UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais
S uggling o he p oduc ion o space.
Social mo emen s, housing and u ban ans o ma ion in Lisbon and Rome
Claudio Ca bone
O ien ado : Dou o Simone Tulumello
Coo ien ado : Dou o Elio T usiani
Tese especialmen e elabo ada pa a ob enção do g au de
Dou o em Es udos de Desen ol imen o.
2024
UNIVERSIDADE DE LISBOA
Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais
S uggling o he p oduc ion o space.
Social mo emen s, housing and u ban ans o ma ion in Lisbon and Rome
Claudio Ca bone
O ien ado : Dou o Simone Tulumello
Coo ien ado : Dou o Elio T usiani
Tese especialmen e elabo ada pa a ob enção do g au de Dou o em
Es udos de Desen ol imen o.
P esiden e de Jú i - Dou o a Ângela Ma ia Ba e o Xa ie , In es igado a P incipal com Habili ação e
P esiden e do Conselho Cien í ico do Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais da Uni e sidade de
Lisboa.
Vogais:
- Dou o a Sa a aquel Fe nandes Quei oz de Medei os, P o esso a do Magis é io Supe io do Ins i u o
de Polí icas Públicas da Uni e sidade Fede al Rio G ande do No e (UFRN), B asil;
- Dou o a Ana Isabel D ago Loba o, In es igado a Júnio no Cen o de Es udos Sociais da Uni e sidade
de Coimb a;
- Dou o Jo ge da Sil a Macaís a Malhei os, P o esso Associado do Ins i u o de Geog a ia e
O denamen o do Te i ó io da Uni e sidade de Lisboa;
- Dou o F ancesco Biagi, In es igado Júnio no Cen o de In es igação em A qui e u a, U banismo e
Design (CIAUD) da Faculdade de A qui e u a da Uni e sidade de Lisboa;
- Dou o Simone Tulumello, In es igado Auxilia do Ins i u o de Ciências Sociais da Uni e sidade de
Lisboa e o ien ado da ese.
Es a in es igação oi ealizada com o apoio ins i ucional da Fundação pa a a Ciência e Tecnologia,
a a és da concessão de uma bolsa de dou o amen o (SFRH/BD/137033/2018), com a du ação de 48
meses e com uma bolsa excecional (COVID/BD/153219/2023) com a du ação de 5 meses pa a além
dos 48 meses já mencionados.
2024
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
“Il y a des mo s qui on i e e ce son des mo s innocen s: le mo chaleu , le mo con iance, amou ,
jus ice e le mo libe é, le mo en an e le mo gen illesse, e ce ains noms de leu s e ce ains noms
de ui s, le mo cou age e le mo décou i e le mo è e e le mo cama ade e ce ains noms de
pays de illages e ce ains noms de emmes e d’amis” (Elua d, P.).
I would like o exp ess my hea el g a i ude o all hose who played a signi ican ole in he
comple ion o my doc o al hesis. Thei unwa e ing suppo and us in me ha e been c ucial in his
jou ney.
Fi s o all, I would like o hank my amily o o igin. Despi e he physical dis ance ha sepa a es
us, hey ha e always been he e o me, cons an ly encou aging me and belie ing in my abili ies. Thei
us has been he d i ing o ce behind my achie emen s and hei cons an ly demons a ed lo e is
he basis o my human s uc u e.
I am also indeb ed o my amily in Lisbon, who ha e been a undamen al pilla o in ellec ual and
social suppo h oughou my jou ney. Thei guidance, wisdom, since e iendship, and cons an
encou agemen uelled my g ow h as a schola and beyond.
I ex end my hea el g a i ude o my hesis u o , Simone Tulumello, o his in aluable academic
guidance ha se ed as a guiding ligh h oughou my esea ch. His unwa e ing suppo and a en ion
p e en ed me om losing my way on his challenging pa h. Beyond his academic con ibu ions, Simone
has exempli ied ema kable human quali ies and gene osi y, which a e a e and e eshing in he
academic en i onmen . I am equally indeb ed o Elio T usiani, my co- u o , whose men o ship played
a pi o al ole in shaping me as a s uden . His dedica ion and passion o eaching ha e p o oundly
in luenced my g ow h. Special hanks also go o Ma co Alleg a, who pa ien ly impa ed a weal h o
knowledge abou se ing up an academic esea ch p ojec .
Fu he mo e, I would like o ex end my g a i ude o all com ades and pa isans who i elessly igh
o a be e wo ld. To hose I ha e had he p i ilege o knowing pe sonally and sha ing s uggles wi h
– he All Reds, Si igai a, S op Despejos – as well as hose I ha e ne e me . Whe he I ha e encoun e ed
hem on he s ee s o he ci ies I ha e passed h ough o whe he hey a e sca e ed in e e y co ne
o he wo ld unknown o me, hei unwa e ing commi men o jus ice is a beacon o hope. The
Pales inian people, he Ku dish people, and he indigenous Zapa is a communi ies, exempli y a
collec i e dedica ion o p ese ing he hopes and d eams o opp essed peoples, which is p o oundly
inspi ing.
To all he d eame s who con inue o pu sue a jus wo ld, I am e e nally g a e ul.
“Ci sono spazi che sono anche ques o… Idee, belle idee. E le belle idee anno di ese ad ogni cos o”
(Ac obax).
i
ABSTRACT
This doc o al hesis examines he condi ions, ac o s, and powe ela ions gene a ed in con empo a y
ci ies ega ding he ‘p oduc ion o space’ h ough h ee concep ual dimensions ha will s uc u e bo h
he analy ical chap e s o his hesis as well as he esea ch ques ions and, hus, he conclusions: (i) As
he s uc u e o he en i onmen in which ([Housing-Righ s Mo emen ]; he ea e [HRM]) ope a e; (ii)
As he agency o collec i e ac o s s uggling agains he p oduc ion o neolibe al space; (iii) As he scale
o social ac ions. Examining he pas i e decades in wo sou he n Eu opean capi als, Lisbon and Rome,
his esea ch in es iga es he ole o ins i u ions in shaping u ban ans o ma ion h ough neolibe al
u banisa ion and housing policies. Addi ionally, i explo es he esponse o HRMs h ough au onomous
spa ial p oposals ha challenge adi ional capi alis amewo ks.
The hesis adop s an ac i is e hnog aphic me hodology, ecoun ing expe iences wi hin he HRMs
in Lisbon and Rome. The ocus is on he A oios neighbou hood in Lisbon and he Os iense
neighbou hood in Rome, examining espec i ely he ‘cole i idade’ o Si igai a and he squa o Po o
Flu iale. The p oximi y o he case s udies h ough he use o his me hodology allowed me o
unde s and he mo emen s h ough an academically igo ous bu a owedly pa isan app oach.
The absence o compa a i e s udies on he ela ionship be ween he ‘p oduc ion o space’ and
he HRMs in Lisbon and Rome jus i ies he impo ance o his esea ch. While he e a e s udies on he
I alian con ex , he Po uguese con ex is ela i ely unexplo ed, especially in e ms o he mo emen ’s
spa ial p ac ices. This hesis con ibu es o he li e a u e by demons a ing he emancipa o y and
poli ical po en ial o he new au onomous spaces bo n in he Lisbon con ex .
O e all, his esea ch inc eases he isibili y o he HRMs and hei ole as ac i e poli ical ac o s in
shaping u ban landscapes. By s udying hei spa ial p ac ices, he hesis sheds ligh on he impo ance
o hese mo emen s in upholding he ‘ igh o he ci y’ and in c ea ing and accessing new u ban
commons. The indings will con ibu e o unde s anding he complexi ies o con empo a y u ban
ans o ma ions and he impac o g ass oo s mo emen s on u ban de elopmen .
Keywo ds: p oduc ion o space, social mo emen s, housing, u ban ans o ma ions, Lisbon, and Rome.

ii
RESUMO
Es a ese em como obje i o con ibui pa a o deba e em cu so sob e as condições, os a o es e as
elações de pode associadas à p odução do espaço nas cidades con empo âneas. Ao examina os
quad os eó icos que elucidam a o ma como a p odução do espaço oco e e os a o es que a
impulsionam em con ex os u banos, es e es udo explo a ês dimensões eó icas in e ligadas: (i) a
elação en e espaço e desen ol imen o nas cidades con empo âneas, (ii) a p odução do espaço pelos
mo imen os sociais pelo di ei o à habi ação (HRM) e (iii) o espaço como ambien e de deba e e con li o
en e ins i uições e HRMs. Es es emas o necem um quad o ab angen e pa a analisa as
ans o mações u banas e a aje ó ia das mobilizações em p ol da habi ação em duas capi ais do sul
da Eu opa.
A p odução do espaço nas cidades é um p ocesso complexo e mul i ace ado que en ol e uma
sé ie de a o es e dinâmicas de pode . As o mas como o espaço é p oduzido, con olado e con es ado
êm implicações signi ica i as pa a as elações sociais, económicas e polí icas nos con ex os u banos.
Es e es udo cen a-se no papel da ges ão de ecu sos humanos na p odução do espaço nas cidades
con empo âneas, com especial incidência em duas capi ais do sul da Eu opa: Lisboa e Roma.
A elação en e espaço e desen ol imen o nas cidades con empo âneas: As cidades
con empo âneas es ão a so e ans o mações ápidas e p o undas, impulsionadas po á ias o ças,
incluindo as polí icas u banas neolibe ais, os luxos globais de capi al e as desigualdades sociais e
económicas. Es as ans o mações êm implicações signi ica i as pa a a p odução do espaço e o di ei o
à cidade. A me can ilização do espaço u bano, a c escen e gen i icação e a deslocação de
comunidades ma ginalizadas são algumas das ques ões-cha e que eme gem nes e con ex o.
Comp eende a elação en e espaço e desen ol imen o é c ucial pa a analisa a dinâmica da
ans o mação u bana e o papel dos HRMs na de inição de p á icas espaciais al e na i as.
A p odução do espaço pelos HRM: Os HRMs eme gi am como a o es impo an es na con es ação
das na a i as e p á icas dominan es elacionadas com a p odução do espaço. Es es mo imen os lu am
pelo di ei o a uma habi ação adequada, po endas acessí eis e pelo di ei o à cidade. U ilizam uma
sé ie de es a égias e á icas pa a eclama e ans o ma o espaço u bano, incluindo a ocupação, as
inicia i as de habi ação coope a i a e a o ganização de base. Ao en ol e -se a i amen e no espaço, os
HRM não só con es am a p odução dominan e do espaço, como ambém c iam p á icas espaciais
al e na i as que dão p io idade às necessidades da comunidade, à jus iça social e ao bem-es a dos
esiden es. Pa a comp eende a p odução do espaço pelos HRMs, es e es udo explo a a sua elação
com di e en es con ex os espaciais, incluindo espaços públicos, espaços p i ados e bens comuns
u banos. Examina-se a o ma como os HRMs na egam e ans o mam os e i ó ios pa a c ia espaços
au ónomos mais inclusi os e acessí eis.
iii
Espaço como local de deba e e con li o en e ins i uições e HRM: A p odução do espaço não é um
p ocesso neu o ou apolí ico. En ol e á ios a o es, incluindo go e nos, u banis as, p omo o es e
esiden es, cujos in e esses e dinâmicas de pode moldam a paisagem u bana. As in e ações en e os
HRMs e os a o es ins i ucionais conduzem equen emen e a con li os e negociações sob e o con olo
e a u ilização do espaço. Es e es udo analisa a dinâmica des as in e ações, explo ando a o ma como
os HRMs na egam nas es u u as ins i ucionais, o mam alianças e desa iam as elações de pode
exis en es pa a in luencia a p odução do espaço.
Es udos de caso Lisboa e Roma: Os es udos de caso des a in es igação cen am-se em Lisboa e
Roma, duas capi ais do sul da Eu opa que passa am po ans o mações u banas signi ica i as e po
lu as pela habi ação. Es as cidades p opo cionam con ex os con as an es pa a examina a p odução
do espaço pelos HRMs. Roma em uma longa his ó ia de mobilizações pela habi ação, ca ac e izada
po um as o leque de mo imen os e inicia i as. Lisboa, po ou o lado, em assis ido a uma ecen e
onda de a i ismo pela habi ação e a um c escen e econhecimen o do di ei o à habi ação.
Compa ando es as duas cidades, es a in es igação iden i ica pon os comuns, di e enças e a o es
con ex uais que in luenciam a p odução do espaço pelos HRMs, cen ando-se em dois espaços
especí icos: A ‘cole i idade’ Si igai a, inse ida no bai o de A oios, em Lisboa; e a ocupação
habi acional Po o Flu iale, inse ida no bai o Os iense, em Roma.
Me odologia: A in es igação ado a uma abo dagem me odológica e nog á ica a i is a,
combinando análise de documen os, en e is as com a i is as, polí icos e pa icipação a i a nos
e en os desc i os. En ol endo as p incipais pa es in e essadas, o es udo p ocu a comp eende as
pe spe i as, es a égias e desa ios en en ados pelos HRMs na de inição da p odução do espaço. A
in es igação econhece as complexidades e limi ações do es udo de um enómeno dinâmico e em
e olução como a p odução do espaço. No en an o, es o ça-se po o nece uma comp eensão
ma izada das p á icas espaciais dos HRM e das suas implicações pa a as ans o mações u banas.
No meu caso, de o admi i que enho um p econcei o subje i o em elação aos dois mo imen os
em que pa icipo a i amen e e obse o de pe o. Es e p econcei o é um desa io comum pa a os
in es igado es que op am pela me odologia do es udo de caso. Há semp e uma endência pa a
con i ma ideias p econcebidas sob e um ema especí ico (G azioli, 2018). No en an o, Fly bje g
a gumen a que, na maio ia das ezes, as nossas opiniões p econcebidas, suposições e noções são
e u adas quando somos con on ados com o ma e ial de um caso. O es udo de caso ob iga-nos a e e
os nossos p essupos os em pon os c uciais, p opo cionando uma opo unidade de e i icação
(Fly bje g, 2006: 235).
