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chap e 3
The Lexicons o Ea ly Mode n News
Paul A blas e , And é Belo, Ca men Espejo, S éphane Ha emaye ,
Ma io In elise, Noah Moxham, Joad Raymond and Nikolaus Schobesbe ge
The ocabula y o news sp ead ac oss Eu ope wi h he news i sel . This is e i-
den enough in he geog aphical dispe sal o wo ds including gaze e, a iso,
me cu y. Howe e , also like he news i sel , as hese wo ds we e domes ica ed
in o egional languages and local news cul u es hey de eloped local in lec-
ions. Looking closely a he languages o news ac oss Eu ope e eals con inu-
i ies and discon inui ies in p ac ice, i iden i ies he mo emen o con en ions
and unco e s alse iends ha a e e idence o bo h common and idiosync a ic
p ac ices.
One o he i s hings disco e ed in he wo kshops o ganised by he
Le e hulme-T us unded esea ch ne wo k, News Ne wo ks in Ea ly Mode n
Eu ope 1500–1700, was ha we needed o unde s and mo e p ecisely he lexi-
cons we deployed in a ious ongues in a wide con ex , and ha a polyglo
lexicon was a necessa y ounda ion o a ansna ional unde s anding o he
cosmopoli an cul u es o Eu opean news. The his o y o news in ea ly mod-
e n Eu ope has been s ongly shaped by—and consequen ly ashioned
in o—na ional na a i es, na a i es ha isk igno ing o downplaying he
ex en o which news and i s ci cula ion we e ansna ional phenomena. I
was a s a ing poin o he ne wo k and i s pa icipan s ha he endency o
iew he his o iog aphy o news in na ional isola ion, by sepa a ing news
p oduc s om he a ie y o o ms, names and ne wo ks by which hey we e
dis ibu ed ac oss Eu ope, isks simpli ying news his o y in o a na owly
de elopmen al accoun ha measu es he sophis ica ion and in e es o a
gi en news cul u e p incipally by he speed wi h which i b ough abou he
p in ed daily newspape . We sough o eplace his wi h an in e na ional
s o y, ecognising he in e na ional cha ac e and eedom o mo emen o
news, i s ungibili y and mobili y be ween di e se poli ical, social, and lin-
guis ic con ex s.
T ansla ion (and hus communi ies o jobbing ansla o s) was one o he
ounda ions o he mo emen o news, and i was soon appa en o he ne -
wo k ha he polyglo and cosmopoli an cha ac e o Eu ope’s ocabula ies o
news p esen ed unan icipa ed challenges. Discussions o o ms, ne wo ks, and
de ini ions o news in he cou se o he p ojec ’s esea ches highligh ed a num-
be o impo an ques ions: how can we be su e, when we use a single wo d o
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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compa e news publica ions, ha we a e alking abou simila phenomena? A e
he a ious names gi en o p in ed and manusc ip o ms o news commensu-
a e be ween coun ies? Con e sely, how is a gi en wo d used as i mo es
be ween e nacula s? How was he e minology unde s ood, and how was he
con empo a y sense o hose meanings eco ded? Wha deg ee o in luence o
eedback was he e be ween na ional news cul u es?
Names o news i ems and news objec s mo ed alongside he hings hem-
sel es; wo ds impe ec ly desc ibed hings, and hey adap ed o local and
egional con ex s; and hei meanings changed acco ding bo h o he exigen-
cies o a ying ci cums ances and o changing cul u al con ex s. Fo ins ance,
as is shown below, pa o he expansion o he ac i e ocabula y o news in
English was o include he use o such wo ds as p oceedings, a ai s, occu ences,
ansac ions, and passages in he i les o news publica ions (all o which
seem o e lec he impo ance o epo ing on pa liamen a y ac i i y o he
news cul u e o he 1640s). Ye i hese i les a e sugges i e o a speci ically
English aspec o ha cul u e, he e we e also nume ous i les o ea ly English
news publica ions—me cu ies, co an oes, gaze es, idings—which bo -
owed om he con inen al ocabula y in a manne ha sugges s ha he o -
eignness o he con en s, o ms and i les o news publica ions was pa o
wha made hem ecognisable as news. I is also wo h no icing ha his o -
eignness was gene ic: ha is, he o eign e m by which he news was ecog-
nised need no o igina e in he same place as he news i con ained. This a icle
eco ds nume ous ins ances o e ms adop ed om he immedia e example o
a neighbou ing egion, which had i sel bo owed he e m om elsewhe e.
This chap e began li e as a mul i-way dialogue o polylogue, and de eloped
in o a collabo a i e e e ence essay. In i we p o ide a non-exhaus i e ye pan-
op ic su ey o he apidly-changing lexicons o news e minology in se en o
ea ly mode n Eu ope’s e nacula s—Du ch, English, F ench, Ge man, I alian,
Po uguese, and Spanish—co e ing he pe iod om he ea ly six een h o he
beginning o he eigh een h cen u y. I is ou hope ha schola s and s uden s
o he his o y o news will ind his use ul, no simply because i b ings his
in o ma ion oge he in one place o he i s ime, bu also because i b oad-
ens ou unde s anding o he in e ela edness o ea ly mode n news gen es,
and assembles an impo an s and o e idence in d awing he his o ical and
geog aphical ou lines o a Eu opean news ne wo k. I unde sco es he neces-
si y o s udying he Eu opean news ne wo k as a whole. I u he p o ides a
p ac ical ounda ion o many o he analyses o ansna ional lows ha
appea elsewhe e in his olume.
Al hough we ha e sough o a oid alsely isola ing na ional cul u es o news,
he logic o a su ey o ea ly mode n news e minology seems o us o equi e
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sepa a e ea men o each language conside ed; and, in o de ha he mig a-
ion o o ms and e ms may be mo e eadily appa en , he discussions o each
language ha e been a anged acco ding o a ough ch onology o inno a ion
(beginning wi h he es ablishmen o a isi ne wo ks in I aly, o he appea -
ance o p in ed news pamphle s and he i s newspape s in he Holy Roman
Empi e, he es ablishmen o Du ch-language cou an en and nieuwe ijdinghen,
mo ing on o F ance, England, Spain and Po ugal.)
A no e on ypog aphy: in o de o a oid p i ileging one news ocabula y
o e o he s, he con en ion by which non-English wo ds a e i alicised wi hin
English p ose has been abandoned. Te ms whose meaning and usage a e he
subjec s o his essay’s sc u iny a e gi en in bold whe e hey a e i s encoun-
e ed (o ein oduced o discussion), and a e he ea e no emphasised.
I alics a e con ined o i les o p in ed wo ks; a wo d which is bo h i alicised
and bold deno es an ins ance whe e he i le o a pa icula p in ed wo k in o-
duces a e m which comes o be used gene ically.
I aly
The wo d nuo a (singula ; he plu al is nuo e; and a ian s include no a,
no e, no ella) has been used since a leas he i een h cen u y o indica e he
accoun o some hing ha has happened ecen ly. I sha es i s meaning wi h
he English news.
O e he same pe iod a iso has been a gene ic e m: i does no dis inguish
be ween he objec (a shee con aining w i en news) and i s con en ( he
news). An a iso could be a news-shee con aining a ious news i ems, o i
could equally well be a single piece o news.1 The a iso (handw i en o
p in ed) became he p incipal ehicle o news communica ion on he I alian
peninsula, and con inued o p edomina e un il he end o he eigh een h cen u y.
I s o igins can be aced o he las decades o he ou een h cen u y, when he
pa icula ly in o ma i e pa s o p i a e and me chan s’ le e s o o poli ical
1 On he I alian e ms see Ma io In elise, P ima dei gio nali. Alle o igini della pubblica in o mazi-
one (secoli x i e x ii) (Rome and Ba i: La e za, 2002), and ‘F om me chan s’ le e s o hand-
w i en poli ical a isi: no es on he o igins o public in o ma ion’, in Cul u al Exchange in
Ea ly Mode n Eu ope, ol. 3, Co espondence and Cul u al Exchange in Eu ope 1400–1700, ed.
F ancisco Be hencou and Flo ike Egmond (Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2007),
pp. 33–52. Also s ill use ul is Sal a o e Bongi, ‘Le p ime gazze e in I alia’, Nuo a An ologia, 11
(1869), pp. 311–46. On A iso see also he s udies o Johann Pe i jean, ‘Mo s e p a iques de
l’in o ma ion. Ce que a ise eu di e (x ie–x iie siècles)’, Mélanges de l’École ançaise de
Rome—I alie e Médi e anée, 122.1 (2010), pp. 107–21, and L’in elligence des choses. Une his oi e
de l’in o ma ion en e l’I alie e Medi e anée (Rome: École F ançaise de Rome, 2013), pp. 2–5.
