. In any case, he in luence o poli icians and he elec o al use hey make o Twi e is added o he ac i ism o a social audience, which also pa icipa es in he c ea ion and p opaga ion o alse in o ma ion (Pé ez-Cu iel and Limón-Naha o 2019). Topics ela ed o he o igin o he i us, expec a ions o he accine, he p og ession o he ou b eak o in ec ious diseases, o p e en i e measu es ha e been subjec o allacies in p e ious heal h c ises (B onia owski e al. 2018). A he beginning o Ap il 2020, 113 million unique au ho s had sha ed messages on Twi e ega ding COVID-19 (La son 2020). The eedom o exp ession allows social ne wo ks o sp ead unchecked e oneous in o ma ion and alse news (Rosenbe g e al. 2020;Sala e ía e al. 2020). In conclusion, a isk ecosys em is needed ha pu s ins i u ional dialogue wi h expe s, in o ma i e igo , and da a e i ica ion on opics ha a ec public heal h and equi es he commi men o poli ical leade ship o s op he me as a ic sp ead o disin o ma ion on he ne wo k (Bouneg u e al. 2017). 1.2. Pe cep ion o Ci izen’s Social A i udes owa d Vaccina ion. Con ex S udy In a momen o ins i u ional and poli ical c isis p o oked by he in odemic, ci izens ha e been le mo e ulne able o he impac o disin o ma ion, especially in he ealm o social media (Sala e ía e al. 2020). The social audience has no only become an objec o in luence, bu also a po en ial dissemina o o alsehoods conce ning he i us, Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 4 o 17 con ibu ing o exponen ially inc easing i s social ci cula ion adius (Ma ínez-Cos a e al. 2022). Meanwhile, an inc ease in public con usion and dis us in poli icians and media is e iden , caused by he digi al imme sion o hoaxes and ake news ega ding COVID-19, he go e nmen ’s managemen o COVID-19, o he e icacy o accines and accina ion campaigns (Pé ez-Cu iel and Case o-Ripollés 2022). As pa o he p e-in es iga ion p ocess, he epo en i led “E olu ion o he Social Pe cep ion o Scien i ic Aspec s o COVID-19”, published by he Spanish Founda ion o Science and Technology (June 2020/Janua y 2021) has been e ie ed. The objec i e o his wo k was o measu e he e olu ion o he a i udes o ci izens owa ds accina ion in Spain and o iden i y he main ac o s in ol ed in he eluc ance exhibi ed owa ds COVID-19 accina ion. The epo collec ed he esul s o wo ounds o elephone su eys and one in-pe son su ey, ep esen a i e o he Spanish popula ion, and co e ed a o al o 12,162 in e iews. The 5C model explained accine hesi ancy in e ms o i e dimensions: us in accines and he heal hca e sys em, complacency, calcula ion, he cos o accina ion, and he pe cep ion o accina ion as a collec i e esponsibili y (Be sch e al. 2018). Meanwhile, he scale measu ing ag eemen wi h conspi acy heo ies was cen e ed on he case o accines (Shapi o e al. 2016). A summa y o he esul s o he hi d and ou su ey conduc ed con i med a g ea e accep ance o he accine, inc easing om 23% achie ed in July 2020 o 83% in May 2021 (1), a ce ain elaxa ion in he compliance wi h p e en ion measu es, when only hal o he popula ion (49%) assu ed ha hey ha e been able o a oid sha ing closed spaces wi h non-cohabi an s (2), and he belie in conspi acy heo ies by a signi ican pe cen age o he popula ion (3). In ac , almos a hi d o he Spanish popula ion (31%) conside ha masks a e bad o hei heal h, and close o 8% i mly belie e ha accina ing child en is ha m ul and his ac is hidden. All o his is in a con ex o disin o ma ion, wi h 58% o Spania ds s a ing ha hey ha e seen o hea d messages encou aging people no o accina e agains COVID-19. The applicabili y o his epo o esea ch on he s a egies o he main Spanish poli i- cal leade s ega ding COVID-19 accina ion on Twi e has been pa icula ly ocused on he su ey a iable ha deals wi h he le el o us o he public in poli ical ins i u ions. The esul s con i med a di use deg ee o us in he WHO and EU, passing h ough he go - e nmen o Spain, he Au onomous Communi ies, and he Municipali ies, which a o ed a posi ion o e icence among ci izens owa ds accina ion. The FECYT epo se ou a se ies o ecommenda ions o comba he public’s lack o us in ins i u ions. Among hem, he pe inen ecommenda ions included p