Sho i le: T ansi ion o pa en hood: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship
Full i le: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship du ing ansi ion o pa en hood:
Di e ences be ween dual- and single-ea ne amilies.
Au ho s:
SUSANA MENÉNDEZ*
Mª VICTORIA HIDALGO**
LUCÍA JIMÉNEZ**
Mª CARMEN MORENO**
A ilia ion:
*Uni e si y o Huel a, Spain.
**Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain.
Da e o pos age: Decembe 17 h, 2009.
Co espondence conce ning his a icle should be add essed o Susana Menéndez
Ál a ez-Da de ([email p o ec ed]). Depa amen o de Psicología E olu i a y de la
Educación. Uni e sidad de Huel a. Campus del Ca men, A da. T es de Ma zo s/n,
21001 Huel a, Spain.
Sho i le: T ansi ion o pa en hood: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship
Full i le: Fa he in ol emen and ma i al ela ionship du ing ansi ion o pa en hood:
Di e ences be ween dual- and single-ea ne amilies.
Da e o pos age: Decembe 17 h, 2009.
Abs ac
Resea ch in o he p ocess o becoming mo he o a he shows e y conclusi ely ha
his impo an li e ansi ion is accompanied by bo h a dec ease in ma i al quali y and a
mo e adi ional di ision o labou . In his pape hese changes a e analyzed wi h special
emphasis on he ela ionships be ween hem and explo ing he ole played in his
p ocess by he mo he ’s wo k s a us. Resul s showed a signi ican link be ween he
de elopmen o ma i al quali y and iola ed expec a ions ega ding a he in ol emen
on child ea ing. Dual-ea ne amilies we e cha ac e ized by a speci ic pa e n o
changes, wi h g ea e s abili y han single-ea ne amilies in ma i al and pa en al oles
du ing ansi ion o pa en hood and a signi ican ole played by spouse suppo as a
pa ne , bu no as a pa en .
Key wo ds: Fa he in ol emen , ma i al quali y, ansi ion o pa en hood, mo he ’s
wo k s a us.
Resumen: La in es igación sob e el p oceso de con e i se en mad e o en pad e
mues a, de mane a muy concluyen e, que es a impo an e ansición e olu i a suele
es a ca ac e izada po un dec emen o en la calidad de la elación de pa eja y po una
adicionalización en la di isión de las a eas den o del hoga . En es e a ículo se
analizan ambos ipos de cambios p es ando especial a ención a la elación en e los
mismos, y se explo a el papel que juega en ellos el hecho de que la muje abaje o no
ue a del hoga . Los esul ados indican que exis e una impo an e elación en e el
desa ollo de la elación de pa eja y la iolación de expec a i as espec o a la
implicación del pad e en la c ianza y el cuidado del bebé. Las pa ejas en las que ambos
miemb os abajan ue a del hoga ienden a es a ca ac e izadas po una mayo
es abilidad en los oles como pa eja y como p ogeni o es du an e la ansición, y po el
signi ica i o papel que en es e p oceso juega el apoyo del cónyuge como pa eja y no
como p ogeni o .
Palab as cla e: Implicación pa e na, calidad de la elación de pa eja, ansición a la
pa e nidad y la ma e nidad, es a us labo al de la mad e.
Acknowledgemen s:
The esea ch desc ibed in his a icle was conduc ed as pa o he p og amme
Coope a ion in Ma e nal-In an Educa ion Ac i i ies, un by he Public Sani a y Se ice
o Andalucía (Spain) and he Depa men o De elopmen al and Educa ional
Psychology (Uni e si y o Se ille, Spain) unde he di ec ion o he P o esso Jesús
Palacios.