Es a in es igação em como obje i o desa ia as na a i as nega i as sob e os squa s em Roma e
ealça as p á icas posi i as den o des es espaços. P ocu a ambém p omo e a colabo ação en e as
polí icas públicas e o mo imen o dos squa s pa a e i aliza as paisagens u banas e esponde às
i
necessidades de habi ação. Além disso, o meu obje i o é econhece o abalho social e polí ico dos
HRMs e dos espaços sociais nos bai os do es udo de caso. Po im, p e endo con ex ualiza o papel
dos HRMs na p omoção do di ei o à cidade, mos ando que a sua lu a ai pa a além das me as
ques ões habi acionais.
Es a me odologia pe mi iu-me na a as expe iências de ep odução social e au o-o ganização
elacionadas com a p odução de espaços no seio des es mo imen os. Pa ilha ei es as expe iências
a a és de uma me odologia que me pe mi iu posiciona -me poli icamen e em elação às minhas
análises académicas, es ando pessoalmen e en ol ido em ambos os p ocessos que i ei desc e e .
Ques ões de in es igação:
1) Quais o am as es a égias de desen ol imen o ins i ucional encon adas nas cidades
es udadas e que ipo de polí icas habi acionais e ans o mações u banas p oduzi am?
2) Quais são as p á icas espaciais e sociais al e na i as p opos as pelos HRM e como con ibuí am
es as pa a o desen ol imen o local das cidades es udadas?
3) Que in e ações polí icas (con li uosas ou colabo a i as) se desen ol em en e as ins i uições
e os HRM a pa i da p odução espacial di e gen e des es dois a o es?
Es a ese ai pa a além das conclusões pu amen e académicas, p e endendo en a iza a
impo ância das expe iências au ónomas nas cidades es udadas, na medida em que es as apoiam os
di ei os undamen ais dos cidadãos, incluindo o di ei o à habi ação, o di ei o à cidade e o di ei o à
pa icipação polí ica a i a nos seus espaços de ida. O meu obje i o é con ibui pa a a legi imação
polí ica des es a o es que há mui o lu am po es es di ei os a a és da p odução de espaços e da ação
di e a nos e i ó ios que i ei analisa .
Em conclusão, es a ese o e ece uma análise ab angen e da p odução do espaço no con ex o dos
HRMs em Lisboa e Roma. Ao examina a elação en e os HRMs e o espaço, o es udo ealça o
signi icado des es mo imen os como a o es cen ais no desen ol imen o u bano e na con es ação da
cidade. A in es igação con ibui pa a a comp eensão das ans o mações u banas, dos mo imen os
sociais e do di ei o à cidade, ao mesmo empo que o nece in o mações pa a a i is as e polí icos que
p ocu am esponde às necessidades de habi ação e p omo e paisagens u banas mais inclusi as.
Pala as-cha e: p odução do espaço, mo imen os sociais, habi ação, ans o mações u banas, Lisboa
e Roma.
INDEX OF ACRONYMS
A.s.i.A.-USB - [Unione Sindacale di Base - Associazione Inquilini e Abi an i] i.e. [Union o Basic T ade
Unions - Tenan s and Housing Associa ion]
ACER - [Associazione Nazionale dei Cos u o i Edili] i.e. [Associa ion o Building Cons uc o s o Rome
and P o ince]
Ac ion - [Ac ion-Di i i in Mo imen o] i.e. [Ac ion- Righ s in Mo emen s]
AML - [Á ea Me opoli ana de Lisboa] i.e. [Lisbon Me opoli an A ea]
AMR - [A ea Me opoli ana di Roma] i.e. [Roman Me opoli an A ea]
ARU - [Á eas de Reabili ação U bana] i.e. [A eas o U ban Rehabili a ion]
BE - [Le Bloc Pa y]
BIP/ZIP - [Bai os e Zonas de In e enção P io i á ia] i.e. [Neighbou hoods and P io i y In e en ion
A eas]
BPM - [Blocchi P eca i Me opoli ani] i.e. [Me opoli an P eca ious Blocks]
CAB - [Comi a o di Agi azione Bo ga a] i.e. [Bo ga a Agi a ion Commi ee]
CCLC - [Coo dinamen o Ci adino di Lo a pe la Casa] i.e. [Ci izens’ Coo dina ion o S uggle o
Housing]
CdR - [Comune di Roma] i.e. [Rome Ci y Council]
CML - [Câma a Municipal de Lisboa] i.e. [Lisbon Ci y Council]
COPCON - [Comando Ope acional do Con inen e] i.e. [Con inen al Ope a ions Command]
CSOAs - [Cen i Sociali Occupa i Au oges i i] i.e. [Sel -managed Squa ed Social Cen es]
DC - [Ch is ian Democ a s Pa y]
EAC - [Eu opean Ac ion Coali ion o he Righ o Housing and he Ci y]
EEC - [Eu opean Economic Communi y]
ERP - [Edilizia Residenziale Pubblica] i.e. [Social Housing]
ERS - [Edilizia Residenziale Sociale] i.e. [Social Residen ial Housing]
EU - [Eu opean Union]
EXPO 1998 - [1998 Uni e sal Exhibi ion]
FCT - [Fundação pa a a Ciência e a Tecnologia] i.e. [Founda ion o Science and Technology]
FNRE - [Fundo Nacional pa a a Reabili ação do Edi icado] i.e. [Na ional Fund o he Rehabili a ion o
he Buil En i onmen ]
GDP - [G oss Domes ic P oduc ]
GESCAL - [GES ione CAse pe i La o a o i] i.e. [Wo ke s’ Housing Managemen ]
xii

1
CHAPTER 1. In oduc ion
Wi h his hesis, I wan o con ibu e o he discussion o wha a e he condi ions, he ac o s, and
ela ed powe ela ions ha a e gene a ed conce ning he ‘p oduc ion o space’ in con empo a y ci ies
(Ha ey, 1989, 2003, 2012; Le eb e, 1991, 1996 [1968]). In he speci ic cases, I will analyse on he one
hand how ins i u ions, h ough he p ocess o neolibe al u banisa ion and he enac men o housing
policies, con ibu e o he de elopmen and u ban ans o ma ion o con empo a y ci ies, while on
he o he hand, I will analyse he esponse o he ([Housing-Righ s Mo emen ]; he ea e [HRM]) ha ,
no ecognising hemsel es in his model, p oduce new au onomous and pos -capi alis spa ial
p oposals ha in u n con ibu e di ec ly o indi ec ly o he de elopmen o he e i o ies in which
hey a e inse ed, in he speci ic case o wo neighbou hoods in wo sou he n Eu opean capi als, Lisbon
and Rome.
My in e es in he concep o ‘p oduc ion o space’, and hus in his esea ch, is pa o a long
academic, mili an , and a is ic jou ney. Academic, because e e since my uni e si y cou se a he
Uni e si y o A chi ec u e La Sapienza in Rome, I ha e o en ques ioned mysel on he concep o
‘space’ bo h public and p i a e, whe e h ough ou p ojec s in he a ious cou ses, I had o lea n how
o analyse and design speci ic spaces and abo e all o unde s and how and by whom hey would hen
be used. This also led me o in es iga e wi h a c i ical lens how hese spaces we e concei ed and
designed by he ins i u ional ac o s, especially abou he design o public space, i.e. ep oducing he
dominan models e lec ed in he e i o ies, aking li le accoun o wha migh be he ac ual needs
o demands o he communi ies ha would hen ha e o pass h ough and use ha speci ic space.
This c i ical analysis o he ‘p oduc ion o space’ emained cen al o my pe sonal expe ience e en
when, in he same uni e si y yea s, I became an ac i e mili an in a squa , he [Squa ed Sel -Managed
Labo a o y] ([Labo a o io Occupa o Au oges i o]; he ea e [LOA]) Ac obax in Rome, sel -managed by
a ious collec i es. In his squa , space was designed and p oduced collec i ely. Designed collec i ely
because wha and how o do was decided in a ho izon al assembly among all he mili an s o he space,
and p oduced collec i ely because he wo ks we e done by he space’s mili an s hemsel es, who
would hen use ha space di ec ly wi hou delega ing an ex e nal igu e o do i . My ac i e
pa icipa ion in hese p ac ices o sel -cons uc ion and sel -managemen also led me o seek ou
expe iences ha would allow me o b ing oge he hese wo poin s o iew, he academic and he
mili an . This esea ch led me o de elop my hesis p ojec in a chi ec u e in an expe imen al academic
en i onmen by c ea ing a pa icipa o y p ojec wi h he communi ies o a a ela in Po o Aleg e,
sou he n B azil.
Rega ding my a is ic pa h, I am a documen a y ilmmake . Following wha I said abou my
p o essional and mili an app oach, he objec o my documen a ies has always been o show
2
al e na i e spa ial p ac ices o he dominan model. The e o e, o show pos -capi alis pa e ns
e lec ed in space, p oduced di ec ly by a en i e and esis an communi ies in di e en e i o ial
con ex s, such as he sel -managed squa s in Rome, wi hin he au onomous indigenous e i o ies in
Cos a Rica and Mexico, o he in o mal neighbou hoods in he subu bs o Lisbon.
All hese expe iences jus desc ibed hus led me o e lec wi h espec o di e en disciplines and
li e expe iences on he concep o he ‘p oduc ion o space’, h ough bo h he c i ical analysis o he
poin o iew o he execu o s o u ban and legisla i e p ojec s ( he ins i u ions) and h ough he
esea ch and ac i e in eg a ion wi hin hose au onomous spaces p oduced by u ban mo emen s ha
claim he igh o housing and he igh o he ci y. Fo hese easons, when I decided o gi e linea
con inui y o my academic ca ee , I wan ed o de elop a PhD p ojec ; my choice ell on his speci ic
heme, which has ed my academic, mili an , and a is ic cu iosi y o many yea s.
Rega ding he speci ic choice o case s udies, in his esea ch, I wan ed o use he app oach o
ac i is e hnog aphy as my p incipal me hodology, applied o wo case s udies ( hus in ol ing ac i e
pa icipa ion wi hin he mo emen s desc ibed). The choice could only all on expe iences wi hin which
I was al eady ac i e (such as he case o Lisbon) o on hose I had in eg a ed in he pas and s ill
main ain ac i e con ac s oday (such as he case o Rome). The ac , he e o e, o knowing he socio-
poli ical con ex in which hese wo ci ies a e embedded and, abo e all, he poin o ha ing been pa
o he HRM in Rome in he pas and s ill being pa o some collec i es o he same mo emen in Lisbon
led me o choose hese wo ci ies as case s udies o my hesis p ojec .
Gi en my p oximi y and ac i e pa icipa ion in he wo mo emen s, he e is no doub ha I ha e
a subjec i e bias agains hem. This is undoub edly one o he p oblems ha any esea che who
chooses he case s udy as a me hodology o ac ion has o ace, in he sense ha he e is a p ocess o
e i ica ion unde s ood as a endency o con i m wha a e p econcei ed ideas abou a gi en opic. In
his ega d, Fly bje g esponds ha mos o he ime hey aced such a si ua ion, hei opinions,
assump ions, and p econcei ed no ions we e w ong and ha he case ma e ial o ced hem o e ise
hei assump ions on essen ial poin s. In o he wo ds, he case s udy o ces he esea che o e ise
hei opinions and is, in a way, an oppo uni y o e i ica ion (Fly bje g, 2006: 235).
Acco ding o Fly bje g (2006), he mos ad anced le el o unde s anding is achie ed when he
esea che places hemsel es in he s udied con ex . This is ue e en i one assumes ha esea ch,
like o he lea ning p ocesses, can be desc ibed by he phenomenology o human lea ning. Resea che s
can unde s and he iews and ac ions o esea che s, which a e cha ac e is ic o social ac o s, only in
his way (Ibid., 2006: 236). The e o e, p oximi y o he con ex o he case s udy, h ough pa icipa ion
in he ac i i ies, will be a p e equisi e o ad anced unde s anding, as mu ual knowledge sha ed by he
esea che and he key ac o s whose ac ions econs i u e he social wo ld can be gene a ed.
3
As he case s udies a e di e se, so a e he ou pu s o which I aspi e o his esea ch: Challenging
nega i e na a i es abou he squa in Rome and highligh ing posi i e p ac ices wi hin squa s,
suppo ing collabo a ion be ween public policy and he squa mo emen o egene a e u ban
landscapes and espond o housing needs, ecognizing he social and poli ical wo k o HRM and social
spaces in Lisbon’s A oios neighbou hood, and con ex ualizing he ole o HRM in p omo ing he igh
o he ci y by demons a ing ha hei s uggle goes beyond he s uggle o housing.
The e o e, I decided o use an ac i is e hnog aphic me hodology o achie e hese desc ip i e
ou pu s. Al hough I could no apply i en i ely, which I will explain mo e in he me hodological chap e ,
i allowed me o na a e he expe iences o social ep oduc ion and sel -o ganisa ion ela ed o he
p oduc ion o spaces o hese mo emen s. As speci ic case s udies, I will ecoun expe iences in wo
cen al neighbou hoods o he wo ci ies unde in es iga ion: he A oios neighbou hood in Lisbon and
he Os iense neighbou hood in Rome. The cen al spa ial cases o he hesis will be Si igai a’
cole i idade in he case o Lisbon and he squa ing o Po o Flu iale in he case o Rome. I will na a e
hese wo expe iences using a me hodology ha will allow me o posi ion mysel poli ically in ela ion
o my academic analyses as pa o bo h p ocesses I will desc ibe. This is also because, as men ioned
a he beginning, my in e es and scien i ic cu iosi y in his esea ch opic a ose om my pe sonal
expe iences, bo h academic and mili an .