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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dispa ches began o be exce p ed and inco po a ed in o a single shee wi h
o he , simila exce p s. The esul was a ex made up o sho in o ma i e sec-
ions, elaying news ha was hough o be o gene al in e es . Be ween he
end o he i een h and he beginning o he six een h cen u y he layou o
he a iso was g adually pe ec ed. The news was in oduced by headlines
such as “Copia di nuo e in le e e da …” (copy o news in le e s om …),
“Somma io di a isi” (summa y o a isos), “Somma io di no e” (summa y o
news), and so on.2
In Venice he e m epo o (also ipo o/ apo o) had he same meaning
as a iso. They we e used in e changeably, e en i la e on, in he eigh een h
cen u y, epo o could also indica e a single i em o in o ma ion. The a isi
o epo i (plu al) we e usually anonymous, al hough i is possible o ind
hem signed, especially when hey we e add essed o impo an pe sonali-
ies. Some began o be issued in se ial o m om he second hal o he i -
een h cen u y, and in pe iodical o m om abou 1550. Bo h we e commonly
used in he papal bulls agains he news ci cula ion be ween 1572 and 1590.3
The same meaning was con eyed by he wo d agguaglio (plu al agguagli),
less used, less common, bu employed by he w i e T ajano Boccalini in he
i le o his amous book De’ agguagli di Pa naso (Venice, 1612), ansla ed
in o English as Ad e isemen s om Pa nassus by Hen y Ca ey, Ea l o
Monmou h (London, 1656).4
Ano he impo an dis inc ion was be ween a isi sec e i (sec e a isos),
ca ying con iden ial in o ma ion add essed o men o powe , and a isi
pubblici (public a isos). The o me we e exclusi ely handw i en, while he
la e migh be handw i en o p in ed.5
The gazze a was he a iso pubblico pa excellence. I was an a iso a ail-
able o anyone who could a o d i , and hus capable o expanding i s eade -
ship. Use o he wo d gazze a begins o be eco ded a ound 1570, bu o many
decades i seems o ha e been a e m p ima ily belonging o spoken language,
e e ing o news-shee s ha lacked c edibili y.6 A gazze a was ypically
2 Quo a ions om he collec ion o a isi p ese ed in A chi io di s a o di Modena, Cancelle ia
ducale, a isi e no izie dall’es e o, bb. 1–3.
3 See s.d.n.d. Pii PP. V Cons i u io con a sc iben es exemplan es, & dic an es moni a ulgo dic a
gli auisi, & i o ni (Rome: An onio Blado, 1572) in Biblio eca Nazionale di Roma 13.F.23; Edi o
che p edica o i non a ino nelle lo o p ediche de epo i & a isi (Rome: Paolo Blado, 1590), in
Biblio hèque na ionale de F ance, E 4720.
4 See also 96, 272, 304, 471, 519, 678, and 724, below.
5 In elise, P ima dei gio nali, pp. 30–3; B endan Dooley, The Social His o y o Skep icism.
Expe ience and Doub in Ea ly Mode n Eu ope (Bal imo e: Johns Hopkins Uni e si y P ess,
1999), pp. 36–7.
6 Fo mo e on he wo d gazze a see Ch. 10.
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handw i en, al hough p in ed gazze e (con empo a y a es a ions o he
e m mo e commonly use he plu al han he singula ) began o appea om
he ea ly se en een h cen u y onwa ds. In he i s decades o i s use, gazze e
could as easily e e o single-e en , occasional newsle e s as o pa s o a
egula ly appea ing se ies (which is wha a iso mo e commonly e e s o) bu
he e is also e idence o he e ms gazze a and a iso being used in e change-
ably. The e m gazze a is con en ionally supposed o de i e om he name o
a small-denomina ion Vene ian coin in ci cula ion in he six een h cen u y
and which came o s and me onymically o he newsshee s whose pu chase
p ice i ep esen ed: la e se en een h- and eigh een h-cen u y dic iona ies
and encyclopaedias o e his explana ion and supply possible e ymologies ia
Heb ew (Izgad, meaning messenge ), o Pe sian (gazna-) ia G eek (γάζα),
meaning easu e o easu e-house.7 This de i a ion is ha d o e i y, howe e ;
he ea lies e idence we ha e o i in an I alian monolingual lexicon is om
1676. I is, howe e , men ioned in John Flo io’s 1598 I alian-English dic iona y
A Wo lde o Wo des and in Randle Co g a e’s Anglo-F ench dic iona y o 1611.8
Ea ly se en een h-cen u y dic iona ies o I alian end no o include he wo d,
possibly because, as no ed abo e, i was mainly a colloquial usage; i is no able
ha John Flo io’s 1598 I alian dic iona y, which does include i , is mo e ecep-
i e o in o mal I alian han mos con empo a y monoglo dic iona ies.9
The e ms oglio (shee ) o oglie o (small shee ) a e o en used as syn-
onyms o gazze a o a iso and bo h we e used o handw i en as well as
p in ed ma e . I was also common o use he exp ession oglio di a isi o
indica e a single shee o news.
The e m gio nale (jou nal) appea s only in he second hal o he se en-
een h cen u y in he i les o li e a y and academic pe iodicals, p obably in
imi a ion o he F ench Jou nal des Sça ans (1665): Gio nale de’ le e a i di
Roma (1668), Gio nale ene o de’ le e a i (1670), Gio nale de’ le e a i d’I alia
(1710). Du ing he wa agains he Tu ks, a he end o he se en een h cen u y,
and pa icula ly a e he siege o Vienna o 1683, many mili a y gaze es we e
p in ed in I alian ci ies wi h i les like Gio nale dal campo cesa eo a Buda
(Jou nal o he Impe ial encampmen a Buda) o Gio nale dell’a ma a ene a in
7 Eph aim Chambe s, Cyclopædia, o , An Uni e sal Dic iona y o A s and Sciences (London,
1728), see unde Gaze e. Pie e Chan aine, Dic ionnai e é ymologique de la langue g ecque, 2
ols. (Pa is: Klincksieck, 1968–80), p. 206.
8 John Flo io, A Wo lde o Wo des (London 1598), p. 145; Randle Co g a e, A Dic iona ie o he
F ench and English Tongues (London, 1611), sig. Ss3 .
9 On he dic iona y o John Flo io, see Michael Wa , The I alian Encoun e wi h Tudo England:
A Cul u al Poli ics o T ansla ion (Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 2012), pp. 203–54.
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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Le an e (Jou nal o he Vene ian A my in he Le an ), and o he s mo e o less
simila . The name did no indica e egula pe iodici y o publica ion, bu
a he he in en ion o p o ide a day-by-day accoun o wha was happening in
he wa zones. The pe iodici y was e ec i ely he consequence o p o ac ed
mili a y ac ions ha con inued o s imula e in e es because o hei a o able
ou come. P ac ical ci cums ances ied hese mili a y gaze es closely o he
mili a y e en s hey epo ed; hei publica ion ceased al oge he in he win e
mon hs when mili a y ac i i y diminished.10
A elazione o ela ione ( ela ion), s a ing om he six een h cen u y, was
an occasional p in ed accoun o mili a y o poli ical e en s o pa icula
impo ance. Gene ally i was a p in ed news pamphle consis ing o ou pages
in qua o o in oc a o illus a ing a speci ic ac o occu ence. Relazioni ci cu-
la ed widely and we e equen ly ep in ed, o en in di e en ci ies om he
one in which hey we e i s published. The exp ession Rela ione de’ successi
( ela ions o e en s) was qui e common, and is an ob ious cogna e o he
Spanish Relaciones de sucesos. Howe e , he Spanish e m was no widely in
use in he ea ly mode n pe iod, and has been e oac i ely applied by
his o ians.
The Me cu io, de i ed om he La in i le o he Me cu ius Gallo-Belgicus
i s p in ed in Cologne in 1592 o he Me cu ius Aus io-Bohemo-Ge manicus
o 1623, was a p in ed se ies o books on con empo a y his o ical e en s (like
he Ge man Mess ela ion). The mos signi ican I alian example is he
Me cu io oue o his o ia de’ co en i empi by Vi o io Si i, published in 15 ol-
umes and o e 20,000 pages be ween 1644 and 1682, and co e ing Eu opean
his o y be ween 1640 and 1655. Only la e , in he eigh een h cen u y, did he
e m me cu io imply pe iodical (mon hly, biannual o annual) publica ion.
The e ms in use o he p o essional newsw i e and deale in in o ma ion
a ied om place o place on he I alian peninsula; be ween he six een h and
se en een h cen u ies a compile o handw i en newsle e s o gaze es was
known as a menan e in Rome, a epo is a o sc i o e di epo i in Venice,
and a no ella o in Genoa. No ellan e and no ellis a also occu , in he sense
bo h o he newsw i e and he mo e gene al meaning o a pe son in e es ed in
o enqui e a e news.
In he las decades o he six een h cen u y he use o he wo d gazze ie e
(gaze ee ) o gazze an e began o be eco ded almos sys ema ically, and
wi h de oga o y conno a ions. The ea lies a emp a de ini ion is ha o John
10 Ma io In elise, ‘The Wa , he News and he Cu ious: Mili a y Gaze es in I aly’, in The
Poli ics o In o ma ion in Ea ly Mode n Eu ope, ed. B endan Dooley and Sab ina Ba on
(London: Rou ledge, 2001), pp. 216–36.
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Flo io, acco ding o whom he gazze ie e was “an in elligence o such as ha e
daily occu ences”. The S udio di epo i (o ice o epo s) was he wo kplace
o he epo is a un il he end o he eigh een h cen u y; hose in Venice we e
o en loca ed in he wo kshops o sc ibal copyis s.
The e m gio nalis a (jou nalis ) appea ed a he end o he se en een h
cen u y o indica e exclusi ely he w i e o he edi o o a lea ned jou nal—
again de i ed om he Pa isian Jou nal des Sça ans. The wo d e ained his
meaning un il he end o he ollowing cen u y, du ing which he clea dis inc-
ion pe sis ed be ween he jou nalis —a lea ned and wo hy w i e —and he
gaze ee —a no e y eliable w i e o news.