In Spain, as well as in o he Eu opean coun ies, he g owing p esence o women
in he labo o ce has cons i u ed a salien cha ac e is ic o ecen changes in ou social
o ganiza ion. The pe cen age o wo ke women has d ama ically inc eased om 29.79%
in 1989 o 51.57% in 2009 (Na ional S a is ic Ins i u e, 2010). Acco ding o sociological
analyses (i.e., Albe di, 1995; Iglesias de Ussel, 1998) his ele an change has p o oked
a complex p ocess o e-de ini ion and e-nego ia ion o male and emale oles, as well
as a g owing equali y in oles pe o med by bo h men and women in di e en domains,
pa icula ly in amily con ex . As a consequence, social sciences ha e shown a g owing
in e es in examining possible changes in he male ole as a he s, pa icula ly pa e nal
pa icipa ion in child ea ing.
The ex en and ype o a he in ol emen in he ca e o his child en is b oadly
concep ualized as a complex and mul idimensional cons uc , wi h bo h
cogni i e/a i udinal and beha io al componen s (Engle & Leona d, 1995; Pa ke, 2002;
Pleck, 1997). The e o e, schola ships ha e examined a i udinal ace s o pa e nal ole
as cen al cons uc s o unde s anding a he in ol emen , like gene al ideology abou
pa e nal and ma e nal oles in he amily, wi h special e e ence o he le el o
adi ionalism o gende ideology and ole a i udes, as well as he a he ’s in es men in
his pa e nal iden i y (Bulanda, 2004; Gaun , 2005, 2006; McB ide, B own, Bos , Shin,
Vaughn & Ko h, 2005; Pa e na & Ma ínez, 2006, 2009; Rane & McB ide, 2000).
In addi ion o he app oach desc ibed abo e, esea che s ha e been in e es ed in
he ex en and ype o a he in ol emen in speci ic child ea ing asks. F om his
pe spec i e, and acco ding o Lamb (Lamb, Pleck, Cha no & Le ine, 1987), a he
in ol emen has been concep ualized as he le el o men pa icipa ion in child daily li e
in h ee di e en ways: The amoun o ime and he ype o asks which a he s a e
usually in ol ed in (a) in e ac ing di ec ly wi h he child, (b) being physically o
emo ionally a ailable o accessible o he child, and (c) assuming esponsibili y o he
child’s ca e and wel a e. Lamb’s h ee-pa model has been b oadly empi ically
examined and con inues o be an impo an guide o esea ch on a he in ol emen in
child ea ing. Ne e heless, he majo i y o he s udies ha e been cen e ed on he amoun
and ype o child ea ing asks ha a he s pe o m in he daily li e o hei child en, ha
is, he in e ac ion le el desc ibed in Lamb’s h ee-pa model.
The p esen s udy is an a emp o examine a he in ol emen (pa icula ly
a he ’s di ec pa icipa ion in child ea ing asks) du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood,
one o he majo li e ansi ions o he adul age. Despi e he impo an changes Spanish
amilies ha e unde gone du ing he pas decades in ela ion o bi h a es (i.e., a
dec ease o bi h age -a e age numbe o child en pe women has allen om 2.8 in
1975 o 1.4 in 2009- o a delay in he iming o mo he hood -a e age age a ma e ni y
was 28.8 in 1975 and 30.87 in 2009-; Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e, 2010), becoming a
pa en emains a common expe ience o mos women and men in Spain, and con inues
o be a no ma i e li e ansi ion du ing adul hood.
De elopmen al esea ch in o he p ocesses o con inui y and change ha ake
place du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood o e s conclusi e e idence ha becoming a
mo he o a a he is a c i ical ime o he ma i al ela ionship, and one o he mos
di icul ansi ions o couples. So, childbi h ends o be accompanied by an inc ease in
con lic be ween pa en s, combined wi h a s ong educ ion in join ime and ac i i ies
as pa ne s and an o e all lowe sa is ac ion wi h he ma i al ela ionship (Belsky &
Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Feldman, 2000; Law ence, Nylen, & Cobb,
2007; Le y-Shi , 1994). Howe e , hese esul s mus be examined mo e p ecisely.
Fi s , he nega i e changes expe ienced a e, on a e age, s a is ically signi ican bu wi h
a mode a e clinical ele ance. Second, when analyses ex end beyond he cen al
endencies in he da a, a ma ked a iabili y be ween amilies eme ges (Belsky &
Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000; Law ence e al., 2007). Finally, s udies also
show a high le el o con inui y wi hin each couple. Thus, pa ne s wi h a sa is ac o y
ela ion be o e hei baby’s bi h a e likely o con inue enjoying a posi i e ma i al
ela ionship a e becoming pa en s, despi e any sligh and empo a y de e io a ion.