In addi ion o ha ing chosen hem because o my p e ious expe iences bo h academically and as
an ac i e ac i is in he anks o HRMs in bo h ci ies (a ac ha ce ainly acili a ed my inse ion in o
he con ex s I was going o s udy), I belie e ha he e a e academic sho comings in e ms o
compa a i e pe spec i es on pe iphe al housing sys ems wi h he Eu opean con ex , which al hough
hey a e a seconda y aspec o he aims o his hesis, analysing hem will help me unde s and how
and why HRMs a ose in he wo ci ies and especially wha spa ial p ac ices hey de eloped o coun e
i .
I belie e ha he analysis o housing policies is essen ial in o de o unde s and he u ban
ans o ma ions ha ha e occu ed in he wo case s udies, since housing, especially in ecen decades,
has assumed no only a social alue o he popula ion bu also a eal es a e asse alue h ough i s
inancializa ion (Tulumello e al., 2020), hus becoming one o he main ac o s o inclusion and
exclusion o speci ic communi ies in he ci y e i o ies, as well as he leading p omo e o bo h
economic and e i o ial de elopmen o he u ban ab ic o con empo a y ci ies.
The Po uguese housing model, as well as he I alian one, is in line wi h ha o he sou he n
Eu opean coun ies (Allen, 2006), i.e. i is made up o a high sha e o owned housing and a low sha e
o en ed housing (Luccia ini, 2018), due o a speci ic policy ca ied ou in he p e ious decades by all
he successi e go e nmen s, which ha e a ou ed he pu chase o housing in he I alian and
Po uguese popula ions. This has led some schola s o de ine he la e 1990s and 2000s as he yea s o
4
he Eu opeanisa ion o I alian (Co ella & Ri olin, 2011) and Po uguese (Oli ei a & B eda-Vazquez,
2011) planning sys ems. Fo some au ho s such as B enne and Theodo e (2002), his Eu opeanisa ion
o planning sys ems has cha ac e ised weake o ms o S a e in e en ion and, consequen ly, a mo e
signi ican ole o p i a e in e es s.
This model, he e o e, su e s om he absence o a eal sys em o Social Housing policies
p omo ed a any le el o go e nmen (B aga & Pal a ini, 2013). So much so ha in I aly, housing
policies a e conside ed by some au ho s o be he ‘cinde ellas’ o social policies (Neg i & Sa aceno,
1996), whe e he e is (especially in ecen yea s) sup emacy o he ma ke o e he S a e in p o iding
answe s o he social demand o housing.
The impo ance o compa ing hese wo cases also de i es om he ac ha hey ha e aspec s in
common conce ning he social policy choices p oposed by he ins i u ions, such as he ac o b ie ly
men ioned on pe iphe ali y o he Eu opean con ex as well as o esidual housing wel a e policies
(e en hough he speci ic policies and p og ammes may di e be ween he wo coun ies). Howe e ,
simul aneously, he wo cases I will analyse p esen di e gen ac o s conce ning he composi ion and
o ganisa ion o he HRMs bo n o coun e he lack o s uc u al housing policies in he wo coun ies
and which ep esen he o he leading ac o in his esea ch.
Bo h ci ies unde s udy a e expe iencing a p o ound housing c isis. Unsu p isingly, ci izens ha e
o ganised hemsel es o demand be e condi ions o e en o sol e he housing p oblem by o ganising
hemsel es in o a mo emen . Despi e he c isis in bo h ci ies, he o ms o o ganisa ion o he wo
mo emen s a e no he same; in he Roman case, o example, HRM al eady had a solid au onomous,
poli ical, and social base du ing he yea s o he 2007/08 c isis, wi h a his o y o mili an con inui y o
HRM going back o he 1970s wi h se e al social ac o s ac i e on he issue and wi h dozens o housing
squa s o ganised by hose collec i es ha iden i y wi h HRM. While in Lisbon, immedia ely a e a
obus ac i ism on he housing issue du ing he 1974 e olu iona y p ocess, he ollowing yea s
wi nessed a weakening o ci il socie y ac ion bo h on he housing issue and on ha o au onomous
social, cul u al, and spa ial p ac ices, wi h some spo adic and b ie excep ions. Howe e , his p ocess
was only eac i a ed in he yea s ollowing he global c isis o 2007/08 due o he in ense p essu es
ha Po uguese socie y had o endu e he opp ession o aus e i y policies ha ma kedly a acked he
coun y’s housing ma ke . Fo his eason, I decided o begin my analysis o he cases om he 1970s,
analysing he u ban ans o ma ions and housing policies o he wo coun ies, as well as he ac i is
esponses o unde s and he dynamics ha ha e condi ioned as much o he cu en housing c isis as
he p ac ices o con empo a y u ban mo emen s.
This his o ical con inui y o discon inui y has a ec ed how con empo a y HRMs in Rome and
Lisbon ha e o ganised hemsel es ega ding o ma ion, p ac ices, app oaches, and ela ions wi h
ins i u ions. Fo example, HRMs in Rome di ec ly p oduce au onomous spaces h ough squa p ac ice.
5
In con as , in Lisbon, hese ely on o he spaces ha , while suppo ing he housing mo emen , a e
no pa o he cen al demands o hese collec i es, which ne e heless pay egula en . In Lisbon,
he ela ionship be ween he mo emen and he ins i u ions is mo e collabo a i e han in Rome,
whe e he illegal p esence o squa s has esul ed in copious legisla ion ha on ally a acks HRM
mili an s, also exace ba ing ela ions be ween he wo ac o s. These di e ences will shape he analysis
and, hus, he ollowing chap e s, ocusing on he con lic ual ela ionship be ween he mo emen and
ins i u ions in Rome and he ac o s ha con ibu ed o he e i al o HRM in Lisbon.
In bo h ci ies, hese mo emen s a e ac i e poli ical playe s on he u ban s age. Howe e , mo e
o en han no , hey a e po ayed in he media, and occasionally e en in academia, as spo adic
mo emen s associa ed wi h speci ic u gencies. In o he wo ds, hey only gain isibili y when he issue
hey add ess becomes p ominen in he media a ha pa icula momen . One o he signi ican
ou pu s o which I aspi e wi h his hesis is o gi e a new cen ali y o hese p ac ices, which, hanks o
hei spa ial p esence in he e i o ies, a e, in my opinion, cen al ac o s o he de elopmen and
con es a ion o he ci y, as well as cen al o claiming he ‘ igh o he ci y’ and as ac o s ha a ou
he c ea ion o and access o new u ban commons.
The e o e, he cen al heme o his hesis will be o compa e he spa ial p ac ices p oposed by
hese wo u ban social mo emen s embedded in he economic and social con ex o wo sou he n
Eu opean capi als. The e a e a numbe o ecen s udies on he di ec ela ionship ha exis s be ween
he p oduc ion o space and HRM in Rome (Caciagli, 2022; Da oli, 2018; G azioli, 2017, 2019, 2021;
Mudu, 2014a), while he same canno be said o he case o Lisbon. Fu he mo e, he e is a lack o
e en a comple e absence o compa a i e s udies conce ning HRMs in he Po uguese and I alian
con ex s. The lack o compa a i e s udies, he e o e, on he ela ionship be ween space p oduc ion
and HRMs in he wo ci ies unde s udy is hus jus i ied by he ac ha Po uguese HRMs ha e
eo ganised ela i ely ecen ly, as well as ha ing e y ecen ly begun o elabo a e new spa ial p ac ices
as p ac ices o s uggle in he e i o ies, while in Rome, as b ie ly men ioned, he e is a long his o y o
social mo emen s di ec ly p oducing au onomous spaces, pa icula ly in he o m o sel -managed
social cen es. Mo eo e , wi hin he Po uguese academic li e a u e, he p oduc ion o hese new
au onomous spaces bo n in he ci y has been analysed mo e conce ning new cul u al p ac ices han
o hei emancipa o y and poli ical claiming po en ial by he HRM, and his poin , in my opinion,
ep esen s he signi ican con ibu ion his hesis can make o he exis ing li e a u e on he p oduc ion
o space in he Po uguese con ex .
Social mo emen s’ p oduc ion o au onomous spaces in Rome and Lisbon e lec s a b oade end
o g ass oo s o ganisa ion and communi y building in esponse o social and poli ical issues. These
spaces a e impo an si es o poli ical and cul u al esis ance and he de elopmen o al e na i e
social and economic s uc u es. The e o e, compa ing hese wo eali ies can help me be e

6
unde s and he dynamics o social and poli ical change p oposed by HMRs, p o iding aluable insigh s
in o he dynamics o social mo emen s and hei engagemen wi h u ban space in di e en con ex s.
Mo e e ec i e poli ical s a egies can be de eloped by analysing hei success ul and unsuccess ul
p ac ices o build mo e jus and equi able socie ies. Fu he mo e, I belie e his compa ison can be
bene icial o mili an s belonging o he new mo emen bo n in Lisbon, whe e hanks o bo h his o ical
and ecen analysis o he Roman case, one can unde s and which spa ial p ac ices ha e wo ked mo e
and which less, o which p ac ices one can adop and which ones one decides o abandon wi h espec
o one’s con ex .
In his hesis, he e o e, I will analyse he eme gence o new poli ical subjec i i ies linked o his
mo emen and hese spaces, which I a gue ha e he igh o ake a space, design i acco ding o hei
own needs and p ac ise new o ms o e e yday abou he e i o y in which hey a e embedded.
Th ough his new p oduc ion o space omen ed om below, hese collec i es p omo e new o ms o
ci izenship, dis ancing hemsel es om he p ocesses o eal es a e specula ion and c ea ing new
u ban commons o hemsel es and he communi y hey wan o add ess.
Following hese p ocesses, he e o e, his hesis will aim o ecoun he p oduc ion o space
p omo ed om below ollowing he poli ical pe spec i e o HRM in he wo case s udy capi als and
wha de elopmen al, con lic ual, o deba ing consequences hese spaces open up in he cu en
e i o ial o ma ion in con empo a y ci ies. As I a gue ha hese spaces ep esen a ac u e poin
wi h espec o he neolibe al policies ha shape he con empo a y ci y, opening a deba e conce ning
issues such as he igh o inhabi and who has he igh o go e n and shape ci ies, and his issue
ob iously in ol es bo h he mo emen and he go e nmen al ins i u ions ha will be he main ac o s
ha will be analysed in his hesis.
Mo eo e , ha ing chosen o ollow speci ic case s udies, his esea ch will be based on ying o
answe , wi h espec o hose e en s ha ha e al eady happened o we e happening, he ques ions
o how and why ha pa icula e en has o is de eloping. So, one o he e y i s condi ions o
esea ch conce ns how o se esea ch ques ions (Hed ick, Bickman & Rog, 1993). I pu hese esea ch
ques ions by ollowing a basic ca ego isa ion h ough he se ies ‘who,’ ‘wha ,’ ‘whe e,’ ‘how,’ and
‘why’ (Yin, 2009).
The de ini ion o he esea ch ques ions allowed me o s uc u e all he chap e s o he hesis as
well as o be e p epa e my da a collec ion wi hin he ieldwo k, hus di ec ly and de ini i ely
condi ioning all he subsequen s ages om da a collec ion o da a analysis. Fo his eason, I de o ed
much o he ini ial phase o my esea ch, h ough a ca e ul e iew o he li e a u e, o de eloping mo e
p ecise ques ions in which o include insigh s ye o be add essed in p e ious esea ch.
The e o e, in o de o achie e his, he c i ical me hodology I ha e adop ed wi hin my p ojec
consis s o he h ee heo e ical b anches on he p oduc ion o space, which I will analyse in mo e
7
de ail in he ollowing chap e (see Chap e 2) and which will hen be ans o med in o he h ee main
esea ch ques ions: (i) Re lec ion on he ela ionship be ween he concep o de elopmen p oposed
by ins i u ions and he impo ance o housing policies on he p oduc ion o space in con empo a y
ci ies. (ii) Desc ip ion o how HRM (compa ing he wo case s udies) h ough he p oduc ion o space
p opose new social and poli ical p ac ices ha con ibu e o he de elopmen o con empo a y ci ies.
(iii) Re lec ion on he mu ual in luences be ween hese wo main ac o s (social mo emen s and
ins i u ions) o unde s and he con e gences and con lic s gene a ed by he p oduc ion o space in he
case s udy ci ies. These aspec s we e e ined in he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
1) Wha ins i u ional de elopmen s a egies we e wi hin he ci ies s udied, and wha
kind o housing policies and u ban ans o ma ions did hey p oduce?
2) Wha does he HRM p opose he al e na i e spa ial and social p ac ices, and how ha e
hey con ibu ed o he local de elopmen o he ci ies unde s udy?
3) Wha poli ical in e ac ions (con lic ual o collabo a i e) de elop be ween ins i u ions
and HRM om he di e gen spa ial p oduc ion o hese wo ac o s?
Examining hese h ee esea ch ques ions makes i e iden ha he aim o his hesis ex ends
beyond pu ely academic conclusions. I is bo h my in e es and he in e es o he mo emen ha
en us ed me wi h his esea ch ha his essay is, abo e all, a con ibu ion o he legi imisa ion o
hose au onomous p ac ices om below ha shows a new way o expe iencing he p ac ices o
e e yday being ha omen he social ep oduc ion o g ass oo s u ban mo emen s. In his way, I
would like o emphasise he impo ance o au onomous expe iences wi hin he case s udy ci ies as
p omo e s o undamen al igh s o he e e yday li e o ci izens, such as he igh o housing, he igh
o he ci y and he igh o ac i e poli ical pa icipa ion in he e i o ies in which one li e, whe e he
main hope is o con ibu e o he poli ical legi imisa ion o hose subjec s ha o yea s ha e been
engaged in he claiming o hese igh s h ough he p oduc ion o spaces and di ec ac ion in he
e i o ies I will analyse.