Ge many
In Ge man, he key wo d in news and media e minology is Zei ung. The o igi-
nal e m had a meaning similia o ‘news’. Zei ung de i es om he Middle Low
Ge man wo d Tidunge, which mean some kind o e en , inciden o happen-
ing. The Low Ge man oo s o he wo d Zei ung a e e iden in he English
idings. The wo d begins o be epo ed om he egion a ound Cologne abou
he beginning o he ou een h cen u y and was used o mean a message o an
o al epo o an e en . In he la e i een h and six een h cen u ies he wo d
was used o desc ibe a single piece o news (compa e his wi h he seconda y
use o a iso in I alian).
The e m Zei ung, in he sense o a p in ed newsle e , was used o he i s
ime in 1502. I was also used o indica e handw i en newsle e s analogous o
I alian a isi. In he la e i een h and he ea ly six een h cen u y he so-called
Newe Zey ungen de eloped in he Ge man-speaking coun ies. The i s
example o a p in ed wo k answe ing his desc ip ion was p oduced in
Augsbu g in 1482, hough i was no published unde he name o Zei ung. The
Newe Zey ungen we e o he mos pa non-se ial and non-pe iodical p in ed
wo ks epo ing single e en s such as ba les, wonde s, o epo s o newly dis-
co e ed lands. They usually had an elabo a e i le, which ga e a summa y o
he con en s, wi h a woodcu illus a ion below. They could ake he o m o
single shee p in s o b oadshee s, o pamphle s o wen y o mo e pages.
Unlike a isi and handw i en Zei ungen, he Newe Zey ungen mainly ocused
on epo ing he sensa ional, since he p in e s who p oduced hem had an eye
o sho - e m inancial gain.
In he ea ly days o p in ed news, ano he commonly used e m was
Rela ion. In Middle High Ge man, he wo d o iginally mean “ o epo on
he ul illing o an o de ” (gi en by some au ho i y), o “eyewi ness epo ”.
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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I de i es om he La in ela io, meaning “a b inging back, h owing back” and
(seconda ily) “a epo ”.11 In 1583 Michael on Ay zing published his Rela io his-
o ica a he F ank u book ai . In doing so, he de eloped a new media gen e,
he so-called Mess ela ion. These we e usually published wice a yea a he
la ge ade ai s (Messe) in F ank u and Leipzig and epo ed on he poli ical,
socie al and mili a y e en s o he pas ew mon hs. The Mess ela ionen, o igi-
nally in ended as a kind o his o iog aphical collec ion, we e pe haps he i s
p in ed pe iodicals. They a e o en seen as he p edecesso s o pe iodical jou -
nals.12 To demons a e hei pe iodical cha ac e , he Rela ionen o en bo e he
su ix con inua io.
Handw i en newsle e s, such as he Fugge zei ungen, also called hem-
sel es Zei ungen. Among he impo an di e ences be ween hese and he
p in ed Newe Zey ungen we e an incipien pe iodici y, and he inclusion o
epo s on di e se opics in a single newsle e . They we e he p oduc o a
cul u al ans e om he I alian a isi and dispacci in he six een h cen u y
and supplied mo e o less con inuous co e age o e en s in he majo Eu opean
cen es.13
The ea lies p in ed newspape s (also called Zei ungen), which i s
appea ed in he Ge man e i o ies in he i s decade o he se en een h cen-
u y, had much mo e in common wi h he manusc ip newsle e adi ion
han wi h he Newe Zey ungen ha had al eady been in p in o o e a hun-
d ed yea s.14 Along wi h Zei ung he o eign e ms A isi and Rela ion
emained in common use in Ge many un il he second hal o he se en een h
cen u y. The i s p in ed weekly newspape , ounded by Johann Ca olus 1605
in S asbou g, was i led Rela ion alle Fü nemmen und gedenckwü digen
His o ien, no using he wo d Zei ungen a all. The ungibili y o he wo ds
Zei ung, A iso and Rela ion a e plainly appa en in he i le o he second
p in ed newspape , p in ed in Wol enbü el in 1609 and called A isa, Rela ion
ode Zei ung, Was sich begeben und zuge agen ha . Du ing he se en een h
cen u y, he wo d Zei ung inc easingly displaced he o he e ms used o
11 Wol gang P ei e , e al., E ymologisches Wö e buch des Deu schen (Be lin: Deu sche
Taschenbuch Ve lag, 1989), p. 1408.
12 Ul ich Rosseaux, ‘Die En s ehung de Meß ela ionen. Zu En wicklung eines üh-
neuzei lichen Nach ich enmediums aus de Zei geschich ssch eibung des 16. Jah hunde s’,
His o isches Jah buch, 124 (2004), S. 97–123.
13 Co nel Zwie lein, ‘Fugge zei ungen als E gebnis on i alienisch-deu schem Kul u ans e
1552–1570’, Quellen und Fo schungen aus i alienischen A chi en und Biblio heken, 90 (2010),
pp. 169–224.
14 Johannes Webe , ‘S aßbu g 1605. Die Gebu de Zei ung’, Jah buch ü Kommunika ion-
sgeschich e, 7 (2005), S. 3–27.
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newspape s, so ha he i s Ge man dic iona ies and lexicons in he middle o
he eigh een h cen u y only eco d Zei ung.15 The i les o ea ly newspape s
also e e ed o hei cha ac e is ics as pe iodicals, hei mode o ansmission,
and hei licensing by he au ho i ies: see, o ins ance, he e ol ing names o
he F ank u e Pos zei ung ( ounded in 1615), which was called O den liche
Wochen liche Pos zei ungen in 1626 and enamed Kayse liche Reichs-
Pos zei ungen in 1706, indica ing weekly pe iodici y, he means by which he
news was ansmi ed, and he impe ial au ho isa ion.
Du ing he se en een h cen u y many o he eme ging Ge man newspape s
we e named Zei ungen, wi h he esul ha he meaning o he wo d unde -
wen a change. I was no longe used only o he epo ed message o he sin-
gle piece o news i sel , bu came o s and me onymically o he whole
de eloping medium o p in ed newspape s. In addi ion i was inc easingly
used in i s singula o m Zei ung, which no longe necessa ily mean a single
piece o news bu a single newspape . Zei ung kep i s double meaning un il
he eigh een h cen u y. Ge man dic iona ies om he la e eigh een h cen u y
con inued o e e o Zei ung in he sense o ‘message’ o ‘ epo ’, bu also no ed
ha his usage was becoming obsole e. None heless i emained in use un il
he la e eigh een h cen u y among au ho s including Schille , Goe he and
Lessing, hough usually in a consciously a chaic ashion.
In Ge man, he wo d Jou nal desc ibes a egula ly published pe iodical and,
in con adis inc ion o i s usual meaning in F ench, i is no commonly used o
daily newspape s. The i s jou nals appea ed du ing he second hal o he se -
en een h cen u y and we e called Jou nal, Magazin, Mona ssch i (mon hly)
o Sammlungen (collec ions). The cu en Ge man wo d o jou nal, Zei sch i ,
was no used un il 1751. Du ing he se en een h cen u y, he jou nals had a wide
a ie y o i les, including Mona sgesp äche (mon hly discussions / con e sa ions),
Mona ss ücke (mon hly pieces), Ac a, o Anme kungen (anno a ions).16
The wo d Gaze e was bo owed om he I alian wo d gazze a ia he
F ench gaze e, and was used o pe iodical newspape s, mainly in Lowe
15 E.g. Johann Hein ich Zedle s, Uni e sallexikon (1732–54) and Johann Ch isoph Adelungs
dic iona y G amma isch-k i isches Wö e buch de Hochdeu schen Munda (1774–86).
16 Fi s Ge man scien i ic jou nal: Ac a E udi o um (Leipzig 1682); i s c i ical li e a u e
jou nal: Mona sgesp äche (long i le: Sche z- und e ns ha e , e nün ige und ein-
äl ige Gedancken übe alle hand lus ige und nü zliche Büche und F agen e s e Mona h
ode Janua ius, in einem Gesp äch on de Gesellscha de Müßigen; F ank u and Leipzig
1688); i s medical jou nals: Mona liche neu e ö ne e Anme ckungen übe alle Theile de
A zney-Kuns (Hambu g, 1679) and Collec anea medico-physica ode Holländisch Jah -
Regis e , sonde bah e Anme ckungen, die sowol in de A zney-Kuns als Wissenscha de
Na u in gan z Eu opa o ge allen (1680–82; Leipzig 1690).
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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mon hs, o e en yea s, in e ec a wo k o con empo a y his o y a he han a
ehicle o communica ing new in o ma ion. This began wi h Me cu ius
Gallobelgicus o 1592, a six-mon hly o e iew, p ima ily o news om F ance
and he Low Coun ies, p oduced in Cologne by a Ca holic exile om he
Ne he lands.
Ad iaan an Mee beeck ga e his o e iew o i e yea s o wo ld a ai s
(1620–25) he i le Nede -lan schen Me cu ius o Wae ach ich e hael ande
geschiedenissen an Nede land , ende oock an Duy schland , Spaengien, I alien,
V anck ijck ende Tu ckijen (Ne he landish Me cu y o T ue ela ion o he his o-
ies o he Ne he lands, and also o Ge many, Spain, I aly, F ance and Tu key;
B ussels, 1625). In he second hal o he se en een h cen u y he e we e a
qua e ly Eu opische me cu ius and an annual Me cu e hollandois published in
Ams e dam, wi h ano he annual Hollandsche Me cu ius in Haa lem.35 This
gene al use o he e m ‘me cu y’ o mon hly, qua e ly, six-mon hly o his o i-
cal wo ks did no p e en i also appea ing as he i le o a newspape : he
Wekelyksche Me cu ius ha appea ed in The Hague in he la e 1650s.