Simila ly, o couples wi h p oblems o unde a ce ain amoun o p essu e, becoming
pa en s ends o agg a a e any al eady exis ing p oblems (Cowan & Cowan, 2000).
S udies ha e also e y conclusi ely shown a s ong endency o sex- yping in
he di ision o labou , wi h a signi ican inc ease in women’s commi men o domes ic
asks a e he ansi ion (Belsky, Lang, & Hus on, 1986; Cowan & Cowan, 2000;
Goldbe g & Pe y-Jenkins, 2004). Rega ding child ea ing, he s udies ha ha e
explo ed p ena al expec a ions and a he ’s ac ual in ol emen a e baby’s bi h ha e
ound ha he expec a ions a e e y op imis ic and inconsis en wi h a he ’s
pa icipa ion in subsequen mon hs (Belsky e al., 1986; Cowan & Cowan, 2000;
Goldbe g & Pe y-Jenkins, 2004). This disc epancy was desc ibed by Belsky (1985) as
iola ed expec a ions, e e ing o he expe ience o pa en s who ace a eali y qui e
di e en om he one hey had an icipa ed. Howe e , again s udies ha e shown ha
le els o a he in ol emen be o e and a e he baby’s bi h a e closely ela ed. Thus,
signi ican changes occu owa ds mo e adi ional sex oles bu wi hin impo an and
signi ican in a amily con inui y.
Summing up, he ansi ion o pa en hood is a c i ical ime o ma i al and
pa en al oles, wi h a se ies o changes ha a e nega i e in sign and mode a e in
magni ude, bu a he same ime hese changes a e cha ac e ized by signi ican
con inui y. Li le is known abou he ela ionship be ween hese oles and, speci ically,
be ween he changes in ma i al and pa en al oles du ing he p ocess o becoming
pa en s. Howe e , his li e ansi ion can only be ully unde s ood i a sys emic
amewo k is adop ed. The p ocesses o change ha men and women go h ough when
becoming pa en s —on bo h indi idual and in e pe sonal le els— a e in e ela ed and
mu ually in luen ial (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000).
Speci ically, se e al s udies ha e ound ma i al sa is ac ion and a he
in ol emen o be in e ela ed issues du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood: g ea e
p ena al ma i al sa is ac ion end o be ela ed o mo e a he in ol emen in
child ea ing (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Feldman, 2000; Lee & Dohe y, 2007). The
mu ual in luence o he oles as pa ne s and pa en s is no only a ma e o he s eng h
o hese issues bu is also ela ed o he pa e ns o change in hese oles. The e is
empi ical e idence ha a he in ol emen is a ac o clea ly linked o he dec ease in
ma i al sa is ac ion du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood. In he analysis ca ied ou by
Le y-Shi (1994; Le y-Shi & Is aelash ili, 1988), he deg ee and ex en o he
dec ease in ma i al sa is ac ion was mainly explained by he le el o a he ’s
pa icipa ion in child ea ing. Cowan and Cowan (2000) epo ed simila esul s, bu he e
he nega i e e ec o pa en hood on he pa ne s’ ela ionship was mainly mi iga ed by
he deg ee o disc epancy be ween p ena al expec a ions and ac ual a he in ol emen ,
ha is, he iola ed expec a ions desc ibed by Belsky (1985). I seems ha iola ed
expec a ions o a he in ol emen in child ea ing a e especially c i ical o he
de elopmen o ma i al quali y, so ca ing o he baby p oduces mos o he new and
p essing demands ha pa ne s ace when becoming pa en s (Feldman, 2000; Goldbe g
& Pe y-Jenkins, 2004; Le y-Shi , 1994).
Li le is known abou he ole played by unde going he ansi ion o pa en hood
in a single o a dual-ea ne amily. In esea ch abou a he in ol emen , whe he o no
Ne e heless, co ela ion analyses e ealed signi ican ela ions in all he opics be ween
T1 and T2.