omo ing anspa ency and making he e o s o ins i u ional and poli ical o ganiza ions and hei e icacy in he igh agains he pandemic and he deploymen o he accina ion campaign mo e isible; inc easing communica ion ega ding he unc ioning o public con ol mechanisms, such as he Eu opean Medicines Agency and he Spanish Agency o Heal h P oduc s; and comba ing umo s ega ding he nega i e e ec s o accines o hei lack o e icacy, linked o conspi acy heo ies and disin o ma ion. The e o e, he da a collec ed om he h ee popula ion su eys published by FECYT p o ided in o ma ion on ci izens’ beha io owa d he ins i u ional managemen o he accine con lic and he use o disin o ma ion, which allowed o compa ison wi h he esponse o use s o messages pos ed by Spanish poli ical leade s on Twi e , in he con ex o he i s COVID-19 accina ion campaign. In conclusion, aking his en i e con ex in o accoun , he main objec i e o his a icle was o del e in o he ole ha Spanish poli ical leade s ha e played in he deba e on accina ion and he pe cep ion ha he public has conce ning ins i u ional managemen . Thus, his wo k analyzed, h ough a con en analysis, he messages published on Twi e by he ou leade s o he pa ies wi h he highes pa liamen a y ep esen a ion in Spain. 2. Ma e ials and Me hods The managemen o a global heal h c isis, ma ked by con ainmen s a egies such as social dis ancing, lockdowns, a el es ic ions, and o he se ices, and by he hope o Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 5 o 17 dis us in accines o end he pandemic, on a ne wo k such as Twi e (F ied ich 2019; Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2022a) has gene a ed an ins i u ional and poli ical campaign o dissen among expe s. This campaign’s main iden i ying ea u es a e pola iza ion, ideological bias, and disin o ma ion, p ojec ed in he dis us o he social audience. F om his pe spec i e, he ollowing esea ch ques ions a ose: RQ1.—A e accines a opic o deba e among he main Spanish poli ical leade s on Twi e ? RQ2.—A e pola iza ion, bias, and misin o ma ion cha ac e is ics o poli ical discou se on accina ion? RQ3.—A e he e di e ences be ween he esponse o Twi e use s o poli ical messages ega ding accines and he public opinion collec ed in demog aphic su eys? Taking hese p emises in o accoun , a iple ocus con en analysis me hodology ha was quan i a i e–quali a i e and discu si e (Sil e man 2016;K ippendo 2012;Flow- e dew and Richa dson 2017;Van Dijk 2015) was applied, which was suppo ed by he issue ame/game ame heo y (Ca w igh e al. 2019). The social ne wo k Twi e was chosen, gi en he impo ance i has achie ed o poli ical communica ion in elec o al p ocesses and in heal h c ises (Alonso-Muñoz e al. 2017;D’Hee and Ve degem 2015;Chen e al. 2020). To del e deepe in o he ole played by poli ical leade s and expe s du ing he COVID- 19 accina ion p ocess, we op ed o s udy he Twi e accoun s o he ou Spanish poli ical leade s wi h he highes pa liamen a y ep esen a ion in he Cong ess o Depu ies (Ped o Sánchez, Pablo Casado, San iago Abascal, and Yolanda Díaz). Rega ding he empo al pe iod analyzed, he sampling began wi h he s a o he accina ion p ocess and he adminis a ion o he i s dose in Spain (27 Decembe 2020) and ex ended h oughou he ollowing yea (27 Decembe 2021). Al hough his ime ame did no encompass he en i e accina ion p ocess, he wel e mon hs o sampling cap u ed he momen s o g ea es poli ical media ocus on immuniza ion and we e signi ican , bo h in e ms o quan i y and quali y, o suppo he conclusions o he s udy. Using he Twi onomy applica ion, all wee s pos ed by hese leade s du ing he speci ied pe iod o ime we e downloaded, cons i u ing a gene al sample composed o 4283 messages. F om he e, sc eening was pe o med, selec ing hose wee s ha included he keywo ds ‘ accine’, ‘ accines’, o ’ accina ion’. F om he gene al sample, a speci ic sample o 166 wee s ega ding he accina ion p ocess, sp ead ac oss he ou leade s on Twi e , was de i ed and adjus ed o he indica ions o p e ious me hodological models, which ecommended ha , in he collec ion o da a in discou se s udies, quali y should be p io i ized o e quan i y (Bake 2006;Clea y e al. 2014;Sil e