Placca : when an o icial o public documen was ep in ed as an i em o
news, he i le would o en be he wo d app op ia e o a documen o ha ype,
e.g. Sen en ie (sen ence), Reques e P esen ée au Roy ( eques ), Le es
Pa en es (le e s pa en ), A icles acco dez (a icles o su ende ), Mani es
(mani es o), Edic , o Placca . Unlike usage in F ance, in he Low Coun ies a
placcae o placca , in bo h F ench and Du ch, was an edic o p oclama ion,
a ixed o chu ch doo s o pos ed up in o he equen ed places, as o example
he Placca du Roy Nos e Si e, Touchan le li e de l’E esque Co nille Jansenius
& au es oeu es & li es speci iez en la Bulle de nos e S Pe e le Pape U bain
iii. du 8. de Ma s 1642 (B ussels, 1651).
O he e ms used o dec ees we e dec e , p oclama ion o p oclama ie,
and o donnance o o donan ie, and dec ees o o he go e nmen s could also
be ep in ed, o ansla ed, i hey we e newswo hy in hemsel es. So when
James i and i dec eed ha goods seized om subjec s o he King o Spain
a e he da e o his succession we e o be es i u ed o hei o me owne s,
his was “ ai h ully ansla ed om he English in o ou Du ch speech” and
p in ed in An we p, “a e he copy p in ed in London by Robe Ba ke ”
unde he i le P oclama ie, O e o donan ie an de Coninlijcke Majes ey an
Engelan , wae in e clae we da de Goede en die genomen zijn ande
Onde sa en des Conincx an Spaengien sede den 24. Ap ilis les leden: sullen
we den ge es i uee aende eygenae s (An we p, 1603). This was no in a iably
he case. The o icial accoun o he ebellion o he Ea l o Essex, p in ed in
35 See Ch. 26, below.
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London as a p oclama ion, was ep in ed in B ussels as a “ ue ela ion”:
Wa ach ich Ve hael an gene da e ghebeu is in Ingelan binnen Londen
(B ussels, 1601).
Pasquil and libel: scu ilous o de ama o y publica ion, whe he p in ed o
sc ibal, migh be known as a ameus libel o libel ameus (libelle ameux o
libelle di ama oi e in F ench), o as a pasquil o pasquille (in F ench some-
imes pasquin). The quali ica ion ‘ amous’ he e means “ ouching a pe son’s
good name” (i.e. de ama o y), a he han signi ying ha he libel i sel had
no o ie y. A law he unquali ied noun ‘libel’ mean simply a w i en plain o
claim, so de ama o y libels we e explici ly quali ied as such.36 The s anda d
Du ch wo k on c iminal law, Joos de Damhoude e’s P ac ycke ende handbouck
in c iminele zaeken, de o ed a chap e o di ama ie by boucxkins (de ama ion
by bookle s)—sandwiched be ween chap e s on ampe ing wi h me chan s’
ledge s and on ampe ing wi h dice—which used he ph ase “ ameuse
libellen”.37 A la e chap e speci ied ha inju ien by ghesc i e (“inju y by w i -
ing”) could include “ghedich en, liedekins, boucxkins, e e einen, baladen,
commedien, openbae e spelen” (“ e ses, songs, bookle s, e ains, ballads,
comedies, public plays”) ha de ac ed om somebody’s name and ame.38
Thus Desca es’s Epis ola ad Dine um and Epis ola ad Voe ium, wo dia ibes
agains he U ech p o esso Gijsbe Voe ius, we e desc ibed by he U ech
au ho i ies as “di ama oi e ghesch i en o ameuse libellen” (“de ama o y
w i ings o amous libels”).39
A numbe o ph ases used in newspape s p o ide epo s o news ci cula ed
by wo d o mou h. These include “Men zey hie da de Tu cken an Ba ba ijen
noch ij F anssche schepen an Rowanen comende ghenomen hee ” (“I is
said he e ha he Tu ks o Ba ba y ha e aken ano he i e F ench ships com-
ing om Rouen”); “Men e s ae o wil zegghen, da zijne Keyse lijcke
Majes ey ghenadelijck soude e clae hebben, da hy gheen oo de onde -
soeck o Execu ie in Coninck ijck Bemen mee en sal doen doen” (“I is
unde s ood o said, ha his Impe ial Majes y would ha e g aciously decla ed
ha he will ha e no u he in es iga ion o execu ion ca ied ou in he
Kingdom o Bohemia”); “De sp ake gae hie oo seke als da onse Coninginne
36 Joos de Damhoude e, P ac ijcke in ci ile saken (The Hague, 1626), cap. 99. Fi s published
as P axis e um ci ilium (An we p, 1566).
37 Damhoude e, P ac ycke ende handbouck in c iminele zaeken (Leu en, 1555), cap. 125.
38 Damhoude e, P ac ycke ende handbouck in c iminele zaeken, cap. 138.
39 In he pamphle accoun Aenge angen P ocedue en o W ech egens Rena us des Ca es
(U ech , [1643 o 1644]). On his con o e sy, see Theo Ve beek, ed., René Desca es e
Ma in Schoock: La Que elle d’U ech (Pa is: Imp essions nou elles, 1988).
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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die God bewa e swange is” (“The speech goes he e o ce ain ha ou Queen
whom God p ese e is p egnan ”).40
Hoo ’s use o ‘loopmae en’ ( unning epo s) was ouched on abo e. The
i s elemen , ‘loop’, is ‘ un’; he second, mae e, was in Middle Du ch he main
wo d o a piece o news. I is ound in he i le o he sa i ical Gaze e an
Nieuwe-Ma en (Gaze e o New Repo s) p in ed in 1618. In Middle Du ch use
‘ma e’ migh be ansla ed as ‘ enown’, ‘ epu e’, o ‘ epo ’, bu owa ds he end
o he se en een h cen u y i los s a us o ‘ iding’, e en ually coming o mean
some hing indis inguishable om ‘ umou ’.41 As la e as 1667 he playw igh
Joos an den Vondel could use i simply o mean ‘news’ o ‘ epo ’,42 and i may
e ain his neu al meaning in a sa i ical p ognos ica ion o he yea 1718 o
he e ec ha ‘me cu ialis s’ ( hose keen o know he news) will eage ly look
o wa d o he pos s ha o en b ing news ha hey do no like (“mae en … die
hun nie aen en s aen”).43
F ance
Poli ical in o ma ion ci cula ing in he public sphe e du ing he six een h cen-
u y was b oadly de ined: wi ness he a ie y o i s o ms and gen es, and he
signi ican o e lap be ween w i en o ms and he sphe e o o al ansmission.
The egis es-Jou naux ( egis e -jou nals) published by he Ushe o he
Pa lemen o Pa is, Pie e de l’Es oile (1546–1611), bea ema kable wi ness o
his lexical a ie y, which is mo e p ecisely spelled ou in he dic iona ies o
Es ienne (1549), Nico (1606), Co g a e (1611), Richele (1680), Fu e iè e (1690),
Gilles Ménage (1694), he Académie F ançaise (1694), and o he s.44
40 News om Se ille, 10 Janua y, in Nieuwe Tijdinghen, 21 (25 Feb ua y 1623). News om
P ague, 4 Ap il, in Nieuwe Tijdinghen, 51 (29 Ap il 1623). News om Mad id, July, in Nieuwe
Tijdinghen, 12 (25 Augus 1623).
41 Fo he ea lie usage: Eelco Ve wijs and Jacob Ve dam, Middelnede landsch Woo denboek,
ol. 4 (The Hague: Ma inus Nijho , 1899), s. . Ma e, ci ing, e.g., “Die coninghinne an
Saba quam o e Salomoen, wan si e nam an si e g o e wijshei ma e” (“The Queen o
Sheba came o Solomon, o she had hea d epo o his g ea wisdom”).
42 “Genadighs e me ou, b ogh ieman quaede mae en?” in Zungchin, o Onde gang de
Sineesche Hee schappye, ac 4.
43 Nieuwen Gen schen Almanach oo he jae ons hee e Jesu Ch is i M.DCC.XVIII (Ghen ,
[1717]), s. . Junius (un olia ed).
44 Robe Es ienne, Dic ionnai e ançois-la in, au emen dic les mo s ançois, a ec les
maniè es d’use d’iceulx, ou nez en la in (Pa is, 1549); Aima de Ranconne , Th eso de la
langue ancoyse, an ancienne que mode ne (Pa is, 1606); Co g a e, Dic iona ie o he
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The six een h cen u y was p edominan ly cha ac e ised by occasional, as
opposed o pe iodical news, which ne e heless achie ed conside able impac
in he public sphe e hanks o he medium o p in ( ega ded by some as a
cu iosi y o a collec o ’s i em). News and pamphle s in e mingled, bo owing
om di e en li e a y gen es and o ms acco ding o he ype o in o ma ion
hey con ained. The wo e ms ci ed below, o ins ance, imply he clea iden-
i ica ion o au ho o ecipien :
• hedepesche (despa ch) deno es u gency, sugges ing ha he con en s a e
impo an and conce n a ai s o s a e, and in pa icula he e m implies
exp ess deli e y, by means o an ex ao dina y cou ie .