OUTLINE CHAPTERS:
Chap e 2 is dedica ed o he exis ing li e a u e e iew on he opic o ‘p oduc ion o space’ and will
explo e he main concep s and pas esea ch ha will gi e he heo e ical s uc u e o my hesis, whe e
i will analyse which heo ies o ollow and wi h espec o which concep s, I would like o dis ance
mysel . In addi ion o a b ie in oduc ion o he concep s o he ‘p oduc ion o space,’ ‘au onomy,’ and
‘u ban commons,’ he chap e will be di ided in o h ee sub- chap e s analysing heo e ical
8
p oduc ions on he ‘p oduc ion o space’ (Ha ey, 1989, 2003, 2012; Le eb e, 1991, 1996 [1968]) wi h
espec o he ollowing hemes: (i) he ins i u ional ela ionship be ween space and de elopmen in
con empo a y ci ies (ii) he p oduc ion o space by u ban social mo emen s o he igh o housing (iii)
space as a si e o deba e/con lic in he ela ionship be ween ins i u ions and social mo emen s. I am
Adop ing a diagonal app oach o hese h ee ca ego ies men ioned, whe e he concep o p oduc ion
o space will ac as he heo e ical glue.
Chap e 3, on he me hodological plan, will examine he ac i is e hnog aphic me hodology I
decided o apply o my ield esea ch (Boni e al., 2020; Squa ing Eu ope Kollec i e, 2013, 2014). The
choice o his me hodology was dic a ed by he ac ha my ac i is esea ch p ojec was a owedly
pa isan and aimed o make he issue o he igh o housing and he igh o he ci y a opic o public
and poli ical in e es and o help c ea e a link be ween he ac i is wo ld, he academic wo ld, and he
go e nmen al wo ld, s a ing om he poin o iew o HRM ac i is s in he wo s udy ci ies.
Despi e e e y hing, howe e , his me hodology could no be he only one applied o his hesis,
which is why I was compelled o c ea e a hyb id me hodological ool ha could be lexible conce ning
he e en s ha occu and ha could bes be applied o wha will be my analy ical and empi ical
ieldwo k. Fo his eason, I decided o inco po a e he case s udy me hodology published by Ben
Fly bje g (2006), as i emphasises ha a esea che ’s lea ning p ocess and skill de elopmen occu
h ough he implemen a ion o hei own expe iences in he con ex o he case s udy.
Ano he me hodology ha will be applied o my wo k is he eme ging G ounded Theo y
me hodology which i s well wi h a p edominan ly ac i is /e hnog aphic me hodology, as
cons uc i is s a gue ha e e y hing becomes pa o he p ocess and p oduc o esea ch (Cha maz,
2008). Tha is, mo e lexibili y is gi en o he esea che , who can change bo h me hodological
app oaches and heo e ical goals du ing ieldwo k.
Chap e 4 opens he analy ical session o he hesis; om his poin onwa ds, he chap e s will
always be di ided in o wo, analysing i s he Po uguese case and hen he I alian case o he main
heme o he chap e . In his chap e , he wo case s udies will be his o ically con ex ualised h ough
he analysis o housing policies and u ban ans o ma ions, on he one hand, and he ac i is
ajec o ies o u ban mo emen s in esponse o hese ans o ma ions, on he o he , o e a ime span
om he ea ly 1970s o he global economic c isis o 2007/2008. Tha is, he en i onmen in which
HRM ope a es in bo h case s udies will be con ex ualised, analysing simila i ies and di e ences mo e
in he poli ical mac o-s uc u es ha condi ioned he ans o ma ions o hese wo coun ies du ing
hose yea s, such as he end o he dic a o ship in Po ugal in 1974, while o bo h coun ies h ough
he accession o he Eu opean Union, he ad en o he neolibe al economic model and he model on
housing imposed by he ins i u ions ocused on omen ing home owne ship in he popula ions. And a
he same ime, i will iden i y hose ex a-pa liamen a y expe iences ha ha e somehow laid he
9
ounda ions, his o icising he mili an p ocesses in he wo coun ies, o con empo a y mo emen s’
ac i is and spa ial expe iences.
Chap e 5 will analyse how he 2007/08 inancial c isis, igge ed by he inance-housing nexus,
a ec ed housing policies and u ban ans o ma ions in wo case s udy ci ies. The c isis highligh ed he
agili y o he sys em o home owne ship inanced h ough bank c edi and esul ed in he
implemen a ion o di e en housing policies in he pos -c isis pe iod. Housing ook on a ious
unc ions in he ma ke and social sphe e, con ibu ing o he insc ip ion o he logic o inancializa ion
in he economies o he wo coun ies and he end o household indeb edness. Housing also
signi ican ly ans o med u ban economies and p oduced social li ing spaces in me opoli an
e i o ies, exace ba ing social inequali y. Sou he n Eu opean ci ies p esen ele an cases o s udying
he e ec s o he inancial c ash on housing ma ke s and u ban ans o ma ions. The chap e will
analyse he policies de eloped by ins i u ions o cope wi h he c isis and he u ban ans o ma ions
ha ollowed, including he libe alisa ion o housing, he a ac ion o o eign unds, and ou ism.
Finally, he chap e will examine he ex ao dina y measu es aken by go e nmen s in esponse o he
Co id-19 pandemic.
Chap e 6 is a con inua ion o chap e 5 and analyses he same ime ame bu om a di e en
pe spec i e. This chap e will analyse he in e ac ions and con lic s o ci il socie y o ganisa ions in he
mo emen o he majo ans o ma ions ha ook place in wo sou he n Eu opean coun ies. The
global economic c isis o 2007/08 ep esen ed a u ning poin o u ban social mo emen s ha claimed
he igh o housing and he ci y as undamen al human igh s. This chap e will analyse how ci il
socie y o ganised i sel in o an u ban social mo emen o y o sol e he housing c isis bo h h ough
p ac ices o p oducing au onomous spaces and h ough p ac ices o di ec con lic wi h ins i u ions. I
will also analyse how HRMs in bo h ci ies denounced he commodi ica ion and inancializa ion o he
housing sec o and he ex eme p i a isa ion o public space. In Lisbon, he economic c isis o 2007/08
laid he ounda ions o he e-eme gence o HRM, while in Rome, HRM had o unde go a p ocess o
eo ganisa ion, cha ac e ised by he o ma ion o new collec i es and he adop ion o new spa ial
p ac ices, as a esponse o he aus e i y policies p oposed by he ins i u ions.
Chap e 7 o his hesis examines wo speci ic cases: he A oios neighbou hood in Lisbon and he
Os iense neighbou hood in Rome. The session on A oios d aws ex ensi ely on he esea ch conduc ed
by Ma co Alleg a and me (2023) in w i ing he a icle ‘Housing ac i ism and u ban space du ing he
Co id-19 pandemic. Resea ch no es on he Bai o o A oios’. This neighbou hood has apidly
ede eloped om a p oblem a ea associa ed wi h d ugs and p os i u ion o a highly alued
neighbou hood. Howe e , pa allel o his ans o ma ion, non-mains eam cul u al au onomous spaces
known as ‘cole i idades’ ha e eme ged, o e ing a coun e cul u al and poli icised al e na i e o he
specula i e na u e o he neighbou hood. The ocus is on he cole i idade called ‘Si igai a’, which
16
as Nicholls (2008) a gues, p o ides a basic amewo k o s udying how he dynamics o con lic and
con ol be ween ins i u ions and mo emen s change.
In he wo cases highligh ed, HRMs pe cei ed he u ban and e i o ial le el as a po en si e o
mobilisa ion agains inequali ies. The p oduc ion o space hus has he quali ies ha suppo hose
ela ional dynamics ha a e complemen a y in social mo emen ne wo ks (Nicholls, 2008). When
hese ela ional dynamics a e e lec ed in an au onomous space, ac i is ne wo ks become s ong
enough o maximise local mobilising capaci ies and open enough o s imula e he inclusion o new
inno a i e capaci ies in he mo emen , hus becoming poli ical ac o s con ibu ing o he e i o ial
de elopmen o ci ies.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PRODUCTION OF SPACE AND THE CONCEPT
OF DEVELOPMENT IN CONTEMPORARY CITIES
Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) and bluep in o a mo e ‘inclusi e’ ci y
To in oduce he opic o de elopmen in he ci y, one canno ail o men ion he ecen 17 SDGs
bo n a he ([Uni ed Na ions]; he ea e [UN]) Gene al Assembly in 2015, whe e membe coun ies
ag eed o adop his new se o goals o “end po e y, p o ec he plane and ensu e p ospe i y o all”
(Uni ed Na ions, 2015). The SDGs a e much b oade and mo e ambi ious han he p e ious
([Millennium De elopmen Goals]; he ea e [MDGs]) as hey apply o all coun ies o he wo ld and
no jus de eloping coun ies (Li e man, 2018: 177).
The SDGs a e hus a cen al elemen o he ‘Pos -2015 De elopmen Agenda’ ha ocuses on
people, he plane , p ospe i y, and pa ne ship (Uni ed Na ions, 2015). Wi h ega d o he ci y
speci ically, howe e , he e is a signi ican imbalance wi h espec o hese SDGs, as ci ies a e o en
only men ioned o hei po en ial con ibu ion o economic a he han social de elopmen goals
(McG anahan, 2016). Conce ning his, I would a gue ha his is a poin ha needs o be co ec ed
because ci ies ep esen he se ing whe e social con lic s and inequali ies a e exp essed mos isibly
and o ce ully and he e o e ep esen he physical and especially social space whe e he ade-o s
and con adic ions ha hese goals wan o comba can be educed.
The 17 SDGs, soon a e hei publica ion, ha e been widely subjec o c i icism by a ious au ho s
as hey ha e a la ge numbe o goals and a ge s, which a e conside ed oo complex o be easily
unde s ood by ci il socie y and equally complica ed o guide in e na ional policies o achie e hem,
because hey a e oo absolu e o be success ul (Lang o d, 2016; McG anahan, 2016). Fo example, he
Economis , h ough an a icle dedica ed o hem en i led ‘S upid De elopmen Goals’ and he ‘169
commandmen s’, s a ed ha hese goals a e doomed o ailu e (Economis , 2015). O he au ho s, on

17
he o he hand, a gued ha w i en in his absolu is manne , hey a e a way o no decisi ely
add essing he cen al goal o e adica ing human po e y (Li e man, 2018).
O he au ho s ha e no ed ha many o he goals con adic each o he , especially he economic
g ow h goals, which acco ding o Hickel (2015), canno be achie ed wi hou sac i icing many o he
en i onmen al goals also ensh ined in he SDGs, hus s a ing ha he cu en neolibe al economic
model canno coexis wi h an en i onmen ally sus ainable sys em. Hickel he e o e a gues ha he
SDGs seek o educe inequali y h ough g ow h in he income o he op 40% o he wo ld’s popula ion
bu wi hou ouching o edis ibu ing he income o he weal hies 1% (ibid., 2015).
The SDGs ha e no only ecei ed c i icism, bu among he posi i e aspec s ha a ious au ho s
ha e highligh ed is he elimina ion o he di ision be ween de eloped and de eloping coun ies, hus
ecognising he uni e sali y o po e y and, he e o e, he p ocesses ha c ea e i . Acco ding o
Li e man (2018), se ing he goal o educing global inequali ies wi h al e na i e p ac ices and p ojec s
in mind is a big s ep o wa d. Dead and Gabay, on he same poin , see simila i ies wi h he adical La in
Ame ican concep o (‘buen i i ’ i.e. ‘li ing well’), which d aws on indigenous wo ld iews o emphasise
ha mony, communi y, en i onmen , and cul u e (Ca bone, 2018; Dead & Gabay, 2015). In compa ison,
o he au ho s emphasise he impo ance o in oducing gende issues and equi y in o he SDGs
(Bidegain Pon e & En íquez, 2016).
O all he SDGs, he one ha in e es s me mos o his hesis is goal numbe 11, which is en i ely
dedica ed o ‘Sus ainable Ci ies and Communi ies’ (Uni ed Na ions, 2015). This goal has been
emb aced as an acknowledgemen o wha u ban planning schola s ha e sys ema ically a gued and
documen ed, namely ha global social and en i onmen al p oblems canno be add essed wi hou
add essing u banisa ion p ocesses in con empo a y ci ies (Kaika, 2017). In o he wo ds, all he issues
ha ha e been a he cen e o u ban esea ch o se e al decades ( om housing, u ban anspo ,
sani a ion, ai quali y moni o ing and was e managemen o u ban cul u al and na u al he i age) ha e
inally been men ioned in one way o ano he in he b oade SDGs goal 11 o “make ci ies and human
se lemen s inclusi e, sa e, esilien and sus ainable” (Uni ed Na ions, 2015).
In hei wo k, Ba ne and Pa nell (2017) elucida e ha achie ing SDG numbe 11 necessi a es
ho ough heo e ical esea ch and diligen moni o ing and e alua ion. They emphasise he impo ance
o ecognising ci ies’ di e se expe iences and needs, along wi h he dynamic ela ionships and
con ingencies be ween di e en loca ions, global p ocesses, and dispe sed ou comes. This poin abou
he ecognisabili y o u ban expe iences no p oduced by he neolibe al hegemonic sys em bu by ee
ci izens is a cen al poin in his hesis showing how some imes u ban o de can be ep essi e and
ma ginalising. As such, o de o whom? I ep esen s he ope a i e ques ion ha can allow uly
inclusi e u banism o engage wi h policies and p ac ices de eloped om below.
18
Con empo a y ci ies a e con aine s o g owing inequali ies in he a ious popula ion g oups ha
inhabi hem (Chan & McIlwaine, 2015; Rossi, 2017). So much so ha he gap be ween ich and poo
ci izens in mos coun ies is a i s highes le el in 30 yea s (UN Habi a , 2016), his da a in he con ex
o popula ion g ow h wi hin con empo a y ci ies can only ge wo se, and ollowing cu en
u banisa ion pa e ns, hese inequali ies will be isible a he ma gins o ci ies. This is because, many
imes, inequali ies a e accen ua ed by p ecisely hose u banisa ion p ocesses ha make he social
inclusion o he poo classes wi hin ci ies di icul (Secchi, 2013).