INSERT TABLE 1 HERE
To explo e he ole ha mo he ’s wo k s a us plays in hese ela ions, we
pe o med addi ional analyses. Fi s , wo mul i a ia e analysis o a iance (MANOVA)
we e pe o med a T1 and T2 sepa a ely including mo he ’s wo k s a us as independen
a iable and ma i al quali y, a he in ol emen , pa ne suppo o pa en hood, and
pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s as dependen a iables. These analyses showed
signi ican di e ences be ween pa en s om single- and dual-ea ne amilies a T1, F
(4, 138)
= 3.45, p < .01, and T2, F (4, 138)
= 2.83, p < .05. Subsequen uni a ia e
ANOVAs indica ed ha hese di e ences we e explained pa icula ly by a he
in ol emen , F (1, 141) = 5.04, p < .05 a T1 and F (1, 141) = 10.37, p < .01 a T2, and
pa ne suppo o pa en hood, F (1, 141) = 3.73, p < .05 a T1. Second, he main e ec
o mo he ’s wo k s a us was included in he mul i a ia e epea ed measu ed analysis
p esen ed a he beginning o his sec ion, showing ha he model was nea ly signi ican
o he se o he opics assessed, F (4, 138) = 2.18, p = .07. Thi d, ollowing Riley’s
(1990) sugges ion, we pe o med wo sepa a e mul i a ia e epea ed measu ed analyses
o single- and dual-ea ne amilies in o de o explo e di e ences be ween T1 and T2
in he di ec sco es. The esul s ob ained (see Table 2) showed signi ican di e ences
o pa en s om single-ea ne amilies, F (4, 96) = 7.83, p < .001, pa icula ly o
ma i al quali y, F (1, 99) = 21.65, p < .001, a he in ol emen , F (1, 99) = 15.81, p <
.001, and pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s, F (1, 99) = 5.03, p < .05.
INSERT TABLE 2 HERE
Bi a ia e co ela ion analyses o change sco es we e un o explo e co a ia ion
be ween he de elopmen o ma i al quali y and changes in o he issues. The esul s

showed signi ican and posi i e co ela ions be ween he change in ma i al quali y and
he change in he o he h ee sco es: pa ne suppo o pa en hood, (187) = .237, p <
.001, pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s, (187) = .51, p < .001, and iola ed
expec a ions o a he in ol emen , (143) = .152, p < .05. Two sepa a e linea
eg ession analyses o dual- and single-ea ne amilies we e compu ed in o de o
assess he ela i e s eng h o hese a iables in p edic ing change in ma i al quali y
ac oss he ansi ion o pa en hood in each ype o amily (see Table 3). Resul s ob ained
o single-ea ne amilies showed pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s as he only
a iable ha was signi ican ly ela ed (β = .647, p < .001) wi h he change in ma i al
quali y. In dual-ea ne amilies, bo h pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s (β = .536, p <
.001 and iola ed expec a ions abou a he in ol emen (β = .183, p < .05) p edic ed
change in ma i al quali y.
INSERT TABLE 3 HERE
DISCUSSION
The main goal o he p esen s udy was o examine a he in ol emen du ing he
ansi ion o pa en hood. As p e ious s udies had poin ed ou , he ob ained esul s shed
ligh abou a he in ol emen in child ea ing as a complex and mul idimensional
cons uc (Pa ke, 2002; Pleck, 1997).
Desc ip i e analyses pe o med allow us o d aw conclusions qui e simila o
hose exp essed in he li e a u e (Belsky & Ro ine, 1990; Cowan & Cowan, 2000;
Law ence e al., 2007; Le y-Shi , 1994). The a e age endencies indica e ha
becoming a pa en is a p ocess ha p omo es some nega i e changes in ma i al quali y,
and ha o ganiza ion o child ea ing is qui e di e en om p ena al expec a ions.
Howe e , co ela ion analyses showed ha hese mainly nega i e changes occu , on
a e age, wi hin signi ican in a amily con inui y.