• In he case o  an ad is, he in o ma ion akes he o m o a wa ning/
no i ica ion o an ins uc ion, pa icula ly in he poli ical o mili a y sphe e.
I is a piece o news which equi es i s ecipien o ake some so o ac ion.
Pamphle s made use o ex emely di e se li e a y o ms:
• Pasquils (lampoons), an impo om I aly, we e ex emely widesp ead du -
ing he wa s o eligion, and usually di ec ed agains a well-known indi id-
ual, whose conduc was denounced in he o m o aille y.
• Themo e anklyinsul ingplacca s (no di ec English ansla ion) a e be e
unde s ood as a mode and o m o publica ion han a ype o con en . Bu he
commones use o he e m, om he six een h o he end o he se en een h
cen u y, e e s o a ull shee o pape (o b oadside) pos ed on walls o doo s,
o en a nigh , a acking o c i icising he go e nmen o indi iduals.
• Libelles mos commonly occu s in colloca ion wi h dé ama oi e (de ama-
o y); de ama o y libels consis ed o insul s, ep oaches o accusa ions, and
cons i u e he mos iolen o m o e bal a ack agains a pe son’s honou
o epu a ion.
• When heaccusa ion’scon en ispa icula lyb ie ,Pie edel’Es oile e e s
o ‘ il es’ qui cou en ( unning i les).
• Memoi es, by con as , end o be longe , and o ollow closely upon he
dea h o a well-known igu e; he e m e e s no o au obiog aphical w i ing
F ench and English Tongues; Pie e Richele , Dic ionnai e ançois, con enan les mo s e les
choses, plusieu s nou elles ema ques su la langue ançoise (Gene a, 1680); An oine
Fu e iè e, Dic ionai e uni e sel, con enan géné alemen ous les mo s ançois an ieux
que mode nes e les e mes de ou es les sciences e des a s (La Haye, 1690); Gilles Ménage,
Dic ionnai e é ymologique, ou O igines de la langue ançoise, pa M. Ménage. Nou elle édi-
ion (Pa is, 1694); Le Dic ionnai e de l’Académie F ançoise (Pa is, 1694).
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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bu o ex s made public in o de o a ack o o indica e he epu a ion o
he deceased. Fo ms ela ed o memoi es include épi aphes (sho poems
ending wi h an ingenious u n/epig am), ombeaux ( une al poems), as
well as e s ( e ses) o all kinds; sonne s, poulle s (lo e le e s), qua ains,
and éloges (panegy ics) in honou o he deceased. Pos ed up in he s ee s,
hey we e poli ically consequen ial and (po en ially) p oblema ic, a public
e lec ion o he ensions, i al ies and in e nal con lic s o socie y.
• Finally, he ewe ealso aude illes: hese consis ed o news pu in o song,
sa i ical na a i es o amusing ad en u es sung on he Pon -Neu and in he
s ee s, se o simple unes.
This b ie su ey demons a es he conside able o e lap be ween o al and
w i en o ms. In i s ma e ial o ms, news was mos ly pu up in places o poli i-
cal signi icance such as he Hô el de Ville (ci y hall), Pa liamen , o on he walls
o doo s o he houses o his o ha p ominen pe son. I was also c ied ab oad
in Pa isian s ee s and a c oss oads be o e sp eading h ough he s ee s. The
ex e y quickly b eaks he bonds o i s o iginal medium and is ansla ed in o
he sphe e o o ali y. (The e b commonly used o he o al elling o e elling
o news, con e , has o e ones o an as ical as well as ac ual na a ion; news
becomes subjec o all manne o ans o ma ions and a es ies.) The
ansi ion o he o al o m deno es a decline owa ds less digni ied gen es,
app op ia e o he masses; a change e lec ed in he e minology, as news akes
he o m o médisances (missayings), alse o insul ing language used owa ds
a pe son, o quolibe s (bad puns, o double en end es, conside ed alse, i ial,
and w e ched).
Mo emen is essen ial o he desc ip ion o news. When add essed o a
pa icula ecipien , news ien (comes) o a i e (a i es) by no mal means,
i.e. h ough he no mal in as uc u es o communica ion. When add essed
o he undi e en ia ed audience o he s ee s, howe e , i is a iously said o
be publiée à son de ompe ( umpe ed), a ichée (pos ed up), placa dée
(placa ded) in ce ain pa s o own, o semée (sown), di ulguée pa ou
(sp ead e e ywhe e), je ée ( h own abou ) hen amassée (ga he ed up),
cou an pa ou ( unning e e ywhe e) h ough a own which is ab eu ée
wi h i (awash). I ca ies wi h i he possibili y o diso de ; i consis s o
g ands o mau ais b ui s (g ea o e il noises), which migh be delibe a ely
h ea ening and in dange o ipping o e in o sedi ion, o ‘mu mu s’, which
sugges he as ye mu led and a ied complain s o he disa ec ed. The mu -
mu ings o he people cons i u e an ea ly wa ning o possible sedi ion which
p udence equi es be nipped in he bud. Con ol o he news was a ma e o
public o de .
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This b ie o e iew o he e minology in use in he six een h cen u y dem-
ons a es ha he news, which was a once agile, dubious, and h ea ening,
had indispu able sub e si e po en ial; he ecep ion o news in he public
sphe e shows i o be an excellen indica o o ensions unning h ough
socie y.
The ad en o pe iodici y in he se en een h cen u y, closely linked o he
imp o emen o oads and he pos al ne wo k, can be aced in he ocabula y
used by Théoph as e Renaudo , ounde o he Gaze e. In 1611, Co g a e
epo ed he o igin o ‘Gaze e’ as a wo d o a small-denomina ion Vene ian
coin, which ga e i s name o he sho bulle ins o news Venice pu ou each
mon h and sen h oughou Ch is endom.45 The e m is a om la e ing; in
he se en een h cen u y, i also deno es he causeuse (cha e box), he woman
who epo s all he goings-on o he neighbou hood ou side i —i sel a kind o
ansg ession agains sec ecy, and one ela ed o he amilia no ion ha on
poli ical subjec s, pa le sû (speaking o ) is as much o bidden as pa le
con e (speaking agains ).
Acco ding o Fu e iè e, by he end o he se en een h cen u y i was
mainly he common people who showed he mos a id in e es in he news
pu eyed by he Gaze e (whe eas he usual eade ship in i s ea ly yea s con-
sis ed o u ban eli es). News is he o sp ing o he pos and he p in ing
p ess; ca ied by cou ie s (messenge s who wo ked a pa icula oad and
ca ied se e al packe s o le e s in a sa chel slung o e hei ho se’s c uppe )
in le e s and co espondences (bo h e ms implying an exchange, a ecip-
ocal ela ionship).
The gaze es es ablish an o de ing p inciple, a geog aphical and ch onologi-
cal classi ica ion o news, as well as hie a chies: Renaudo ’s Gaze e aims o
become “ he newspape o kings and po en a es o he Ea h”; and equen ly
he au ho i ies “make [such-and-such] known”, o “o de ha [such-and-such]
be published”. News ollows he hie a chies o a holis ic socie y and ickles
down o he lowe eaches o he popula ion: his was enough o gi e he
Gaze e he epu a ion o an o icial publica ion (al hough his accoun o i
becomes conside ably mo e p oblema ic upon close analysis).46
Du ing he se en een h cen u y, many specialis news publica ions came in o
being, wi h new o mal ea u es and a a ie y o names o sui hei con en s,
geog aphical o igin, equency o publica ion, li e a y gen e, s yle, and so on:47
45 See, n. 8, abo e; and Ch. 10, below.
46 Gaze e (Pa is, 1631), p. 4; S éphane Ha emaye , L’in o ma ion dans la F ance du XVIIe siè-
cle. La Gaze e de Renaudo de 1647 à 1661 (Pa is: Hono é Champion, 2002).
47 Jean Sga d, ed., Dic ionnai e des Jou naux (1600–1789), 2 ols. (Pa is: Uni e si as, 1991).
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• i s among hesea e heme cu es, which Fu e iè e p esen s as ‘books’, he
pe iodici y o which may be annual (as in he case o he Me cu e F ançois)
o mon hly ( he Me cu e Galan ). In bo h cases, hei unc ion is “ o
announce some hing new”.
• Cou ie s (see abo e) and ela ions appea mo e equen ly. (Rela ions a e
na a i es o ad en u es, ba les, o e en s: hese accoun s a e expec ed o
be ai h ul and exac .)
• In hep o incesa iches (pos e s) appea , de i ed om he placa ds used o
pu up p oclama ions in public spaces; hey a e u ili a ian in cha ac e and
hei o malisa ion in he eigh een h cen u y made hem he o e unne o
he p o incial p ess. They ga e signi ican space o classi ied ad e isemen s.
• Thejou nal. E ymologically speaking his should be a daily epo on e en s,
bu wi hin he con ex o he Ancien Régime’s sys em o in o ma ion indi-
ca es li e a y o na u al-philosophical con en (poli ical con en was
ese ed o he me cu ies and gaze es).
The pe iodical’s i le would be quali ied by an adjec i e speci ying i s hema ic
o geog aphical emi , o e en i s e hos: as o ins ance géné al, ai ( ue),
idèle ( ai h ul), uni e sel, celes e, désin é essé (impa ial), sou e ain (unde -
g ound), his o ique, sa an (expe ), poli ique, and so o h. The i le would
also come o indica e pe iodici y: “o dinai e”, de i ed om “ he cou ie who
ides pos and ca ies le e s” (Richele , 1680), while “ex ao dinai e” deno ed
no so much an occasional publica ion as “an exp ess cou ie , cha ged wi h
some u gen business” (Fu e iè e, 1690). The Gaze e published one ex ao di-
na y issue pe week, on a e age, in he middle o he se en een h cen u y.