In his sense, a concep is used ex ensi ely wi hin he SDGs, namely inclusion, as well as being
embedded wi hin u ban de elopmen issues, being used in some o he mos c i ical public
decla a ions o he 21s cen u y, such as he 2030 agenda and he new u ban agenda. This concep has
become a key aspi a ional poin in he de elopmen lexicon, which implies ha gi en i s massi e and
‘in la ed’ use, i is losing p ecision in i s meaning, coming o be sui able by de ini ion a he han
implica ion (McG anahan, 2016). Only ecen ly, he concep o inclusion was no widely discussed o
emphasised in de elopmen discou se. In he Millennium Decla a ion (Uni ed Na ions, 2015) he e
we e me ely wo men ions o inclusion and exclusion and none in he i les o he MDGs. Howe e ,
a e i een yea s, he 2030 Agenda (which is app oxima ely i e imes longe ) includes 45 e e ences
o inclusion, wi h six o hem e en inco po a ed in o he i les o he SDGs (Uni ed Na ions, 2015).
The Wo ld Bank de ines inclusion as “a p ocess aimed a imp o ing he condi ions unde which
indi iduals and g oups pa icipa e in socie y” and as “enhancing he abili y, oppo uni ies and digni y
o disad an aged people based on hei iden i y o pa icipa e in socie y” (Wo ld Bank, 2013).
Acco ding o McG anahan (2016), inclusion is a concep ha wi hin he SDGs ocuses on he ole o
u banisa ion and he ci y in achie ing u ban social equi y.
In esponse, his hesis would like o adop a de ini ion o inclusion anging om elimina ing
disc imina ion, s eng hening oice in he s uc u es o u ban social mo emen s, and gua an eeing
people’s human igh s. Fu he mo e, inclusion and exclusion e oke spa ial me apho s, which is why
hey a e pa icula ly ele an concep s o his hesis in he u ban con es a ion o e i o y, space, and
place.
The e o e, he Uni ed Na ions (2015) de ini ion o inclusion s a es ha u ban a eas should be
mo e inclusi e owa ds ma ginalised g oups, ensu ing equali y o ci izens. In my opinion, his deg ee
o equali y also includes inc easing he poli ical pa icipa ion o hese ma ginalised g oups, who mus
ha e he oppo uni y no only o use he u ban space a ailable o hem o claim hei igh s bu also
o p oduce hei own spaces and p ac ices o mee needs ha canno be designed om abo e. Again,
ollowing he UN de ini ion, he concep o inclusion is used o “ acili a ing uni e sal access o social
p o ec ion mechanisms, such as social ans e s and heal h insu ance; o g ea e u ban accessibili y;
o g ea e local and na ional go e nmen accoun abili y; o basic land owne ship” (Ibid., 2015).
19
De ined in his echnoc a ic way, i is unlikely ha he concep o he inclusi e ci y can achie e much
meaning, no leas because ci ies and inclusi e u banisa ion a e nowadays de ined only as places
whe e people ind oppo uni ies and ealise hei human po en ial (McG anahan, 2016), hus
dis ega ding he emancipa o y po en ial ha a bo om-up p oduc ion o au onomous space can ha e
o ci izens.
In hese e ms, his hesis in ends o c ea e a egis e o u ban spa iali y ha ecognises
au onomous spa ial p ac ices as spaces wi h solid ans o ma i e powe , bo h u ban and social, and a
socio-geog aphical egis e ha pe manen ly ecognises wi hin hese bo om-up spa ial p ac ices ha
con lic and poli ical claims a e p oduced wi hin hose e i o ies ha a e ans o med di ec ly by hei
inhabi an s. In his way, hey we e ollowing Le eb e’s heo y ha ecognises he buil en i onmen
as a complex social p oduc ion (Le eb e, 1991), unde s anding he weigh o hese expe iences wi h
espec o bo h how he ci y i sel de elops and hei weigh o poli ical nego ia ion conce ning
ins i u ions (Goop u, 2001).
Bo h Agenda 2030 and he New U ban Agenda demons a e a sha ed conce n ega ding he
p e ailing c isis o us be ween ci izens and ins i u ions. This c isis, as no ed by speci ic au ho s, is
exace ba ed by he cu en si ua ion whe e e en in supposedly s able coun ies, he u ban s uc u e
p ima ily elies on he S a e’s imposi ion o “o de and ins i u ion (o he ci y) as a legi ima e locus o
con ol, es ablishing clea bounda ies be ween legal and non-legal” (Cha e ji & Meh a, 2020: 129).
Consequen ly, u ban p ac ices ini ia ed by independen ci izens o en ace ep ession and lack o
suppo . By delinea ing hese bounda ies, he S a e es ablishes a dis inc ion be ween ‘u ban ci izens’
(McG anahan, 2016), who a e pe cei ed as ha ing legi ima e igh s o which he S a e bea s
esponsibili y, and he ‘popula ion’ (Cha e jee, 2004), an inde e mina e and di e se g oup wi hou
ecognised en i lemen s o S a e p o isions.
In con as o his las concep , he ci y is, by de ini ion, a collec i e cons uc ion. I is whe e
inno a ion, inclusion, exploi a ion and injus ice de elop and con on each o he in a complex web o
nodes and disjunc ions inhe en o he u ban condi ion. How u ban spaces and sys ems a e s uc u ed
and ans o med has p o ound consequences on he cohe ence o u ban egimes in e e y e a, as well
as on he powe s and igh s o each collec ion and he communi y as a whole. Fo his eason,
ins i u ions a e ce ainly one o he main ac o s in he u ban ans o ma ions o con empo a y ci ies.
Howe e , in pa allel o hem, ci izens uni ing wi hin u ban social mo emen s con ibu e o he
de elopmen o u ban space p oduc ion and he claim o g ea e cohesion and socio-spa ial jus ice
wi hin con empo a y ci ies.
20
Neolibe al U banisa ion
Be o e in oducing he concep o neolibe al u banisa ion, i is necessa y o cla i y how he model o
he neolibe al sys em has been in e p e ed un il now. This is desc ibed in s uc u al c i icism as a
p ojec ha eme ged in he la e 1970s o es uc u e in e na ional capi alism and es o e he
condi ions o capi al accumula ion (Ha ey, 2003). In his con ex , s a es had o emodel hemsel es
o allow o gene alised economic compe i ion, hus espousing his new economic model. The
neolibe al p ojec has been desc ibed as a model ha is ul ima ely incompa ible wi h democ acy
(Tulumello, 2016) bu which mus come o e ms wi h i in o de o un old; his is especially e iden
conce ning how he economic impe a i e and social adap a ion o he ma ke pushes o a whole ange
o policy a eas such as mone a y policies (bu also u ban de elopmen models) o be excluded om
poli ical deba e. In he cu en collec i e poli ical imagina ion, hese desc ibed dynamics p oduce he
illusion ha he neolibe al model ep esen s he only possible sys em oday.
Neolibe al policies also ha e spa ial consequences (Sage , 2011). The mos ob ious is, on he one
hand, land en and eal es a e asse s, which a e c ucial o inancial specula ion. On he o he hand,
u ban policy is conside ed cen al o he b oade implemen a ion o neolibe al go e nmen s, as in he
case o housing policy ha acili a es capi al accumula ion h ough mo gages and inancial le e s
(Tulumello, 2016: 119). Many schola s, he e o e, ag ee ha he cu en ways ins i u ions p oduce
space a e unc ional o capi al accumula ion (Massey, 2004) as hey a e se wi hin a neolibe al model.
The asse ion o his neolibe al model in u ban poli ics has led many schola s since he 1990s o
in es iga e he impac s o his sys em on he ci y’s social issues (S eeck, 2012). Led se e al o hese
s udies o asse ha u ban neo-libe alisa ion poses a se e e h ea o u ban democ acy (Pu cell,
2006), u he acknowledging ha con empo a y ci ies unde he neolibe al economic sys em a e
d i en and designed by ma ke -d i en u banism, i.e., whe e space is concei ed and designed o ollow
he “logic o he ma ke a he han he needs o i s inhabi an s” (Baya , 2012: 111), i.e., p io i ising
economic g ow h akes p ecedence o e sa egua ding he social igh s o ci izenship.
As Ha ey poin s ou , neo-libe alisa ion as an en ep eneu ial model o social and economic
de elopmen is closely linked o he u banisa ion o ci ies, as i in luences how u ban go e nance is
a icula ed, especially as a consequence o he ecu ing c ises ha began o a ec capi alis
economies om 1973 onwa ds (Ha ey, 1989) and in pa icula in coun ies pe iphe al o he Eu opean
con ex , i.e., sou he n Eu opean coun ies, whe e ac o s such as; eal es a e ma ke -based
economies, specula i e o eign eal es a e in es men s, weake ins i u ional amewo ks o egula ing
he sec o ha e led o a mo e signi ican and mo e agg essi e impac han in o he coun ies
(Tulumello, 2022a).
21
I can he e o e a gue ha i u banisa ion was one o he d i e s o neolibe al economic
de elopmen , his de elopmen was p ima ily achie ed “ h ough loans and deb s ha con ibu ed o
he specula i e bubble in he eal es a e ma ke s and he ou b eak o he 2007/08 c isis, i s in he
Uni ed S a es, hen in sou he n Eu opean ci ies” (Tulumello e al., 2020: 7). This has led many schola s
o in e ha he pos -2007 global c isis, which I will explain in la e chap e s, was, in ac , a c isis o
neolibe al u banisa ion, bo n ou o he in es men s in he p oduc ion o space made by he ci ies o
con empo a y capi alism (Ga cia, 2010; Ha ey, 2012; Seixas e al., 2016; Tulumello e al., 2020).
Ci ies and u banisa ion, he e o e, a e in a e y close ela ionship wi h neolibe al policies, being
he main si e o p oduc ion and ex ac ion o su plus in u ban space. A he same ime, hei
in e wining de ines he u ban spa ial o de (Ha ey, 1989: 5). In pa icula , neolibe al u banism
consis en ly p oduces spa ialised social inequali ies (Ha ey, 2003) p ac ised h ough he eplacemen
o u ban commons in p i a e p ope y as one o he main modes o su plus gene a ion (Maye , 2013:
3).
In ecen decades, as al eady men ioned, one o he mos ele an ea u es o he e olu ion o
con empo a y socie ies has been he exponen ial inc ease in social inequali y o which neolibe al
policies ha e ailed o p o ide an answe , some imes agg a a ing hem. In he wo ds o he u ban
planne Secchi, own planning in his p ocess has had a s ong and p ecise esponsibili y in agg a a ing
inequali ies, s a ing u he ha he design o a uly mo e inclusi e ci y mus be one o he s a ing
poin s o any policy ha aims o elimina e o educe hem (Secchi, 2013).
Thus, he s a egies o neolibe al u banism in ecen decades ha e been linked o he he o ic o
economic g ow h and compe i i eness based on p i a e ini ia i es, local en ep eneu ship,
p i a isa ion o public se ices, iscal aus e i y measu es and educ ion o public spending, de egula ed
and mo e lexible planning ins umen s and public-p i a e pa ne ship in e en ions (Rossini, 2017:
62). In he wake o g ow h, he e o e, he sec o s ha ha e bene i ed he mos ha e been he in e es s
o p i a e eli es, while a he same ime gene a ing mobilisa ions anima ed by ci izens and social
mo emen s in e es ed mo e in he p oduc ion o space abou i s unc ion o use a he han alue.
This hesis will discuss why con empo a y ci ies’ housing c isis and u ban specula ion should be ead
as a c isis immanen o neolibe al u banism and social ep oduc ion (G azioli, 2018: 23).
Reassessmen o he concep ‘Righ o he Ci y’ in he neolibe al con ex
Hen i Le eb e (1968) de eloped he ‘ igh o he ci y’ no ion based on he ci y’s pi o al ole in he
capi alis sys em and his pe cep ion o he ci y as an a is ic c ea ion. Acco ding o Le eb e, he ci y is
de ined as an a is ic wo k shaped by he e e yday ac ions o i s inhabi an s. The e o e, he igh o
he ci y encompasses he eedom o inhabi , eclaim, and p oduce u ban space acco ding o one’s

22
e ms wi hou being aliena ed by he mechanisms and p ocesses o u ban li e (Le eb e, 1996 [1968]).
Consequen ly, he ‘ igh o he ci y’ en ails he aspi a ion o expanded igh s wi hin he u ban con ex ,
including he demands o a ious new u ban mo emen s (Fou nie , 2002), who p ima ily seek g ea e
social jus ice o libe a e hemsel es om capi alis exploi a ion (Fede ici e al., 2012) wi hin
con empo a y ci y e i o ies.
Acco ding o he li e a u e on he igh o he ci y, mobilisa ions wi hin u ban a eas eme ge as a
eac ion o ‘neolibe al u banisa ion’ and u ilise local o ganisa ions o ini ia e campaigns o a mo e
equi able and imp o ed ci y (Ha ey, 2003; Ma cuse, 2009; Mi chell, 2003; Nicholls & Beaumon , 2004;
Pu cell, 2006, 2008; S aeheli & Mi chell, 2016). I is a gued ha ac i is s’ claims a e oo ed in ci ies
because hei poli ical goals a e u ban. The cen al idea is ha he igh o he ci y can be used o
c ea e one’s communi y iden i y om he social and poli ical emaking and cons uc ion o he ci y
whe e one li es (Ha ey, 2003; Le eb e, 1996 [1968]).
On he o he hand, acco ding o se e al au ho s, he ‘ igh o he ci y’ canno be analysed as a
human igh ; his is because, on he one hand, i may gi e less alue o he subjec i e expe iences o
di e en ci y dwelle s (S ephenson & Papadopoulos, 2006); while on he o he hand, since he ‘ igh
o he ci y’ includes he collec i is s as a ounding p inciple o u ban p ac ices (A oh, 2011), i would
disembody he ci izen om his subjec i e ai s.