Ne e heless, he esul s p esen ed he e also iden i ied one excep ion o his
mo e gene al in e p e a ion: in his pa e n o nega i e changes, he e we e no ele an
changes ela ed o pa ne suppo o pa en hood. Combining his esul wi h he
signi ican dec ease in suppo by he spouse as pa ne seems o indica e ha , du ing
he ansi ion, many pa en s may expe ience changes in opposi e di ec ions. The e o e,
he adap a ion o pa en hood implies, o a g ea ex en , mo e commi men o he
ela ionship as pa en s and less o he ela ionship as pa ne s. One o he possible
implica ions o hese opposing pa e ns is he obse ed signi ican dec ease in he
pe cei ed ma i al quali y.
The esul s o he de elopmen al analy ical s a egy seem o us o be especially
in e es ing. Wi h hese analyses, we ied o a oid limi ing he s eng h o he di e en
issues assessed be o e and a e baby’s bi h, and o ocus on he s eng h o he changes
ha occu du ing he ansi ion, ha is, on he le el o con inui y/discon inui y
expe ienced du ing he p ocess o becoming pa en s. The e o e, hese change sco es
allow us o p oduce indexes ha p o ide in o ma ion o a highly de elopmen al na u e.
The esul s o his ype o analysis con i m, as do o he s udies (Cowan &
Cowan, 2000; Le y-Shi , 1994; Le y-Shi & Is aelash ili, 1988), he in e ac ion
be ween he de elopmen o ma i al quali y and a he in ol emen du ing he ansi ion
o pa en hood. Pa en s whose p ena al expec a ions o a he in ol emen we e close o
he a he ’s ac ual pa icipa ion expe ienced less de e io a ion and g ea e con inui y in
ma i al sa is ac ion du ing he ansi ion. As Belsky (1985) sugges ed, wi hin he
p ocess o changes and adjus men s ha occu s du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood, he
iola ion o expec a ions p e iously held abou hese changes p obably does no
p omo e sa is ac o y e olu ion o he p ocess. Viola ed expec a ions seem o ha e
pa icula ly nega i e consequences when hey in ol e child ea ing, whe e he
disc epancy be ween expec a ion and eali y means ha he mo he is in ol ed in hese
asks mo e han expec ed, esul ing in a mo e c i ical iew o he pa ne and a dec ease
in ma i al quali y (Feldman, 2000; Le y-Shi , 1994). Howe e , his a gumen does no
explain he dec ease in ma i al sa is ac ion expe ienced by a he
(FOOTNOTE 1)
. As Le y-
Shi (1994) ema ks, a dec ease in he a he ’s sa is ac ion may ha e wo
complemen a y explana ions. On he one hand, a g ea e amoun o ime spen ca ing
o he baby may be linked o a educ ion in a mo he ’s in ol emen in he ma i al
ela ionship, and hese changes may a ec he a he nega i ely. On he o he hand, in
hose cases whe e men hoped and wished o unde ake a mo e ac i e ole as a he s, he
g ea e in ol emen o he mo he may be linked o he a he eeling like an ou side .
Bo h possible si ua ions could con ibu e o he common pa e nal expe ience o a
dec ease in he pe cei ed ma i al quali y, al hough o di e en easons om hose
expe ienced by mo he s. In sho , i seems o indica e ha he e a e wo pa e ns o
change, which a e he consequences o di e en p ocesses. As Cowan and Cowan
(2000) poin ed ou , he ansi ion o pa en hood is accompanied by adjus men s and
changes ha , o a ce ain ex en , end o de ine he ansi ion o mo he hood and he
ansi ion o a he hood. Ne e heless, we hink ha in u u e esea ch we should
conduc speci ic analyses in o de o explo e he p ocess o becoming a pa en
sepa a ely o women and men.
Despi e hese gende di e ences, ou da a analyses sugges s ha pa e ns o
con inui y end o happen oge he : mo e s able pa ne ela ions occu ed among
pa en s whose expec a ions we e close o eali y. These esul s highligh he impo ance
o s abili y in imes o ansi ion. De elopmen al ansi ions a e po en ially s ess ul
mainly because many changes occu in a a ie y o a eas du ing hese pe iods o
people’s li es. I hese changes ake place wi h a backd op o o e all s abili y, he adul
and/o he couple a e mo e likely o manage he ansi ion sa is ac o ily.