man 2016). This p emise was he e o e applicable o he analysis o emo ions, an indica o ha he ci ed expe s conside ed ep esen a i e o he leade ’s beha io o in luence he ci izen y. F om his p emise, a coding manual was designed ha allowed he analysis o he na a i e ha Spanish poli ical leade s de eloped h oughou he accina ion p ocess, composed o 11 quan i a i e, quali a i e, and discu si e a iables. The s a is ical p og am chosen o he p ocessing and exploi a ion o he da a was IBM SPSS S a is ics (Ve sion 25). The ca ego iza ion able was s uc u ed in o h ee main blocks: issue ame ( opic), game ame (s a egies) and discu si i y ( eelings and one), and message di usion ( i al- i y). These h ee me hodological ools answe ed he h ee esea ch ques ions. To cla i y he adequacy o he me hodological plan, Table 1 ela es he esea ch ques ions o he analysis indica o s. Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 6 o 17 Table 1. App oach o ope a ionaliza ion o esea ch ques ions. Resea ch Ques ion (RQ) Indica o s (RQ1) A e accines a opic o deba e among he main Spanish poli ical leade s on Twi e ? Issue ame ( opics) (RQ2) A e pola iza ion, bias, and misin o ma ion cha ac e is ics o poli ical discou se on accina ion? Game ame (s a egies) and discu si i y ( one and eelings) (RQ3) A e he e di e ences be ween he esponse o Twi e use s o poli ical messages abou accines and he public opinion collec ed in demog aphic su eys? Vi aliza ion capaci y Sou ce: Own elabo a ion. Fo he s udy o he issue ame and ac ics (game ame), a p e-analysis phase was conduc ed in which a andom sampling o 50 wee s was aken om he gene al sample (n = 166) o de e mine and check he main ca ego ies o each a iable. To deepen he na a i e o he leade s, he bias o wee s and discu si e emo ions we e also s udied, adap ing p e ious esea ch o he cha ac e is ics o he sample being s udied (Yes e and F anch 2018;Mo e -Sole e al. 2022). In o de o es ima e he i aliza ion and in luence capaci y o each wee , a p e iously used o mula was applied (Pé ez-Cu iel e al. 2022b). In his sense, his me ic comple ed a alid and p o en o mula o aking use esponses in o accoun (Ca asco-Polaino e al. 2018). The i aliza ion capaci y was based on he sum o e wee s mul iplied by 2, plus he likes and esponses, all di ided by he numbe o pos ed wee s (VC = (sum o e wee s × 2 + sum o likes + sum o eplies)/sum o wee ed messages). The double alue o e wee s was jus i ied because Twi e inc eases he isibili y o hese wee s, showing he messages on he imeline o he pe son who sha es hem. 3. Resul s The s udy o Twi e p o iles o he main Spanish leade s and poli ical pa ies du - ing he wel e mon hs analyzed ga e ise o a o al sample o 166 wee s ela ed o he accina ion p ocess (see Table 2). In his sense, i is no ewo hy ha he socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, was linked o one ou o e e y en wee s published o his p ocess (10.1%). Likewise, he P esiden o he go e nmen also published 117 wee s conce ning accines, which ep esen ed 70.5% o he speci ic sample. Table 2. F equency o wee s om each poli ical leade . Leade To al Twee s Vaccina ion Twee s % o To al Leade Twee s Ped o Sánchez 1152 117 10.1% Pablo Casado 1267 42 3.3% San iago Abascal 732 0 0.0% Yolanda Díaz 1132 7 0.6% To al 4283 166 3.8% Sou ce: Own elabo a ion. Rega ding he leade o he opposi ion and he PP, Pablo Casado ocusses on acci- na ion in only 42 o he 1267 messages he sen on Twi e du ing he 12 mon hs analyzed, which ep esen ed 3.3%. Rega ding he speci ic sample, he popula leade s con ibu ed 25.3% o he wee s o he s udy. On he o he hand, i should be no ed ha he Vice P esi- den o he go e nmen and head o he Unidas Podemos lis , Yolanda Díaz, only ocused on accina ion in 7 o he 1132 messages published h oughou he yea s udied, which ep esen ed 0.6% o he o al and 4.2% o he speci ic sample. Rega ding he leade o Vox, San iago Abascal, he silence he adop ed was s iking ega ding accina ion, since he did no dedica e a single message o his opic ou o he 732 wee s he published h oughou he yea . Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 7 o 17 Del ing deepe in o he sample ob ained om poli ical leade s, i is wo h conside ing he dis ibu ion o publica ions h oughou he pe iod o ime s udied (see Figu e 1). The e o e, he da a showed an inc ease in P esiden Ped o Sánchez’s ac i i y in he mon hs o Ap il o July, coinciding wi h he pe iod o highes accina ion among he popula ion. On he con a y, Pablo Casado ocused his message in Janua y, when he Spanish go e nmen ’s accina ion s a egy was no ye consolida ed. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17 on accina ion in 7 o he 1132 messages published h oughou he yea s udied, which ep esen ed 0.6% o he o al and 4.2% o he speci ic sample. Rega ding he leade o Vox, San iago Abascal, he silence he adop ed was s iking ega ding accina ion, since he did no dedica e a single message o his opic ou o he 732 wee s he published h oughou he yea . Del ing deepe in o he sample ob ained om poli ical leade s, i is wo h conside - ing he dis ibu ion o publica ions h oughou he pe iod o ime s udied (see Figu e 1). The e o e, he da a showed an inc ease in P esiden Ped o Sánchez’s ac i i y in he mon hs o Ap il o July, coinciding wi h he pe iod o highes accina ion among he pop- ula ion. On he con a y, Pablo Casado ocused his message in Janua y, when he Spanish go e nmen ’s accina ion s a egy was no ye consolida ed. Figu e 1. F equency o wee s om each poli ical leade by mon h. 3.1. Speech by Na ional Leade s on Vaccina ion agains COVID-19 A e analyzing he heme on which he discou se o each o he selec ed leade s was based (see Figu e 2), i could be obse ed ha Ped o Sánchez mainly ocused on p o iding in o ma ion ela ing o he accina ion p ocess (42.7%), he dona ion o ials o La in Ame ican coun ies (12%), esea ch in o new accines (7.7%), o he pu chase o doses (4.3%). Fu he mo e, he e we e a conside able numbe o cases (20.5%) in which accina- ion was used o discuss o he na ional issues, such as he economy, o o illus a e mee - ings wi h o he in e na ional leade s (12.8%). In his line, Pablo Casado also ocused on he accina ion p ocess (47.6%), he pu chase o ials (4.8%), o he esea ch in o new ea men (4.8%), bu a he same ime, used he si ua ion o ques ion he go e nmen ’s managemen in o he na ional (28.6%) o in e na ional (9.5%) ma e s. Meanwhile, Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz dedica ed he clea majo i y o he ew messages she pos ed on p o iding in o ma ion ela ed o he accina ion p ocess managed by he go e nmen (71.4%), and he es o o he na ional issues (28.6%). 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Decembe -20 Janua y-21 Feb ua y-21 Ma ch-21 Ap il-21 May-21 June-21 July-21 Augus -21 Sep embe -21 Oc obe -21 No embe -21 Decembe -21 Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Figu e 1. F equency o wee s om each poli ical leade by mon h. 3.1. Speech by Na ional Leade s on Vaccina ion agains COVID-19 A e analyzing he heme on which he discou se o each o he selec ed leade s was based (see Figu e 2), i could be obse ed ha Ped o Sánchez mainly ocused on p o iding in o ma ion ela ing o he accina ion p ocess (42.7%), he dona ion o ials o La in Ame ican coun ies (12%), esea ch in o new accines (7.7%), o he pu chase o doses (4.3%). Fu he mo e, he e we e a conside able numbe o cases (20.5%) in which accina ion was used o discuss o he na ional issues, such as he economy, o o illus a e mee ings wi h o he in e na ional leade s (12.8%). In his line, Pablo Casado also ocused on he accina ion p ocess (47.6%), he pu chase o ials (4.8%), o he esea ch in o new ea men (4.8%), bu a he same ime, used he si ua ion o ques ion he go e nmen ’s managemen in o he na ional (28.6%) o in e na ional (9.5%) ma e s. Meanwhile, Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz dedica ed he clea majo i y o he ew messages she pos ed on p o iding in o ma ion ela ed o he accina ion p ocess managed by he go e nmen (71.4%), and he es o o he na ional issues (28.6%). Di ing deepe in o he discu si e s a egies o Spanish leade s ega ding accina ion (see Figu e 3), i was obse ed ha P esiden Ped o Sánchez mainly be on p o iding in o ma ion ela ing o his managemen a he head o he go e nmen o Spain (83.8%), including conce ning he dis ibu ion o doses, he p