Mo eo e , he e olu iona y igu e Le eb e named o exe cise he ‘ igh o he ci y’ was he
wo king class o he 1960s, which was adically ans o med du ing he ansi ion o a pos -Fo dis
mode o p oducing u ban space (Biagi, 2019). The e o e, acco ding o his c i ique, he condi ions
unde which his concep was o mula ed by he au ho no longe exis oday and he e o e, he no ion
o he ‘ igh o he ci y’ needs o be e o mula ed as much as he main subjec o he analysis has been
ans o med, namely he wo king class, which in addi ion o losing many numbe s has assimila ed new
subjec i i ies in ecen yea s, mo e emale, mo e acialised, wo king mo e in se ices and ca e, his in
o de o i o become a use ul analy ical ool o analysing he con empo a y space p oduc ion o
u ban mo emen s wi hin ci ies.
This concep has in i sel a b oad po en ial o emancipa ion as i can link a ious ypes o igh s,
which is why I a gue ha i has been chosen as a slogan o s uggle by many g ass oo s mo emen s in
many Eu opean ci ies. The cu en e olu iona y igu e, he e o e, could be composed o hose g oups
o people and communi ies who ound hemsel es in he si ua ion o ha ing o pool subjec i e
p eca i y no ecognised unde he dogma o social class and came oge he wi h o he popula
mo emen s o claim he ‘ igh o he ci y’ h ough he p oduc ion o au onomous spaces in e i o ies
(Biagi, 2019). Fu he mo e, con empo a y u ban mili an s as ci y dwelle s a e no longe he wo king
class desc ibed by Le eb e. Howe e , hey a e mo e hose subjec s who ha e ea ned he igh o
23
ans o m u ban space hanks mainly o hei own expe ience and u ban s uggles, hus esembling
he concep o he ci izen Le eb e expounded (Le eb e, 1996 [1968]).
Acco ding o a ious au ho s, he spaces implemen ing au onomy can be seen as u ban commons
ha coun e he p e ailing neolibe al end (Lazza a o, 2012; Pu cell, 2006). The e o e, his hesis
de ines he ‘ igh o he ci y’ as a collec i e poli ics o encoun e s un olding wi hin au onomous spaces
ou side he dominan model. These spaces gene a e au onomous spa ial p ac ices using e e yday
esou ces o u ban social ep oduc ion (Biagi, 2019; De Ce eau, 1984; Me i ield, 2011; Picke ill &
Cha e on, 2006; Pu cell, 2006).
Da id Ha ey u he quali ies he ‘ igh o he ci y’ as a demand o cu en u ban mo emen s and
as a pi o al concep o acknowledge and comp ehend he p oli e a ion o hese au onomous p ac ices
amids he u ban c isis (Ha ey, 2008, 2012). Ha ey unde sco es he signi icance o he ‘ igh o he
ci y’ in highligh ing he mul i ude o u ban commons and he o ganisa ional capaci ies o he u ban
p ole a ia , which, as he successo o he Fo dis wo king class, becomes he e olu iona y subjec
capable o deepening he con adic ion o capi al. Ha ey a gues ha “ he igh o he ci y in his guise
can be a powe ul ool o challenge he indi idualis ic, p op ie a y, and compe i i e logic o
neolibe alism, empowe ing u ban dwelle s o claim an au onomous and bo om-up p oduc ion o
space undamen ally and adically” (Ha ey, 2012: 5). Consequen ly, Ha ey aims o ele a e he ‘ igh
o he ci y’ as an inalienable and collec i e igh o humani y.
Expanding on his concep , Ma ghe i a G azioli (2017) posi s ha he con empo a y e-e alua ion
o he ‘ igh o he ci y’ ep esen s an ope a ional p e igu a i e poli ics unc ioning on h ee key le els.
Fi s ly, i exposes he unde lying logic behind he de as a ing impac s o global capi alism on he
e e yday ma e iali y o many u ban esiden s who we e p e iously ma ginalised as indeb ed
indi iduals. Secondly, i disman les he assump ion ha neolibe alism is an ine i able, na u al, and
unchallenged o ce (Fou nie , 2002). Las ly, i engages in spa ial p oduc ion o ma e ialise u opian
isions ha a e no a bluep in o a pe ec socie y bu seek o c ea e spaces o possibili y and
es ablish he condi ions o hei de elopmen and sus ainabili y (G azioli, 2017).
This las poin includes, in my iew, also hose ac s o e-app op ia ion and c ea ion o space
pe o med by HRMs, which help o ma e ialise he ‘ igh o he ci y’ in he sense jus desc ibed, i.e.
“by aking hese spaces away om neolibe al p o i -making use and dis up ing he cen al logic o
capi alis hough o p i a e owne ship o capi alis u banisa ion” (Maye , 2013: 364). The e o e, he
eme gence o hese au onomous spaces p oduces new possibili ies o independen u ban
egene a ion and new o ms o ci izenship. The egene a ion o hese au onomous spaces away om
he model o ex ac i e specula ion, he e o e, emo es he neolibe al model o spaces om he logic
o ha ing o con inue acqui ing mone a y alue by e u ning hem o communi ies o hei use alue
24
ha p e ails o e exchange and ma ke alue, hus opposing he concep o ‘de elopmen ’ imposed
by neolibe al u banism.
THE PRODUCTION OF SPACE BY THE HOUSING-RIGHTS MOVEMENTS
Housing-Righ s Mo emen (HRM)
As emphasised in he p e ious pa ag aphs, he neolibe al ans o ma ion o policies has inc eased he
weigh o capi al accumula ion dynamics in he housing ma ke o such an ex en ha i has
de e mined u ban de elopmen and housing pa e ns. This ma ke -d i en p i a ised housing model
hus p o ides op imal condi ions o sus ain capi al accumula ion (Ha ey, 2012). The e o e, his excess
o capi alis accumula ion based on eal es a e has decisi ely des abilised he p ocesses unde pinning
social ep oduc ion and, hus, he p oduc ion o space in con empo a y ci ies. Fo hese easons, he
ecen u ban ans o ma ions ha ha e aken place in he wo case s udy ci ies can only be analysed
by analysing he housing policies enac ed o os e hese accumula ion p ocesses.
I a gue in his hesis ha he an agonis ic ac o o his model based on he p oduc ion o ma ke
space o specula i e and accumula ion pu poses is ep esen ed by hose ci izens o ganised wi hin he
HRM. Ou discussion hus unde s ands HRM as poli icised collec i e ac i i ies o edis ibu e social
igh s. In his sense, I can be helped by de ini ion om Mi lin, ha de ines mo emen as an
o ganisa ion ha goes beyond he speci ic o ganisa ional o m o e e o an ongoing p ocess o
mobilisa ion: “Mo emen s go beyond o malised ac o s and include he mo e nebulous,
uncoo dina ed and cyclical o ms o collec i e ac ion, popula p o es and ne wo ks ha se e o link
o ganised and dispe sed ac o s in p ocesses o social mobilisa ion” (Mi lin, 2006: 17).
These u ban mo emen s ha e been he subjec o coun less u ban s udies in ecen yea s because
he ci y is no only he s age whe e he s uggle o hei claims akes place bu also he ul ima e goal
o hei ac ion (Cas ells, 1983). E en hough hese mo emen s ha I will analyse in his hesis claim
he igh o housing, i.e. a s uggle o imp o e he condi ions and access o housing o he many
amilies o whom his igh is excluded, h ough hei ecen e olu ion, hey ha e elabo a ed hei
claims o he poin o ealising ha igh ing o housing means igh ing o a whole o he se ies o
human igh s, hus de eloping he concep o ‘ igh o housing’ (A ma i, 2015; G azioli, 2021), which
does no only mean claiming he igh o ha e ou walls o li e in bu abo e all o ha e access o all
he social se ices ha can be ound in an u ban con ex . In o he wo ds, hey claim he igh o he
ci y o be ecognised as ac i e ci izens in p oducing knowledge and de elopmen wi hin con empo a y
ci ies.
25
Social mo emen o ganisa ions claiming he igh o housing ha e usually been conside ed as
speci ic examples o u ban social mo emen s claiming he a o emen ioned ‘ igh o he ci y’. This is
because, as I ha e explained in p e ious sec ions, i is a concep ha ul ils many di e en asks,
encompassing a ious igh s claimed by his mo emen , such as he igh o public space, in o ma ion
and anspa ency in go e nmen and se ices (Ma cuse, 2009).
Cas ells was one o he i s au ho s o de ine u ban social mo emen s, desc ibing hem as
“mo emen s ha conside hemsel es linked o he ci y, based on locali y and mobilised a ound h ee
main objec i es: collec i e consump ion, cul u al iden i y and poli ical sel -managemen ” (Cas ells,
1983: 7). They a e he e o e mo emen s ha ope a e in ci y e i o ies while ha ing a b oade and
some imes in e na ionalis poli ical analysis (Moye soen, 2010). In he ollowing chap e s, I will
analyse how he HRMs unde s udy do no expe ience he ci y as a whole. Howe e , he ci y is
expe ienced in i s u ban and neighbou hood dimensions.
The claims made by HRMs ha e hus been exp essed on he e i o ies h ough e-app op ia ion
ac ions and bo om-up communi y-building p ocesses, p oac i ely coun e ac ing he capi alis
exclusi i y o he commons. These eapp op ia ed spaces become places o imagine, expe imen and
nego ia e daily he sha ing and e-app op ia ion o di e en aspec s o social ep oduc ion and he
di ision o labou (Kokkinidis, 2015). Thus, no only housing bu also heal h and decision-making
consensus unde condi ions o plu ali y and so on.
Conside ing he ‘ igh o he ci y’ wi hin he con ex o HRMs ac ion e eals insigh s in o he
expansion o he p esen -day neolibe al u ban s uc u e (Ha ey, 2012), as well as he po en ial o
in oduce a ied and con en ious poli ical app oaches o add ess he inequali ies esul ing om social
ep oduc ion and neolibe al u ban go e nance (G azioli, 2017). This p ocess necessi a es e-e alua ing
he hie a chical spa ial o ganisa ion inhe en in he neolibe al no ion o he ci y. No ably, any
unoccupied u ban space holds he po en ial o se e as a pla o m o au onomous HRM p ac ices. The
poli ical poin o iew o hese Mo emen s in e-e alua ing he no ion o he ‘ igh o he ci y’ in he
ligh o he ongoing housing c isis and social ep oduc ion means, acco ding o Ma ghe i a G azioli
(2018: 115): “assuming he symbolic dea h o he neolibe al ci y”.
In his sense, in his hesis, I will analyse hose mo emen s ha , as Ha ey de ends, “seek o
o e come isola ion and y o eshape he ci y in o a social image di e en om ha gi en by he
powe s o de elope s backed by inance, co po a e capi al and an inc easingly en ep eneu ial local
S a e appa a us” (Ha ey, 2008: 33). Housing is o en he mos challenging elemen in o e coming his
isola ion. Especially in ecen yea s, he housing ma ke has gained mo e and mo e poli ical powe o
he ex en ha i has become he p incipal p omo e o housing policies and, hus, in he ci y’s
cons uc ion. The condi ions o housing ha dship in he wo case s udies I will analyse ha e inc eased
due o spi alling cos s and o e c owding.
32
(G o h & Co jin, 2005). These p ac ices in ol e imagining and expe imen ing wi h al e na i e solu ions
o local p oblems h ough collec i e o ms o ‘p ojec -ac ion’ (Cellama e, 2011) and ‘insu ec ional
u banism’ (Hols on, 2009), which e e s o how ma ginalised g oups can s a egically u ilise u ban
space o esis opp ession and asse hei agency. These p ac ices, he e o e, ha e as hei p ima y
objec i e o delegi imise he so e eign y o o mal ac o s o e he p oduc ion o u ban space in ci ies
(Roy, 2007), hus demons a ing ha “people can plan o hemsel es and o ac coope a i ely in he
o ganisa ion o physical space” (Newman, 2011: 348).
The ci y, he e o e, has been he subjec o coun less s udies ha ha e de ined i as he place
whe e di e en classes o ci izens coexis , albei in compe i ion, o p oduce an o dina y li e and
h ough a collec i e cons uc ion o space, hus p oducing, in one way o ano he , a collec i e cul u al
iden i y h ough he c ea ion o so-called u ban communi ies (Ha ey, 2012). Today, again, acco ding
o Ha ey (2012), howe e , he e is a loss iden i y in hese u ban communi ies due p ecisely o he
one-way na a i e imposed by neolibe al u banism ha has ied (unsuccess ully) o deny he
possibili y o building new o ms o ela ionships and p oduc ion o new social spaces in an u ban
p ocess domina ed by class capi alis in e es s.
In cases whe e o ganised ci izens ha e b oken his na a i e jus desc ibed, h ough p ocesses no
ecognised as ‘legi ima e’ by ins i u ional o ces, he condi ions ha e been c ea ed o a (s ill ongoing)
s uggle o app op ia e public spaces and public goods in he ci y o a common pu pose (Ha ey, 2012:
73). These new spaces, he e o e, by he me e ac o being c ea ed wi hin he e i o ies, opposing
he dominan logic, indi ec ly gene a e a con lic o poli ical isions o de elopmen be ween he
ins i u ional o ces and hose o he mo emen .
Al hough hese au onomous spaces se e almos he same unc ions, hey a e in con as o he
classic public spaces, which a e now homogenous and con olled. Howe e , hey a e neglec ed and
o en elega ed as u ban oids in he maps o he neolibe al ci y (Shaw & Hudson, 2009). Public spaces
ha e been de ined by some au ho s as “all a eas ha a e open and accessible o all membe s o he
public in a socie y” (O um & Neal, 2009: 1). Howe e , he inc easing p i a isa ion o public spaces
(Bona ede & Lo Piccolo, 2011), which a e ma kedly mo e consume -o ien ed, is leading o exclusi i y
o wha ha e always been spaces a ailable o he whole communi y, so much so ha i has led a ious
au ho s o speak o he ‘dea h o public space’ as hey a e inc easingly p i a ised, commodi ied and
sani ised (Biagi, 2019).