The p esen s udy con i ms ha mo he ’s wo k s a us plays an impo an ole in
a he in ol emen in child ea ing. Feldman (2000) discussed he need o mo e s udies
o cla i y he weigh ha his index has in explaining he a iabili y obse ed in he
p ocess o becoming pa en s. The e o e, and ollowing Riley’s ecommenda ions
(1990), we pe o med sepa a e analyses o dual- and single-ea ne amilies, inding ha
he ansi ions expe ienced by bo h ypes o amilies a e ai ly simila . Howe e , he
esul s conce ning he changes in ma i al quali y, a he in ol emen , pa ne suppo
o pa en hood and pa ne suppo o gene al ma e s did no show signi ican
di e ences o dual-ea ne amilies. These esul s indica e, as we hypo hesized, ha he
ansi ion expe ienced by dual-ea ne amilies is a mo e con inuous and sligh ly mo e
posi i e p ocess.
Ou eg ession analyses indica ed ha , on he one hand, in single- and in dual-
ea ne amilies, s abili y in ma i al quali y was especially and s ongly associa ed wi h
s abili y in suppo p o ided by he spouse, bu as pa ne , no as co-pa en . This esul
emphasizes he c i ical ole o s abili y in he pa ne ’s suppo o gene al issues in
mi iga ing any dec ease in pe cei ed ma i al quali y: couples wi h posi i e p o iles end
o be hose ha do no become pa en s o he de imen o hei ole as pa ne s.
The e o e, he ansi ion o pa en hood seems o be a p ocess cha ac e ized by s ong
changes in ma i al and pa en al oles which a e be e managed om a backg ound o
con inui y.
On he o he hand, eg ession analysis pe o med o dual-ea ne amilies
con i med he impo an ole played by pa ne suppo in his ype o mic osys em, bu
hey showed ha changes in ma i al quali y we e also signi ican ly p edic ed by iola ed
expec a ions abou a he in ol emen . As we men ioned in he in oduc ion, di e en
au ho s (Ba ne & Ba uch, 1988; C ou e & Manke, 1997; Go ied & Go ied, 2006;
Lee & Dohe y, 2007; Riley, 1990) ha e sugges ed ha , compa ed wi h mo he s om
single-ea ne amilies, he lowe le el o ime a ailable o mo he s om dual-ea ne
amilies o dedica e o child ea ing is ela ed o a lowe le el o oli ion in e ms o
a he in ol emen . So, in amilies whe e he woman is in he labo o ce, he a he ’s
pa icipa ion in adi ionally emale asks is mo e necessa y and mo e s able han in
single-ea ne homes. The e o e in hese amilies, wi h lowe le els o will ulness in
a he in ol emen , he s abili y o he pa ne and pa en ela ionships and hei mu ual
in luences seem o be pa icula ly c i ical du ing he ansi ion o pa en hood.
In sho , he esul s p esen ed he e show ha he oles as pa ne and pa en , wo
o he mos impo an ace s o adul iden i y, a e closely ela ed since he ime one
becomes a pa en , and hei de elopmen du ing his impo an ansi ion will depend,
abo e all, on he ecological cha ac e is ics ha de ine each amily sys em. Anyhow, we
hink ha he p esen s udy has wo main limi a ions. On he one hand, he e a e o he
opics ha should con ibu e o imp o ing ou unde s anding o his ele an
de elopmen al ansi ion which ha e no been commen ed on in his pape , pa icula ly
gende , expe ience as pa en and cha ac e is ics o mo he s’ labou condi ions; hese
analyses a e cen al esea ch ques ions o ou nex planned publica ions. On he o he
hand, we collec ed da a using indi idual in e iews and unning indi idual da a
analyses, bu he esul s and conclusions should be imp o ed wi h da a coming om he
couple as he uni o analysis.