A u he p oo o he success o he pe iodical p ess was he de elopmen , espe-
cially om he middle o he se en een h cen u y onwa ds, o sa i ical o ms
which aimed o amuse mo e han o in o m; in hese ins ances he pe iodical
migh be desc ibed as babilla d (babbling), bu lesque, ex a agan , poé ique,
gallan , hé oï-comique (mock-he oic), plaisan (jes ing), and so o h.
F om he lack o any p o essional designa ion o ea ly mode n news-
w i e s, who o he mos pa w o e anonymously, and some imes unde mul-
iple iden i ies, we may conclude ha i was no an ac i i y o boas o , a leas
un il he end o he eigh een h cen u y, by which ime i was possible o news-
w i e s o claim o be illumina ing he public.48 In he mean ime, gaze ie and
48 S éphane Ha emaye , ‘Un elais de l’inno a ion en p o ince: le Jou nal de No mandie de
Jean-Bap is e Milcen à la eille de la Ré olu ion’, in Un siècle de jou nalisme cul u el en
No mandie e dans d’au es p o inces: 1785–1885, ed. Ca iona Se h and E ic Wau e s
(Mon -Sain -Aignan: Publica ions des uni e si és de Rouen e du Ha e, 2011), pp. 25–40.
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nou ellis e we e un la e ing e ms, conside ed la gely dis epu able h ough
mos o he Ancien Régime, as we migh expec om a gen e long held in con-
emp by men o le e s, and li le sampled by his o ians igh down o he
p esen .
Spain
In Spain, be ween he i een h and he eigh een h cen u ies, he mos com-
mon name o cheap p in ed i ems con aining news was elación, which li e -
ally mean an accoun o na a ion; a e m close in meaning o he English
“news pamphle ”. Howe e , his asse ion mus be quali ied in se e al ways:
• Relación, a de i a ion om ela a ( he ac o elling), was used o iden i y
he in o ma i e pu pose o he pamphle .49 Wi h his name, eade s could
easily dis inguish hem om o he p in ed p oduc s in he ma ke , such as
o aciones (speeches) o coplas (ballads). Bu elaciones did no necessa ily
in ol e ac ual news: a case in poin we e he elaciones abou Ca holic
sain s, gi ing accoun s o hei li es om he momen o hei bi h o hei
inal days, o he de ailed na a i es o a comple e es i i y a Cou , aking
up o some hund ed pages. This is he eason why we can ind he e oge-
neous p in ed p oduc s en i led elación when sea ching in Spanish ea ly
mode n ca alogues.
• No e enhal o  heSpanishnewspamphle shadaheade con aining he
wo d elación. Ins ead, we ind nue as, an old wo d o he mode n “no i-
cia”, used in he same sense as he English “news”; co eo, simila o he
English “cou an ” o “cu en ”; and many o he wo ds used on i le pages o
help eade s ecognise hem as in o ma i e pape s. Mo eo e , hund eds o
news pamphle s had i les ha simply summa ised he e en s desc ibed.
The ypog aphy was su icien o make hei clien s dis inguish hem om
o he kinds o p in ed pamphle s.
• Spanishschola sspeako  elaciones de sucesos, ha is, “pamphle s abou
e en s”, bu his is a ecen coinage and he ac ual pamphle s ha dly e e
49 In he Middle Ages a ‘ elación’ was an accoun o impo an e en s sen o he mona ch,
and i s he o ical pa e n con ibu ed o he bi h o he in o ma i e ea ly mode n gen e.
Ped o Cá ed a Ga cía, ‘En los o ígenes de las epís olas de elación’, in Las « elaciones de
sucesos» en España (1500–1750), ed. Ma ia C uz Ga cía de En e ía, Augus in Redondo,
Hen y E inghausen and Víc o In an es (Pa is, Alcalá de Hena es: Publica ions de la
So bonne, 1996), pp. 33–64.
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make use o his e m.50 Again, his is a label used b oadly, some imes o
iden i y di e en kinds o p in ed wo ks. Schola ly misunde s andings and
deba es a e common on his e minological issue.51
• TheSpanish e misde i ed omLa in,andde i a ionso  hesamewo d
a e mos ly ound in I alian, F ench, Po uguese and Ge man news ma ke as
we ha e al eady seen. This no doub speaks o he s ong connec ion
be ween Medi e anean and Ge man jou nalism unde he Habsbu g ule.
Wi h hese ca ea s, we none heless ind ha h oughou he ea ly mode n
pe iod he wo d elación mos commonly e e s o a b ie p in ed p oduc —
usually a single-shee pamphle , consis ing o ou pages— ecoun ing a piece
o news a leng h. This is usually a news i em o an in e na ional o poli ical
cha ac e , bu i can also be na ional and local news, and i can be p esen ed in
e se o p ose.
I elación is he name o he edi o ial p oduc , a iso (one in Spanish) is
he name o he single in o ma i e uni — he “news i em” in English, o no icia
in con empo a y Spanish. We al eady know he I alian o igin o he wo d:
a iso, plu al a isi.52 Bu , as hey we e sho in leng h, news pamphle s usu-
ally collec ed se e al a isos, so we commonly ind a isos—plu al—in he
i les. The i s appea ance o he e m a isos in he i le o an exis ing Spanish
news pamphle is Ca a enida de Pa ia, de di e sos y a ios a isos de
Cons an inopla de la mue e de Selimo y dela c eacion y co onacion de A mo ad
empe ado o omanno de los u chos. Con algunos a isos dela en e medad que
u o, y en siendo cu ado los p esen es que mando en ia al san issimo sepulch o
de nues o seño Jesu Ch is o en Hie usalem. Con o as nueuas de la gue a en e
el y el Sophi y de la a mada suya, en Cons an inopla a los 26 de ab il de 1575
(Ba celona, 1575). Some yea s la e he e m appea s a he s a o a i le, now
signi ying he in o ma i e gen e: A isos de la China y Japon del in del año de
1587, ecebidos en oc ub e de 88, sacados de las ca as de los pad es de la comp-
añia de Jesus que andan en aquellas pa es (Mad id, 1589). A i le which pe -
ec ly desc ibes he gen e as a ga he ing o he e ogeneous news i ems is A isos
50 The e m sucesos—meaning simply ‘e en s’ in mode n Spanish—ca ied posi i e o e -
ones in ea ly mode n Spanish, close o he English ‘success’. This way, he ag ‘ elaciones
de sucesos’ used in Spanish bibliog aphy, emphasises he poli ical o p opagandis ic
na u e unde lying hese p in ed newspape s.
51 Víc o In an es de Miguel, ‘¿Qué es una elación?: di agaciones a ias sob e una sola di a-
gación’, in Las « elaciones de sucesos» en España, ed. C uz Ga cía de En e ía e al.,
pp.203–16.
52 Jean-Pie e É ien e, ‘En e elación y ca a: los a isos’, in Las « elaciones de sucesos» en
España, ed. C uz Ga cía de En e ía e al., pp. 111–22.
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de di e sas pa es. En que se da elacion de muchas cosas acon ecidas en los
meses de junio has a el de sep iemb e del p esen e año de 1597 (Ba celona, 1597).
As can be no iced, a isos was a i s mos commonly used o e e o news
i ems om emo e lands, such as he O oman o he Chinese empi es; bu i
inally e ol ed o desc ibe a single piece o news ecei ed om any so o
sou ce, such as in he news pamphle A isos de Lond es de xix de ma ço de mil
y seiscien os y uno de la mue e del conde de Essex (Se illa, [1601?]).
The a isos a elled by pos and we e collec ed in o handw i en o p in ed
pape s o se e al i ems each. Fo ha eason, he mos common name in
Spanish o he esul ing p oduc is elación de a isos— ha is, a na a i e
piece which selec s and ela es a numbe o news i ems ecei ed be ween wo
da es. Fo example: Relacion de a isos de odo lo que ha sucedido en Roma,
Napoles, Venecia, Geno a, Sicilia, F ancia, Alemania, Ingla e a, Mal a y o as
pa es, desde seis de ene o des e año 1618 embiada desde la dicha ciudad de Roma
a es a de Se illa a un pe sonage g a e (Se illa, 1618).53
Bu all hese we e occasional news pamphle s; he i s appea ance o se ial
a isos in Spain, as a as we know, is he se ies published in Se ille by he
p in e Rod igo de Cab e a on he Ch is ian s uggles agains he Tu ks in
Hunga y, om 1595 o 1600. A leas hi y pamphle s ha e been ound belong-
ing o his se ial. Thus he s a o he Spanish news ma ke can be da ed as
a back as he la es decades o he six een h cen u y.
Howe e , he e was no in ea ly mode n Spanish news w i ing an exp ession
meaning “weekly news” o “wekelijcke ydinghen”. E en i news pamphle s
we e equen ly p oduced as se ies and we e iden i iable by he use o a ew
epea ed wo ds in he i les o all numbe s—such as ic o ia, e iega, amosa—
hey we e sold simply as elaciones, wi hou any ac ual e e ence o a egula
lapse o ime. This con i ms ha pe iodici y was a di icul achie emen o
Spanish p in e s.