og ess o he na ional economy, o in e na ional managemen , while speci ic messages aimed a aising awa eness among ci izens ega ding he need o immunize hemsel es agains he i us cons i u ed a mino i y o messages (14.5%). Following his line, Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz ocused a clea majo i y o he limi ed messages on accina ion o sp ead he go e nmen ’s managemen (85.7%) compa ed o hose ha aimed o aise awa eness among he popula ion (4.3%). By con as , Pablo Casado used accina ion o ques ion he managemen o he Spanish go e nmen (61.9%) o o sp ead he managemen o conse a i e leade s (23.8%) such as U sula Von de Leyen, Juan Manuel Mo eno Bonilla, o Isabel Díaz Ayuso. I is no ewo hy Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 8 o 17 ha he leade o he PP only dedica ed wo wee s (4.8%) o explaining he impo ance and con enience o ge ing accina ed agains his disease o ci izens. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 17 Figu e 2. Thema ic analysis o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s. Di ing deepe in o he discu si e s a egies o Spanish leade s ega ding accina ion (see Figu e 3), i was obse ed ha P esiden Ped o Sánchez mainly be on p o iding in- o ma ion ela ing o his managemen a he head o he go e nmen o Spain (83.8%), including conce ning he dis ibu ion o doses, he p og ess o he na ional economy, o in e na ional managemen , while speci ic messages aimed a aising awa eness among ci izens ega ding he need o immunize hemsel es agains he i us cons i u ed a mi- no i y o messages (14.5%). Following his line, Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz ocused a clea majo i y o he limi ed messages on accina ion o sp ead he go e nmen ’s man- agemen (85.7%) compa ed o hose ha aimed o aise awa eness among he popula ion (4.3%). By con as , Pablo Casado used accina ion o ques ion he managemen o he Spanish go e nmen (61.9%) o o sp ead he managemen o conse a i e leade s (23.8%) such as U sula Von de Leyen, Juan Manuel Mo eno Bonilla, o Isabel Díaz Ayuso. I is no ewo hy ha he leade o he PP only dedica ed wo wee s (4.8%) o explaining he impo ance and con enience o ge ing accina ed agains his disease o ci izens. In his ein, he analysis o he one o he messages pos ed ega ding accina ion by Spanish poli ical igu es shows a beha io o maximum pola iza ion. The endency o he membe s o he go e nmen ansla ed in o an op imis ic ision o he accina ion p o- cess, which con as ed wi h he s a egy o he leade o he opposi ion, who be on c i i- cism (see Figu e 4). Thus, Ped o Sánchez’s messages we e mos ly posi i e (93.2%) o neu- al (5.1%), while he e we e wo wee s wi h a nega i e bias (1.7%) aimed a ques ioning he s ance o he opposi ion pa ies. Sánchez’s posi i e communica ion s a egy was com- plemen ed by he a i ude o Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz, as all o he messages we e posi i e (100%). On he o he hand, he PP leade ocused (64.3%) on nega i e messages conce ning he go e nmen al managemen o he inocula ion p ocess, compa ed wi h 31% posi i e messages and 4.8% neu al messages. 42.74% 47.62% 71.43% 45.18% 4.27% 4.76% 4.22% 7.69% 4.76% 6.63% 20.51% 28.57% 28.57% 22.89% 12.82% 9.52% 11.45% 11.97% 8.43% 4.76% 1.20% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Media Vaccina ion p ocess Vaccina ion pu chase Vaccine Rese a ch O he na ional issues O he in e na ional issues Vaccine dona ion O he s Figu e 2. Thema ic analysis o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17 Figu e 3. S a egies o Spanish leade s on Twi e . Figu e 4. Tone o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s. Wi h he aim o del ing deepe in o he na a i e dissemina ed by Spanish poli ical leade s when add essing he COVID-19 accina ion p ocess, he emo ions in which hei messages we e amed we e explo ed. Thus, he da a again showed a pola iza ion be- ween he messages o he go e nmen and hose o he opposi ion (see Figu e 5). In his way, he socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, mainly used messages in which he showed his p ide in wha has been achie ed in e ms o accina ion (45.3%) and his hope ha his will ansla e in o an imp o emen in he coun y’s si ua ion (32.5%), while he Vice P esiden Díaz mainly op ed o show he g a i ude o heal h p o essionals (57.1%). Ne e heless, in he case o he popula leade , clea ly he blame (50%) ook p ecedence, ocusing hei c i icism o he execu i e managemen on P esiden Sánchez and he Minis e o Heal h. Despi e his, in hei messages, emo ions o g a i ude (16.7%) o disapp o al (14.3%) we e also p esen . 