In conclusion, we belie e ha he p esen s udy is consis en and suppo s he
ecological and sys emic iew o he amily ha has been gaining g ound in esea ch on
he ansi ion o pa en hood. The esul s epo ed he e allow us o conclude ha he

di e en p ocesses o change ha occu du ing his li e ansi ion do no ollow sepa a e
pa hs bu s em om he combined in luence o di e en ac o s ha play c ucial oles in
he p ocess.
REFERENCES
Albe di, I. (1995). In o me sob e la si uación de la amilia en España. Mad id:
Minis e io de Asun os Sociales.
Ba ne , R. C., & Ba uch, G. K. (1987). De e minan s o a he s’ pa icipa ion in amily
wo k. Jou nal o Ma iage and he Family, 49, 29-40.
Ba ne , R. C., & Ba uch, G. K. (1988). Co ela es o a he s’ pa icipa ion in amily
wo k. In P. B ons ein and C. P. Cowan (Eds.), Fa he hood oday: Men’s changing
ole in he amily (pp. 66-78). NY: Wiley.
Belsky, J. (1985). Explo ing indi idual di e ences in ma i al change ac oss he
ansi ion o pa en hood: he ole o iola ed expec a ion. Jou nal o Ma iage and
he Family, 47, 1037-1052.
Belsky, J., & Ro ine, M. (1990). Pa e ns o ma i al change ac oss he ansi ion o
pa en hood: p egnancy o h ee yea s pos pa um. Jou nal o Ma iage and he
Family, 52, 5-19.
Belsky, J., Lang, M. E., & Hus on, T. L. (1986). Sex yping and di ision o labou as
de e minan s o ma i al change ac oss he ansi ion o pa en hood. Jou nal o
Pe sonali y and Social Psychology, 30, 1-6.
B on enb enne , U. (1979). The ecology o human de elopmen . Camb idge, MA:
Ha a d Uni e si y P ess.
Bulanda, R. E. (2004). Pa e nal in ol emen wi h child en: The in luence o gende
ideologies. Jou nal o Ma iage and he Family, 66, 40-45.
Cowan, C. P., & Cowan, P. A. (2000). When pa ne s become pa en s. The big li e
change o couples. NJ: Law ence E lbaum.
C ou e , A. C., & Manke, B. A. (1997). De elopmen a ypology o dual-ea ne
amilies: a window in o di e ences be ween and wi hin amilies in ela ionships,
oles and ac i i ies. Jou nal o Family Psychology, 11(1), 62-75.
Deu sch, F. M., Lussie , J. B., & Se is, L. J. (1993). Husbands a home: P edic o s o
pa e nal pa icipa ion in childca e and housewo k. Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social
Psychology, 65(6), 1154-1166.
Engle, P. L., & Leona d, A. (1995). Fa he s as pa en ing pa ne s. In J. B uce, C. B.
Lloyd and A. Leona d (Eds.), Families in ocus: New pe spec i es on mo he s,
a he s and child en (pp. 49-70). New Yo k: The Popula ion Council.
Feldman, R. (2000). Pa en s’ con e gence on sha ing and ma i al sa is ac ion, a he
in ol emen , and pa en -child ela ionship a he ansi ion o pa en hood. In an
Men al Heal h Jou nal, 21(3), 176-191.
Gaun , R. (2005). The ole o alue p io i ies in pa e nal and ma e nal in ol emen in
child ca e. Jou nal o Ma iage and Family, 67(3), 643-655.
Gaun , R. (2006). Biological essen ialism, gende ideologies, and ole a i udes: Wha
de e mines pa en s’ in ol emen in child ca e. Sex Roles, 55, 523-533.
Goldbe g, A. E., & Pe y-Jenkins, M. (2004). Di ision o labou and wo king-class
women’s well-being ac oss he ansi ion o pa en hood. Jou nal o Family
Psychology, 18(1), 225-236.
Go ied, A. E., & Go ied, A. W. (2006). A long- e m in es iga ion o he ole o
ma e nal and dual-ea ne employmen in child en’s de elopmen . Ame ican
Beha io al Scien is , 49(10), 1310-1327.