The same non-sys ema ic usage cha ac e ised he e m gaze a o gace a ( he
la e being he mode n spelling). The wo d possibly de i ed om (see Ch. 10) a
Vene ian coin which came o be used ac oss much o Eu ope. The i s p in ed
p oduc s en i led gaze a appea ed in Spain a ound 1618— he yea in which he
ou b eak o he Thi y Yea s Wa as ly inc eased bo h he demand o and ci -
cula ion o in e na ional news ac oss Eu ope. We know o wo Spanish news pam-
phle s om his pe iod ha use he e m in hei i les: a single issue o a Gaze a
53 We can ela e his i le o hose appea ing in he i s Ge man gaze es, such as he amous
A isa Rela ion ode Zei ung. Was sich begeben nd zuge agen ha in Deu sch: und
Welschland Spannien Niede land Engelland F anck eich Unge n Os e eich Schweden
Polen unnd in allen P o in zen in Os : unnd Wes Jndien e c (Wol enbü el, 1609).
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p ecision, howe e , and he lexicon is one he edi o hough his eade s would
g asp, despi e he ac ha he, like his ellow edi o s, was engaged in he p o-
duc ion o popula p in cul u e. This usage may be speci ic o London in he
mid 1640s, o e en o a pa icula communi y. I does, howe e , un consis en ly
h ough he uses o hese wo ds in London-based p in in he 1640s, and he e-
o e has some claim o be a signi ican elemen in he meaning o hese wo ds.
Simila dis inc ions unde pin he wo ds me cu ies, me cu y-women, and
hawke s. While o en ea ed as nea -synonyms, o as dis inguished by gende ,
hey in ac ep esen di e en oles wi hin he book ade. Me cu ies and
hawke s we e i ine an s ee endo s ( hough me cu y could also mean a pub-
lica ion o a b inge o news; and a hawke migh sell o he i ems in addi ion o
news, such as pamphle s and ibbons and bu ons), whe eas me cu y-women,
om he ea ly 1640s, we e wholesale dis ibu o s who ca ied books om
p in e s. Bloun w i es in 1656:
Hawke s, A e ce ain decei ul ellows, ha go om place o place buying
and selling B ass, Pew e , and o he Me chandize, ha ough o be u e ed
in open Ma ke . The Appella ion seems o g ow om hei unce ain wan-
de ing, like hose ha wi h Hawks seek hei Game whe e hey can inde
i …. Those people which go up and down he s ee s c ying News-books,
and selling hem by e ail, a e also called Hawke s; and he women ha
sell hem by whole sale om he P ess, a e called Me cu y-women.65
The e m me cu y-women is gende ed, hough i does no designa e a emale
me cu y bu a dis inc ole—and his e eals some hing o he na u e o he
language o news. The news cul u e o ea ly-mode n England wen h ough
pe iods when i was as -changing and ungible, and we need o be awa e o
he ensions be ween slowly de eloping ins i u ions and economic s uc u es
ha shape he p ess, and a swi ly shi ing cul u e.
The co an os o he 1620s p e e ed such e ms as cou an , ela ion, weekly
news, a isoes and ad ices o desc ibe news publica ions. The ac i e ocabula y
apidly expanded in he 1640s o include in elligence, in elligence , in o ma ion,
jou nal, dia y, newsbook, idings, occu ences, ansac ions, p oceedings,
jou nals o igina ing in he Ne he lands. Les Compagnons de Me cu e: Jou nalisme e poli-
ique dans l’Eu ope de Louis xi (Pa is: Champ Vallon, 2015), pp. 13–14.
65 See Bloun , Glossog aphia, unde Hawke s. Also he anonymous The Downe all o
Tempo izing Poe s (London, 1641), hough he dis inc ion is no so clea ly a icula ed
he e. See also B.E. A New Dic iona y (London, 1699) unde ‘Me cu y-women’: “Whole-sale
News-selle s, who Re ail o he Hawke s”. Also oed: Me cu y, n., 4b, which is no clea .
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passages, a ai s, ela ions, in elligence, in o ma ions, me cu y and gaze e,
plus o he e ms ha we e o m-speci ic, such as le e o dialogue (a common
o m o occasional news pamphle ). A e he mona chy ook con ol o he
p ess in 1660 and es ablished a (some imes in e up ed o b oken) monopoly,
he e m gaze e also achie ed a de ac o nea -monopoly: i was he main e m
o a se ial news publica ion. A he same ime, howe e , a wo d like popula i y
( he delibe a e cou ing o public suppo ) mo ed om pu ely nega i e con-
no a ions o mo e neu al ones, and cou an and newsbook los he ain con-
descension hey had ca ied wi h hem. En ies in Coles’ 1676 dic iona y o
co an o, cou an , diu nal, gaze e and Me cu y all poin ed o “news-book” as
a de ini ion; while John Ke sey’s English Dic iona y o 1702 simply de ined
news-book as a “pape con aining public news”. In his espec a leas he nec-
essa y ocabula y had na owed and s abilised as news publica ions became
less suspec and mo e embedded in he cul u e.
Fo all o hei in e es in news cul u e, he English we e happy o modi y—
some imes qui e eely—an in e na ional news ocabula y, and con ibu ed
li le o hei own; hey inno a ed h ough abso bing he o eign. And some
wo ds seemed oo o eign: T aiano Boccalini’s De’ agguagli di Pa naso was a
popula book, i s ansla ed (as The New-Found Poli icke) in 1626, and
ep in ed o published in di e en ansla ions in 1648 (a agmen ), 1656, 1669,
1674, 1704, 1705, 1727 and beyond. The ho oughly cle e sa i e o English ci il-
wa news cul u e, The G ea Assises Holden in Pa nassus (London, 1645), app o-
p ia ed Boccalini’s o m. Bu he wo d agguaglio, which con empo a ies
ansla ed as ‘ad ices’ o ‘ad e isemen s’, was ha d on he English ongue, and
did no sp ead.
Po ugal
The mode n Po uguese wo d o news is no ícia, a wo d ha exis ed in he
ea ly mode n ocabula y and ha could be used o mean an accoun o a hi h-
e o unknown e en . Bu o he wo ds we e used o signi y news, including
no a, no idade and also—once again—a iso (wi h a single , as in Spanish).
Whe eas he conno a ions o no a and no idade we e qui e na owly associ-
a ed wi h he ac ion o ecei ing and sha ing news, no ícia and a iso had a
mo e complex seman ics. As in o he Romance languages, he noun a iso and
he e b a isa had a la e medie al meaning pe aining o he ci cula ion o
news (‘ e a iso’, o ake no ice) bu also possessed a a ie y o olde senses,
o ea lie medie al o igin, conce ned wi h gi ing and ecei ing ins uc ions,
opinions o wa nings o a mo al o poli ical na u e. The cons ella ion o
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meanings clus e ed a ound news can be looked up in Raphael Blu eau’s ea ly
eigh een h cen u y dic iona y, he mos comple e lexicog aphical compila ion
p in ed in ea ly mode n Po ugal.66
We can in e om Blu eau’s dic iona y en ies seman ic dis inc ions
be ween he senses o he wo d no ícia on he one hand and he wo ds
no a and no idade on he o he . The o me was clea ly associa ed wi h
conhecimen o (knowledge) o some hing ha em ao conhecimen o (comes
o knowledge), wi h no exclusi e no p ima y ela ion o ac uali y. Blu eau
enume a es di e en kinds o no ícias based on hei philosophical and in el-
lec ual na u e (news de i ed om science, om opinion, om ai h, na u al
o acqui ed news, e c.), ega dless o hei ela ion o he o m o hei ans-
mission. This same sense o no ícias as a o m o knowledge is p esen in
o he Po uguese au ho s p eceding Blu eau, like Je ónimo Ca doso o Ben o
Pe ei a.67 As o he wo ds no a and no idade, hey we e clea ly associa ed
wi h ecen e en s o wi h hings ha we e deemed mode n. Fo Blu eau,
no a desc ibes any e en ha is new and is he subjec o di ulga ion. Bu he
also es ablishes an associa ion be ween no as and umo es ( umou s),
de ined as news lacking an iden i ied au ho o o igin. This linking o news
and umou is one o he oo causes o he equen dismissal o news, news-
p in and agen s o news by schola s. Hence, he gaze a is desc ibed by
Blu eau as a papel (p in ed pape ) con aining news om ab oad— he e is no
e e ence o o implica ion o pe iodici y, which in his dic iona y emains
la gely an as onomical no ion. His dic iona y disquali ies Gaze as om se i-
ous conside a ion by a quo a ion om 1650 desc ibing hem as being o “li le
impo ance”, along wi h mani es os (poli ical p oclama ions). As in o he
Eu opean languages he ocabula y o desc ibe news w i e s ca ied pejo a-
i e conno a ions, e lec ing weak p o essional au onomy and au ho ial dig-
ni y. Though no men ioned in p in ed dic iona ies, he wo d gaze ei o was
used in le e s and newsle e s.
As sugges ed abo e, a econs i u ion o he sense o he lexicon o news
mus include no only he ela ions be ween he laye s o meaning eco ded in
he dic iona ies, bu also he uses o wo ds in a a ie y o sou ces, om co e-
spondences o legal ex s, which inco po a e new wo ds as e han dic iona -
ies do. The wo ds used o desc ibe news in o dina y p ac ice we e mo e a ious
han hose we ind in dic iona ies. And he ci cula ion o news was accompa-
nied by undamen al quali ie s, o which wo o he mos impo an , well in o
66 Raphael Blu eau, Vocabula io Po uguez e La ino, 8 ols. (Coimb a, 1712–28).
67 Dic iona ium La inolusi anicum (Coimb a, 1570). Thesou o da lingua Po uguesa (Lisbon,
1647).