The en i e public space, he e o e, becomes, e en mo e he elec ed space o HRMs p o es s
p ecisely o eco e an u ban common h ough an insu ec ional p ac ice (Bona ede & Lo Piccolo,
2011). Th ough hese p o es p ac ices, HRM con on s he S a e in space, which, h ough di e en
ac o s and means, ies o p e en he o e h ow o he (neolibe al) comme cial model o space
p oduc ion. This duel be ween he S a e and he mo emen s is con igu ed, acco ding o Ca lo a

33
Caciagli (2022), h ough wo cen al p o es dynamics: isibili y and iolence. Thus, in his con ex , bo h
ac o s s uggle in he u ban a ena o a monopoly on he use o iolence and isibili y, and con olling
hese wo aspec s o p o es gi es hem con ol o e he dominan pa adigm o ha o esis ance. By
eapp op ia ing space, he mo emen s’ p ima y objec i e is o change he s uc u e o he u ban space
p oposed by neolibe al u banism, and o his e y eason ha his change o s uc u e cons an ly
su e s ep ession by ins i u ional ac o s because i is no in line wi h he neolibe al u ban p ojec .
Thus, in he con ex o he widesp ead e osion o public space (B and & Ga ikin, 2007), ci izens
can eplace he S a e as he sole p oduce o space h ough p ecisely he p oduc ion o au onomous
spaces. They we e demons a ing a undamen al ole in ongoing u ban ans o ma ions and in he
p oduc ion and managemen o public spaces, whe e h ough hese au onomous p ac ices, hey can
p o ide local answe s o global p oblems (Nig elli, 2005). The e o e, h ough he p oduc ion o hese
au onomous spaces, he dominan idea ha a single, hegemonic in e p e a ion is no imposed is also
ques ioned, demons a ing ha neolibe al u banisa ion is no he only p ocess o he p oduc ion o
space wi hin con empo a y ci ies.
The social mo emen s and con lic s ha occu in u ban spaces cons i u e one o he mos
in luen ial ac o s in he social o ma ion o he ci y (Ha ey, 2012). This is he case oday because,
hanks o he ongoing neolibe al o ensi e in ou ci ies, he e has been a educ ion in he ole o he
ins i u ional le in p omo ing social igh s p og ammes ha a e also e lec ed in he con ol o public
space (Bauman, 2008). This is why, o da e, he only al e na i e p oduced o he model o neolibe al
u banism is no encoun e ed a any ins i u ional le el. The only o ms o esis ance o his come om
o ganised ci izens wi hin u ban social mo emen s.
These eali ies, howe e , always deal wi h he powe o he ma ke and he S a e in many ways.
Al hough hey a e opposed o hem, as analysed by F ase (2017), he ac ha some new mo emen s
cu en ly seem o end o ake an i-S a e posi ions depends pa ly on he lack o genuine pa icipa o y
democ acy wi hin u ban planning decisions and pa ly on he lack o ep esen a i eness on he pa o
hose ci izens who, ecognising hemsel es as le -wing, no longe ind any pa y o which hey can
delega e hei demands. Fo hese easons, in his hesis, I will analyse he de elopmen o hese u ban
mo emen s ha show, con a y o ins i u ional poli ics, a new phase o g ow h in he in ol emen and
poli ical pa icipa ion o ci izens, o which he ins i u ional pa ies no longe seem able o espond.
The p oduc ion o au onomous spaces, he e o e, ep esen s one o he ools used by HRMs o
exploi and con i m a pa icula powe ela ionship and hus ep esen s one o he main places whe e
deba e/con lic is gene a ed be ween hose who ha e p oduced hem ( he mo emen s) and hose
whose space has been aken away om hem by con ol ( he ins i u ions) (Fiske e al., 2019).
The e o e, exploi ed people can o ganise hemsel es and ealise al e na i e pa adigms in he space
p oduced by he capi alis model. Indeed, he dominan sys em cons an ly p oduces abandoned
34
spaces a ce ain imes as disca ded spaces, which can be help ul o be eapp op ia ed by hose ci izens
who wan o shape new o ms o spa ial o ganisa ion om below (Caciagli, 2022).
While many schola s, he e o e, ha e ocused in he pas only and exclusi ely on wha ype o
claims and wha kind o con lic was gene a ed be ween mo emen and ins i u ions, I belie e ha i
becomes essen ial o s udy how sec o s o ci izenship o ganise hemsel es, ocusing on how he
p oduc ion o space by mo emen s can be one o he al e na i es o u ban and social de elopmen
and ans o ma ion in con empo a y ci ies. This is also one o hei mos isible exp essions p ecisely
because hey a e physical spaces embedded in e i o ies and no jus a cons uc ion o ideological
poli ical claims. In he cu en si ua ion o economic and social c isis, hei exis ence and o ien a ion
may be p eponde an in p e en ing he appa en e e sible ad ance owa ds e e g ea e inequali y
and social p eca i y o he p og ession owa ds scena ios o g ea e equali y and democ acy. Thus, due
o he u gen condi ions subsidised by he c isis, as s a ed by Nel (2015), as inequali ies inc eased,
hese au onomous spaces seemed o ake on a mo e social cha ac e due o hei abili y o o e
mee ing spaces o he e i o ial communi ies whe e hey a e loca ed.
Among he cen al claims o hese HRM- un spaces, he e o e, is no only he igh o housing bu
also a poli icised es uc u ing o exis ing con en ional ela ions o social ep oduc ion (Fede ici, 2010;
Fou nie , 2002; F ase , 2017). In di ec opposi ion o neolibe al no ms, hey ace he challenge o
imagining and expe imen ing wi h new li ing o ms. The main objec i e is o egain con ol o ou
e e yday social expe iences wi hin ci ies and also o ensu e he necessa y condi ions o hese
au onomous p ac ices o emain ali e as one o he pos -capi alis possibili ies imagined by o ganised
ci izens, despi e and agains he neolibe al model o socie y (Cha e on & Picke ill, 2010; Fou nie ,
2002; G azioli, 2017). Wi hin hese p ocesses, hen, mainly when analysed in so-called democ a ic
S a es, u ban social mo emen s ep esen one o he ew legi ima e sou ces o powe a ailable o
hose “ci izens who ha e ew poli ical esou ces and become poli ically e ec i e only h ough
collec i e ac ion” (Moo e, 2003: 273).
The spa ial con lic be ween he poli ical p ac ice o HRM and he ep ession o ins i u ions
Gi en he pola isa ion o hese wo opposing iewpoin s, con lic seems ine i able in he ci y’s space,
and his una oidable con lic is made mo e complex and mo e complica ed by libe al ins i u ions as
hey lea e no space o i s exp ession (Mou e, 2000). These au onomous spaces c ea e di e en
deg ees o con lic wi hin he u ban a ena (dispu es a ising be ween ci izens and local au ho i ies,
con lic s be ween occupan s and public o p i a e owne s, e c.), uelled by he di e en hegemonic
ca ego ies ha desc ibe he a ious u ban expe iences as legi ima e o illegi ima e, legal o illegal, hus
p e en ing he exe cise o he ue ‘ igh o he ci y’, since, as Le eb e poin s ou , “ he igh o he
35
ci y emphasises he need o es uc u e he powe ela ions ha unde lie he p oduc ion o u ban
space, undamen ally shi ing con ol om he capi al and he S a e o he inhabi an s o he ci y”
(Le eb e, 1996 [1968]: 145).
By conduc ing a his o ical examina ion o u ban changes and he demands o hese mo emen s, I
will demons a e ha in ense class con lic s ha e ma ked he ci ies unde in es iga ion and s uggles
cen ed on he edis ibu ion o powe dynamics be ween he S a e and mo emen s. This con lic has
equen ly compelled u ban adminis a ions o deli e essen ial public esou ces (such as a o dable
public housing, heal hca e, educa ion, pa ed oads, sani a ion, wa e , e c.) o he u banised wo king
class (Ha ey, 2012). Neolibe al u banisa ion, howe e , has in ecen yea s gene a ed a se ies o side
e ec s widely acknowledged by many au ho s whe e he cu en mode o space p oduc ion has
gene a ed new u ban p oblems such as he gen i ica ion o ci ies; he se e e sho age o a o dable
housing; he c isis o public spaces; he was e o public land and buildings; he se e e sho age o
se ices and spaces o social ac i i ies; and he in ensi ica ion o u ban agmen a ion (Caciagli, 2022;
G azioli, 2021; Nicholls, 2009; Rossini, 2017; Tulumello, 2019).
The e o e, he HRMs’ asse ion o he concep o he igh o he ci y also mean a desi e o egain
con ol o e he p oduc ion o space wi hin he u ban ab ic. Acco ding o Ha ey, his e-
app op ia ion occu s “only when he e is an unde s anding ha hose who build and sus ain u ban li e
ha e a p ima y igh o wha hey ha e p oduced” (Ha ey, 2012: 12). Mo eo e , when his ealisa ion
occu s on he pa o HRMs, i esul s in “an ine i able con lic be ween he o ces o exploi a ion and
dispossession and hese mo emen s” (Hols on, 2009: 251). Acco ding o a ious au ho s, his con lic
o e pu ely spa ial issues is also uelled by an inabili y on he pa o ins i u ional ac o s o con on
his con lic ual dialec ic imposed by mo emen s (F iedmann, 1987; Hols on, 2009).
The concep o con lic has been ex ensi ely analysed in social science and u ban social mo emen
s udies, de ining i as a dis up i e o ce ha causes imbalances in a sys em o in e ela ed pa s, bu
a he same ime, has been desc ibed as a po en ially posi i e o ce ha can p omo e change,
in eg a ion, and adap abili y (Bona ede & Lo Piccolo, 2011; F iedmann, 1987; Hols on, 2009).
U ban mo emen s ha e always used con lic as one o he main ools o ac ion o make hemsel es
hea d. Wha is ela i ely new oday is ha he ini ia o s o hese con lic s a e no longe jus he u ban
poo (clea ly hey a e oo), bu he cu en mo emen s a e also composed o ci izens, mos ly middle
class, o ganised agains S a e policies ha a e simul aneously pe pe a ing aus e i y p og ammes and
luxu y u ban enewal ha a e linked o he sale (and hus p i a isa ion) o he public ci y o local o
ansna ional economic eli es who hold powe (Rossini, 2017: 78). The p ac ices de eloped wi hin
hese au onomous spaces hus add ess “a clea e and b oade de ini ion o he public ha no only
can access so-called public space bu can also be empowe ed o c ea e new common spaces o
socialisa ion and poli ical ac ion” (Ha ey, 2012: x ii).
36
Va ious au ho s ha e cha ac e ised hese spaces in di e se ways due o hei complex ela ionship
wi h ins i u ions. Fo ins ance, hey ha e been e e ed o as ‘coun e -powe spaces’ (Memb e i,
2007), as a eas ha enable ‘ eedom o mo emen ’ ou side he pe asi e con ol o u ban public
spaces, as ‘s a es o excep ion om below’ and si es o ‘exodus’ om ins i u ional s uc u es (Vi no,
2017), as ‘au onomous geog aphies’ (G azioli, 2021), and as he ‘mul iplica ion o agonis ic public
spaces’ (Biagi, 2019). These spaces o en expose wha public powe seeks o conceal, se ing as si es
whe e exis ing hegemony is disman led, and new p ac ices a e es ablished o c ea e a mo e egali a ian
model and a genuinely democ a ic con igu a ion.
Gi en wha is a s ake in e hinking spaces o new social ep oduc ion, i is no su p ising ha
ac i is s a e a ge s o he o ces o ep ession (Ma ínez, 2014). Thei he e ogeneous social
composi ion aims o expe imen wi h ep essi e o ms whe e he main objec i e is o p e en he
ep oducibili y o hese spaces and policies de ined as socially dange ous because hey ques ion he
cu en model o de elopmen o he neolibe al ci y.
These ep essi e ac ions a e mos isible du ing p o es e en s in public places. HRMs
o ganisa ions a e no he only ac o s shaping spaces du ing hese e en s: he S a e, he police, and
local ins i u ions, compe e o app op ia e u ban space (Caciagli, 2022). They a e engaged in he spaces
o p o es as hey y o s op i (Tilly & Ta ow, 2015: 37) o minimise i s isibili y as much as possible
wi h “ he aim o main aining he es ablished o de on exis ing spa ial dynamics” (Ve loo, 2018: 147).
The S a e does no only ha e he police a i s disposal as an ins umen o con ol o e mo emen s
whe e police iolence in demons a ions is only he inal s ep in a b oade disciplina y sys em o socie y
(Foucaul , 1975) whose main objec i e is o ‘no malise’ au onomous p ac ices in u ban space. The
ins i u ional app oach wi h espec o he con lic gene a ed, analysing di e en ([Eu opean Union];
he ea e [EU]) coun ies, o con ol au onomous/al e na i e p ac ices in he u ban agenda,
conce ning spa ial p ac ices we e summa ised by a s udy by Luisa Rossini (2017: 361):
1. ‘Selec i e negligence’: whe e he S a e is unable o unin e es ed in esol ing he con lic
si ua ion; i implies igno ing he la en p oblem o con lic si ua ion and con ining i o a
‘behind- he-scenes’ posi ion.
2. ‘Space con ol’ (wi hin which he app oaches a e g ouped):
2a) Rep essi e s a egies: ep ession, s igma isa ion, and c iminalisa ion o hese p ac ices
lead o wa es o e ic ions, he in ensi ica ion o coe ci e policies, and he c ea ion o an i-
e o is pools ha ea hese mo emen s as a dange ous o ganised o m o social
de iance and sub e si e conspi acy.
37
2b) Con ainmen s a egies: These a e linked o o ms o legalisa ion, mos ly empo a y
(‘selec i e in eg a ion’, empo al alloca ion, ‘ empo a y uses’), which conce n he
echnical-disciplina y ield.