Hidalgo, M. V. (1994). The p ocess o becoming mo he and a he . An ecological and
de elopmen al analysis. Uni e si y o Se ille: Unpublished PhD Disse a ion.
Iglesias de Ussel, J. (1998). La amilia española en el con ex o eu opeo. In M. J.
Rod igo and J. Palacios (Coo ds.), Familia y desa ollo humano (pp. 91-114).
Mad id: Alianza.
Lamb, M. E., Pleck, J. H., Cha no , E. L., & Le ine, J. A. (1987). A biosocial
pe spec i e on pa en al beha io and in ol emen . In J. B. Lancas e , J. Al mann, A.
S. Rossi and L. R. She od (Eds.), Pa en ing ac oss he li e span: biosocial
dimensions (pp. 11-42). How ho ne, NY: Aldine De G uy e .
Law ence, E., Nylen, K., & Cobb, R. J. (2007). P ena al expec a ions and ma i al
sa is ac ion du ing ansi ion o pa en hood. Jou nal o Family Psychology, 21(2),
155-164.
Lee, C., & Dohe y, W. (2007). Ma i al sa is ac ion and a he in ol emen du ing he
ansi ion o pa en hood. Fa he ing, 5, 75-98.
Le y-Shi , R. (1994). Indi idual and con ex ual co ela es o ma i al change du ing he
ansi ion o pa en hood. De elopmen al Psychology, 30(4), 591-601.
Le y-Shi , R., & Is aelash ili, R. (1988). An eceden s o a he ing: some u he
explo a ion. De elopmen al Psychology, 24(3), 434-440.
McB ide, B. A., B own, G. L., Bos , K., Shin, N., Vaughn B., & Ko h, B. (2005),
Pa e nal iden i y, ma e nal ga hekeeping, and a he in ol emen . Family Rela ions,
54, 360-372.
McB ide, B. A., & Mills, G. (1993). A compa ison o mo he and a he in ol emen
wi h hei p eschool age child en. Ea ly Childhood Resea ch Qua e ly, 8, 457-477.
Minuchin, P. (2002). Looking owa d he ho izon: p esen and u u e in he s udy o
amily sys em. In J. P. McHale & W. S. G olnick (Eds.), Re ospec and p ospec in
he psychological s udy o amilies (pp. 259-278). Mahwah, NJ: E lbaum.
Na ional S a is ics Ins i u e NSI. (2010). Basic demog aphic indica o s. Re ie ed om
h p://www.ine.es.
Pa ke, R. D. (2002). Fa he s and amilies. In M. H. Bo ns ein (Ed.). Handbook o
pa en ing, Vol. 3: Being and becoming a pa ne (pp. 27-73). Mahwah, NJ:
Law ence E lbaum.
Pa e na, C., & Ma ínez, M. C. (2006). Fa he s and gende adi ionalism: Pe cep ion o
inequali y and li e oles. The Spanish Jou nal o Psychology, 9(2), 171-181.
Pa e na, C., & Ma ínez, M. C. (2009). In luencia de las a iables de géne o en la
dis ibución de las a eas domés icas y de cuidado. In e ame ican Jou nal o
Psychology, 43(2), 240-248.
Pleck, J. H. (1997). Pa e nal in ol emen : Le els, sou ces and consequences. In M. E.
Lamb (Ed.), The ole o he a he in child de elopmen (3 d ed, pp. 66-103). New
Yo k: Wiley.
Rane, T. R., & McB ide, B. A. (2000). Iden i y heo y as a guide o unde s anding
a he s’ in ol emen wi h hei child en. Jou nal o Family Issues, 21, 347-366.
Riley, D. (1990). Ne wo k in luences on a he in ol emen in child ea ing. In M.
Coch an, M. La ne , D. Riley, L. Gunna sson and Ch. Hende son (Eds.), Ex ending
amilies. The social ne wo k o pa en s and hei child en. NY: Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess.
Spanish Women Ins i u e SWI. (2007). Women in numbe s. Re ie ed om
h p://www.m as.es/muje .