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he la e eigh een h cen u y, d ew a dis inc ion be ween pa icula (pa icula
o p i a e) and público (public) news. This pa ly coincided wi h he dis inc-
ion be ween p in ed and handw i en news, bu no en i ely. Fo ins ance,
bo h o al and handw i en news made echo o public ozes que co em ( un-
ning oices), and boa os ( umou s).
Tu ning now o speci ic objec s in ci cula ion, i is necessa y o unde line
he ac ha in six een h and se en een h cen u y Po ugal no speci ic wo d
de ini i ely iden i ied a handw i en shee o news. The wo d a iso could be
used in he sense o a news i em—one o he senses o he I alian wo d
a iso—bu i did no become a synonym o a ci cula ing objec . Ca as de
no as was he mos used exp ession, desc ibing bo h he objec ( he le e )
and i s con en ( he news).
As o p in ed news, se en een h cen u y oyal dec ees es ablishing censo -
ship mechanism o p ohibi ing speci ic i les, o e one sys em o classi ica-
ion. A oyal le e om 1627 men ions elações de no as ge ais ( ela ions o
gene al news) and he need o submi hem o s ic p e-publica ion censo -
ship.68 I was no , howe e , un il se e al decades la e ha he wo d gaze a,
bo owed om he F ench, was used as he name o he i s mon hly pe iodi-
cal in Po uguese (1641–7).
Ano he ele an sou ce o iden i y he lexicon o news a e he di e en
pe i ions made by p in e s and bookselle s o he compe en highe oyal
cou , he Desemba go do Paço, in o de o ob ain p i ileges o p in and sell
pamphle s o news. In 1642 he p i ilege o p in no as do eino (news o he
kingdom, i.e. domes ic news) in a gaze e included also a e e ence o elações
(which Blu eau desc ibes as a “na a i e o some hing ha happened”) ans-
la ed om F ench.69
The name elação was gene ally gi en o non-pe iodical, ansla ed, p in ed
pamphle s du ing he se en een h cen u y; and hese could appea in se ial
o m, hough no s ic ly pe iodicals. The wo d gaze a was also used o signi y
cu en news coming om ab oad. I can be ound in poems and sa i ical pa o-
dies o news, bo h handw i en and p in ed, poin ing o he de elopmen o a
communi y o eade s o o eign gaze es e en hough he e was no Po uguese
coun e pa be o e 1715.
68 Royal le e , 26 Jan. 1627, in José Jus ino And ade e Sil a, ed., Collecção Ch onologica da
Legislação Po ugueza (Lisbon, 1855). <www.iuslusi aniae. csh.unl.p / e li o.php?id
_pa e=96&id_ob a=63&pagina=964> [3/3/16].
69 P i ilege o João F anco Ba e o o ansla e and p in F ench ela ions and gaze es,
Lisbon, Nacional A chi es (To e do Tombo), Chancela ia de D. João i , li o 15, os.
3 ,20 .
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A g owing di e si y o names gi en o p in ed pape s o news, pe iodical
and o he wise, eme ges be ween in oyal p i ileges awa ded in he i s hal o
he eigh een h cen u y. These names co esponded o he di e en ypes o
p in ed pape s in ci cula ion, ansla ed o o he wise, and o e which pe i ion-
e s sough o ob ain a monopoly. Alongside gaze as, eigh een h-cen u y p in -
ing p i ileges men ion no ícias and papéis de no ícias o me cú ios uni e sais
(uni e sal me cu ies) called es ado do mundo (s a e o he wo ld), and also,
a e 1742, suplemen os (ex ao dina ies, o supplemen s o he gaze e), ela-
ções de ba alhas (accoun s o ba les) and epaná o as ( ela ions, accoun s; see
below). The i le me cú io is o cou se impo an , o i was also pa o he
Eu opean landscape o ci cula ing i les; and he e also exis ed a se en een h-
cen u y Po uguese p eceden , he mon hly pape published by he sec e a y
o s a e An ónio de Sousa de Macedo be ween 1663 and 1667. In he yea s a e
1742 he Me cú ios His ó icos e Polí icos we e p in ed in Lisbon, also mon hly,
ansla ed om he F ench pe iodical edi ed in The Hague, hen in o Spanish
and inally in o Po uguese. O hese di e en i les, only gaze as (wi h hei
suplemen os) and me cú ios we e associa ed wi h p in ed pe iodicals.
None heless, in legal ex s explici e e ence o pe iodici y does no occu un il
1752—when he exp ession gaze a egula ( egula gaze e) is used.
A he s a o he eigh een h cen u y one impo an handw i en news-
le e ci cula ing in Lisbon was he Gaze a em o ma de ca a (gaze e in he
o m o le e ). The wo d olhe o (small shee ), o I alian o igin, was inc eas-
ingly used o indica e handw i en newsle e s, gene ally meaning a sepa-
a e o handw i en news sen by pos . Eigh een h-cen u y handw i en
pe iodicals, edi ed in Lisbon by he coun o E icei a, and in San a ém, we e
called diá ios (a day-by-day accoun o cu en e en s, in a use equi alen o
“jou nal” in Du ch o English language, men ioned abo e), olhe os and also
me cú ios.
In luenced by he ci cula ion o p in ed shee s o news and in ec ed by he
e ms in use h oughou Eu ope, we ind examples o la e-se en een h-cen u y
diploma ic co espondence which desc ibe handw i en sepa a es o news as
gaze as de mão (gaze es by hand), p obably also an exp ession o F ench o i-
gin (“gaze es à la main”, as opposed o “gaze e de bouche”).70 This is an impo -
an indica o o he mig a ion and ungibili y o he e m ‘gaze e’, since in he
cou se o his chap e we ha e aced i s mo emen om Venice o Lisbon ia
Pa is o e mo e han a cen u y; in i s p og ess along his in e ed -shape, i s
70 See he le e om he Po uguese ambassado in Pa is, José da Cunha B ochado, o an
unknown co espondan , 15 June 1698: Ca as (Lisbon: Sá da Cos a, 1944), p. 31.
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A blas e e al.
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use also shi ed o he poin whe e wha had been a no mal a ibu e o a
gaze e— ha i was handw i en—has o be cla i ied as an excep ion in he
Po uguese lexicon o news.
Eu opean Conclusions
We can see con as ing o unes in se e al wo ds: a iso and a iso sp ead
ac oss Eu ope o signi y bo h a piece o news and he medium o communica-
ion. Gazze a sp ead oo, hough whe eas in I aly i could signi y bo h w i -
en and p in ed news as i mo ed o Ge many, F ance and he Ibe ian
peninsula i shi ed i s signi icance o mean p in ed news, and became he
p e-eminen e m o a p in ed pe iodical. The ex u es o wo ds can be sub-
le and nuanced: a leas om 1631, gazze a always implied egula i y in a way
ha a iso did no .
O he wo ds we e mo e idiosync a ic and pa icula . The e a e he e y local
and speci ic esonances o in o ma ion and in elligence in English news cul-
u e. And compa e his wi h epaná o a: in eigh een h-cen u y Po uguese i is
used synonymously wi h “ elação”, and he dic iona ies de ine i as bo h a he-
o ical e m (synonymous wi h anapho a) and a ela o (s o y, ela ion),
ela ing bo h o i s G eek e ymology. The edi o o he Gaze a de Lisboa, José
F ei e Mon a oio Masca enhas, published a pamphle in 1735 en i led
Epanapho a belica, ollowed by se e al occasional news pamphle s on
Po uguese mili a y success in India be ween 1746 and 1752 wi h i les begin-
ning Epanapho a indica … O he s subsequen ly used he e m wi h his signi i-
cance. I implied epe i ion, and so could sugges he b inging oge he o
mul iple i ems, ei he as a se ies o wi hin a single pamphle . Ye i has his
signi icance in no o he Eu opean e nacula . Could his idiosync a ic usage
simply o igina e in he i le o F ancisco Manuel de Melo’s Epanapho as de
Va ia His o ia Po ugueza (Anapho as o Va ious Po uguese His o y; Lisbon,
1660), a his o iog aphical wo k in i e disc e e s o ies? Masca enhas migh
ha e been bo owing no only he no ion o ga he ed s o ies bu also he cul-
u al p es ige o his widely-celeb a ed his o y. I so, i is one o he mo e
ex eme examples o local cul u es adap ing ansna ional ocabula ies, and
inding space o an eccen ic wo d wi hin he exis ing mul ilingual lexicon.
The ansla o s who li ed and wo ked in Eu ope’s en epô s, media ing
be ween me chan s, diploma s, a elle s, and soldie s, played a c ucial ole
ines ablishing and main aining he news ne wo ks o ea ly mode n Eu ope.
Themobili y o lexicons o news was essen ial o hei labou , and o ha o
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The Lexicons O Ea ly Mode n News
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he sc ibes and publishe s who ga he ed and dispe sed news in i s a ious
o ms. In he seman ic and geog aphical shi ing o he wo ds o news we can
see he e idence o hem bo owing and imp o ising in o de o minimise he
obs acles ha language di e ences could p esen . We can also see e idence o
ensions be ween hese p ac ical labou e s in news communica ion and mo e
localised eade s, sa i is s, and especially go e nmen s who sough o de ine
he news and i s echnologies in laws in ended o con ine i s sub e si e
po en ial.
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