14.53% 4.76% 14.29% 83.76% 23.81% 85.71% 0.85% 61.90% 0.85% 9.52% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Vaccina ion awa eness Managemen di usion C i icism O he s 93.16% 30.95% 100.00% 5.13% 4.76% 1.71% 64.29% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Posi i e Neu al Nega i e Figu e 3. S a egies o Spanish leade s on Twi e . In his ein, he analysis o he one o he messages pos ed ega ding accina ion by Spanish poli ical igu es shows a beha io o maximum pola iza ion. The endency o he membe s o he go e nmen ansla ed in o an op imis ic ision o he accina ion p ocess, Soc. Sci. 2023,12, 85 9 o 17 which con as ed wi h he s a egy o he leade o he opposi ion, who be on c i icism (see Figu e 4). Thus, Ped o Sánchez’s messages we e mos ly posi i e (93.2%) o neu al (5.1%), while he e we e wo wee s wi h a nega i e bias (1.7%) aimed a ques ioning he s ance o he opposi ion pa ies. Sánchez’s posi i e communica ion s a egy was complemen ed by he a i ude o Vice P esiden Yolanda Díaz, as all o he messages we e posi i e (100%). On he o he hand, he PP leade ocused (64.3%) on nega i e messages conce ning he go e nmen al managemen o he inocula ion p ocess, compa ed wi h 31% posi i e messages and 4.8% neu al messages. Soc. Sci. 2023, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 o 17 Figu e 3. S a egies o Spanish leade s on Twi e . Figu e 4. Tone o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s. Wi h he aim o del ing deepe in o he na a i e dissemina ed by Spanish poli ical leade s when add essing he COVID-19 accina ion p ocess, he emo ions in which hei messages we e amed we e explo ed. Thus, he da a again showed a pola iza ion be- ween he messages o he go e nmen and hose o he opposi ion (see Figu e 5). In his way, he socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, mainly used messages in which he showed his p ide in wha has been achie ed in e ms o accina ion (45.3%) and his hope ha his will ansla e in o an imp o emen in he coun y’s si ua ion (32.5%), while he Vice P esiden Díaz mainly op ed o show he g a i ude o heal h p o essionals (57.1%). Ne e heless, in he case o he popula leade , clea ly he blame (50%) ook p ecedence, ocusing hei c i icism o he execu i e managemen on P esiden Sánchez and he Minis e o Heal h. Despi e his, in hei messages, emo ions o g a i ude (16.7%) o disapp o al (14.3%) we e also p esen . 14.53% 4.76% 14.29% 83.76% 23.81% 85.71% 0.85% 61.90% 0.85% 9.52% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Vaccina ion awa eness Managemen di usion C i icism O he s 93.16% 30.95% 100.00% 5.13% 4.76% 1.71% 64.29% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Ped o Sánchez Pablo Casado Yolanda Díaz Posi i e Neu al Nega i e Figu e 4. Tone o messages pos ed by Spanish leade s. Wi h he aim o del ing deepe in o he na a i e dissemina ed by Spanish poli ical leade s when add essing he COVID-19 accina ion p ocess, he emo ions in which hei messages we e amed we e explo ed. Thus, he da a again showed a pola iza ion be ween he messages o he go e nmen and hose o he opposi ion (see Figu e 5). In his way, he socialis leade , Ped o Sánchez, mainly used messages in which he showed his p ide in wha has been achie ed in e ms o accina ion (45.3%) and his hope ha his will ansla e in o an imp o emen in he coun y’s si ua ion (32.5%), while he Vice P esiden Díaz mainly op ed o show he g a i ude o heal h p o essionals (57.1%). Ne e heless, in he case o he popula leade , clea ly he blame (50%) ook p ecedence, ocusing hei c i icism o he execu i e managemen on P esiden Sánchez and he Minis e o Heal h. Despi e his, in hei messages, emo ions o g a i ude (16.7%) o disapp o al (14.3%) we e also p esen . Soc. 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