3. ‘In eg a ion/co-op a ion’: This app oach in ol ed he inclusion o bo om-up s a egies in
‘ci y b anding’ policies, such as ‘ empo a y uses’ o u ban enewal s a egies.
These ins i u ional app oaches hus ep esen how hese wo ac o s dialogue and s uggle o he
p oduc ion o space wi hin ci ies. This occu s h ough a ying deg ees o di ec con lic and has
some imes esul ed in a co-op ion o hese au onomous p ac ices o be included wi hin new
ins i u ional egula o y and no ma i e ins umen s. Fu he mo e, his co-op a ion has been in luenced
by he g owing sca ci y o esou ces om public ins i u ions (P uij , 2003), making hem mo e
ecep i e o emb acing al e na i e p ac ices p oposed by ci izens, e en i hey a e non-
con on a ional. This end is pa icula ly p onounced as capi alis ci ies ha e adop ed he ‘c ea i e
ci y’ heo y ad oca ed by Flo ida (Colomb, 2012; Shaw, 2005). Consequen ly, co-op a i e app oaches
a e a ou ed, and he e is a ecogni ion o he addi ional alue gene a ed by al e na i e cul u al spaces
o igina ing om g ass oo s ini ia i es.
In his hesis, I will analyse hose spaces ha main ain a hyb id app oach wi h espec o wha has
been desc ibed abo e, as hey ep esen spaces whe e adical ac i i ies and con on a ion on bo h
public policy and he p oduc ion o au onomous spaces a e p ac ised, and likewise ep esen spaces
o cul u al and a is ic esis ance ha enjoy g ea e eedom o ac ion on he pa o ins i u ions
a ou ing collabo a ion wi h he S a e (Maye , 2009; Rossini, 2017).
The S a e’s app oaches can be dis illed in o wo p ima y discu si e amewo ks ega ding hese
spaces. On he one hand, hey a e ini ia i es ha os e sel -managed al e na i e solu ions o u ban
issues. On he o he hand, hey can be ca ego ised as ins ances o social de iance, illegal ac ions seen
as u ban secu i y conce ns ha need o be supp essed o empo a ily ole a ed as a means o
paci ica ion and social con ol (Hols on, 2009; Rossini, 2017).
Th ough wha has been analysed in his chap e , I can s a e ha one o he cen al ques ions o
he mo emen s analysed in his hesis will be ha o he ecogni ion o hese au onomous spaces bo n
in u ban e i o ies, which is closely connec ed o one o he mos commonly asked ques ions by hese
ins i u ions, namely ‘ o whom does he ci y belong? In he ollowing chap e s, I will analyse he
s a egies bo h hese ac o s ha e used a he u ban le el o asse hei model, wha kind o ci y has
been gene a ed, and o whom. I will also analyse he deg ees o con lic gene a ed by hese wo
dicho omous poin s o iew and examine wha speci ic poin s o con ac ha e o med om his
con lic .

38
39
CHAPTER 3. Me hodological Plan
INTRODUCTION TO ACTIVIST ETHNOGRAPHY METHODOLOGY
The choice o elabo a e on a doc o al hesis p ojec analysing how bo h ins i u ions and HRM
con ibu e o he ci y’s de elopmen h ough he p oduc ion o space wi hin he u ban ab ic in he
wo chosen case s udies was undoub edly challenging. This di icul y is mainly because, in addi ion o
analysing he p ac ices o hese mo emen s as an academic esea che , I am simul aneously an ac i is
wi hin he mo emen s hemsel es, bo h in Lisbon and Rome. In o de o compa e he di ec and
indi ec in e ac ions ha exis be ween hem and ins i u ions, bo h local and S a e, I had o adop a
me hodological choice ha ollowed di e en app oaches o he subjec .
As seen in he p e ious chap e , my esea ch opic conce ns p ecisely he unde s anding o how
HRM and ins i u ions can condi ion and in e ac wi h each o he on he p oduc ion o space,
con ibu ing, each h ough hei p ac ices, o he u ban ans o ma ion o he case s udy ci ies
examined. My iew as a esea che , acco ding o mos o he me hodological li e a u e in quali a i e
esea ch, should be as neu al as possible o he poli ical posi ions mani es ed by mo emen s
(Fly bje g, 2001; Yin, 2009), bu I canno hide om mysel and hose who will ead his hesis ha I am
an ac i e pa icipan in he ac ions and p ac ices in oduced by he mo emen s I will desc ibe in his
ex , and h ough his s a emen , I am aking a posi ion on he issues analysed. “Wha exemp s
an h opology and an h opologis s om he human esponsibili y o ake an e hical (and e en poli ical)
posi ion on he elabo a ion o his o ical e en s as we a e p i ileged o wi ness hem?” (Schepe -
Hughes, 1995: 411). The e o e, he me hodology I decided o apply du ing my wo yea s o ieldwo k
in Lisbon and Rome, which many an h opologis s and e hnog aphe s call ‘ac i is e hnog aphy’,
includes he usion o social science, ac i ism, and poli ical engagemen .
I al eady ealise ha his me hodology will be subjec o c i icism. Howe e , on he o he hand,
his can be, in my opinion, a ool ha can con ibu e o b inging he ac i is wo ld e en close o he
academic wo ld, a collabo a ion ha oday is undoub edly mo e po ous han in he pas and,
he e o e, mo e capable o accep ing his new ype o me hodological app oach. By applying his
me hodology, hus, he esea che /ac i is can gene a e knowledge by applying hei posi ion and
using hei body as he p ima y ins umen o esea ch and as he place whe e embodied emo ions
and eelings mani es hemsel es (Boni e al., 2020; Colec i o Si uaciones, 2005; G azioli, 2018; Ju is,
2007; Ma ínez, 2014; Pa , 2001; Schepe -Hughes, 1995).
Ac i is e hnog aphy can be con used wi h pa icipan obse a ion; i di e s om he la e in ha
al hough oday, pa icipan obse a ion is mo ing away om he concep o impa iali y, i does no
p o ide he esea che wi h as b oad a le el o adhe ence as he esea che who decides o apply
40
ac i is e hnog aphy. Mo eo e , his me hodological app oach can only and exclusi ely be applied in
ac i is and mo emen con ex s, which di e s om pa icipan obse a ion, which can be applied in
di e en con ex s. The esea che /ac i is can assume a ious oles wi hin a case s udy si ua ion,
which also means ac i ely pa icipa ing in he e en s unde s udy. In u ban neighbou hoods o
squa ing, o example, his me hod may in ol e ha ing social in e ac ions wi h a ious esiden s o
e en unde aking speci ic unc ional ac i i ies wi hin hese spaces (Yin, 2009).
This me hod makes i possible o collec da a unusually, bu i also p esen s signi ican challenges.
The esea che ’s abili y o access e en s o he wise inaccessible o scien i ic esea ch is he mos
unp eceden ed oppo uni y (Fowle J , 1993). In o he wo ds, o some opics, especially in mo emen
con ex s, he e may be only one way o ga he e idence h ough ac i is e hnog aphy.
Ac i e pa icipa ion in he ac i i ies o he wo mo emen s was di e en in he wo case s udy
ci ies. In Lisbon, I am, F om he beginning, an ac i is wi hin he g oup (‘S op Despejos’, i.e. ‘S op
E ic ion’), which “is a collec i e igh ing o end e ic ions, o de end he igh o housing and o build
ou ci ies in a collec i e, inclusi e and mo e equi able way” (S op Despejos, 2017) and a he same ime
I am an ac i is wi hin he cole i idade Si igai a case s udy o his hesis. While in Rome, despi e ha ing
li ed he e o eigh yea s o s udy pu poses, om 2007 o 2015, and ha ing pa icipa ed ac i ely
wi hin HRM du ing hose yea s, I had been missing o mo e han i e yea s. Many o he con ac s I
had wi hin social mo emen s we e ei he no longe as ac i e o had, like me, mo ed ci ies, so I had o
s a again o wea e a ne wo k o con ac s in a eali y ha had changed o e he yea s, s a ing,
howe e , his connec ion om he same space and he same neighbou hood ha I had always passed
h ough du ing my uni e si y pe iod and whe e I s ill eel a home, namely he LOA Ac obax loca ed in
he Os iense neighbou hood o Rome.
The choice o his me hodological app oach, I belie e, can b ing c i ical e lec ions ha can be
use ul o bo h he academic and mili an wo lds o u ban social mo emen s o which I belong; his
concep o me was undamen al in o de o eel com o able h oughou he esea ch pe iod; i was
a ounding comp omise ha allowed me o wo k ac i ely wi hin collec i es wi hou eeling like
someone who is s ealing knowledge om my com ades o p o essional pu poses o en i ely ou side
he ac i i ies o he mo emen (Apoi is, 2016; Colec i o Si uaciones, 2003; Ju is, 2007; Ma ínez, 2014;
Russell, 2015).
The e o e, he ac i is esea che should a gue ha any knowledge p oduced h ough esea ch is
inhe en ly biased and p oposi ional (G azioli, 2018). Hence, he objec i e o my inqui y will no e ol e
a ound p oducing measu able knowledge and igid p inciples. Ins ead, he esea ch aims o os e he
o ganic and con ex -speci ic e olu ion o he au onomous ways o li ing ha I ha e explo ed (Colec i o
Si uaciones, 2003; Russell, 2015).
41
Based on hese me hodological p emises, in his chap e , I will desc ibe how I p ac ised he ac i is
e hnog aphic me hodology wi hin he collec i es and spaces ha make up he HRM in Lisbon and
Rome and how his, o a ious easons, was supplemen ed by addi ional me hodological app oaches
due bo h o he ac ha my esea ch will be compa a i e esea ch on wo case s udies and p ima ily
due o he di icul ies I encoun e ed in applying his me hodology in a his o ical pe iod a ec ed by a
global Co id-19 pandemic ha limi ed my possibili ies o apply his me hodology bes . In addi ion, I
will desc ibe he p ac ical app oach o how I came in o con ac wi h he o he c i ical ac o s
(ins i u ional and mo emen ) in he esea ch.
MIXED METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH APPLIED TO FIELDWORK
As b ie ly men ioned in he in oduc ion o his chap e , one o he me hodologies chosen o app oach
his esea ch pa h is ac i is e hnog aphy, which in ol es he ac i e (physical and emo ional)
in e ac ion esea che s wi hin he collec i e p ocesses analysed. Gillan and Picke ill (2012) poin ou
ha he main e hical challenges in ac i is esea ch ela e o he impo ance o knowledge gene a ed
by and o mo emen s in which he esea che ac i ely pa icipa es, as well as he impe a i e o
ampli y oices ha dese e o be highligh ed du ing he dissemina ion o esul s. As a esul , I was
con on ed wi h he nume ous ways in which HRM’s poli ics o ep esen a ion and dissemina ion could
be in luenced by esea ch (Gillan & Picke ill, 2012; Russell, 2015; Schepe -Hughes, 1995).
Fo hese easons and ha ing o main ain his bi alen app oach as an ac i is esea che ,
h oughou he esea ch phase, om analysis o w i ing, I o en asked mysel wha kind o impac I
wan ed o achie e and especially o whom, since one o my bigges p oblems was pa o he
mo emen s was p ecisely ha o no wan ing o ha m my com ades h ough wha I could w i e.
A ecen wo k on mili an e hnog aphy by Boni e al. (2020) helps me in his ega d, in which he
au ho desc ibes his me hod as a aluable ool o hose esea che s who a e dissa is ied wi h ha ing
an exclusi ely con empla i e and academic ole wi hin uni e si ies and he e o e decide o use hei
e hnog aphic knowledge o poli ical pu poses h ough pe sonal in ol emen , and hus aiming o
con ibu e, a leas in hei ini ial in en ions, o a p ac ical and conc e e ans o ma ion o he powe
dynamics obse ed (Boni e al., 2020), h ough and hanks o hei academic esea ch. Among he
a ious ways in which his ans o ma ion can be unde s ood, he one ha bes ep esen s he wo k I
ha e done is he desi e o consolida e he collec i e subjec s udied conce ning i s con lic s o ic ions
wi h o he en i ies (speci ically, in he ield o space p oduc ion wi hin he u ban ab ic).
48
choice applied in Rome and pa ially in Lisbon due o an unexpec ed e en such as he Co id-19
pandemic).
Because hey encou age esea che s o make hypo heses, e i y hem, and engage in deduc i e
easoning as he in es iga ion p og esses, hese me hods make he g ounded heo y mo e han jus
induc i e. The open-ended na u e o g ounded heo y s a egies encou ages he de elopmen o
eme gen concep ual analyses and makes he me hod explici . Acco ding o Cha maz (2006), g ounded
heo y s a egies keep esea che s engaged wi h hei da a and nascen analyses and encou age ea ly
analy ical hinking. In sho , his me hod helped me emphasise he da a analysis p ocess a he han
ocusing exclusi ely on he in es iga ion esul s.
The concep o eme gence, one o he ounda ions o g ounded heo y, p esupposes an
epis emological unde s anding and a heo y o ime. Dispu es and misunde s andings ega ding he
essence and na u e o g ounded heo y o en a ise a hese undamen al le els (Dey, 2004; Reiche z,
2004, 2007). Eme gence, being inhe en ly empo al, encompasses he pas , he immediacy o he
p esen , and implies a u u e (Cha maz, 2008). Consequen ly, eme gence leads o no el phenomena
wi h dynamic and non-s a ic a ibu es. Due o his adap abili y, his me hodology has empowe ed me
o in es iga e un o eseen e en s.
This app oach aligns e ec i ely wi h an ac i is o e hnog aphic me hodology, as cons uc i is s
con end ha all aspec s become in eg al o he esea ch p ocess and i s ou comes. The cons uc i is
s ance iews esea ch as a p oduc ha eme ges om speci ic empo al con ex s, social ci cums ances,
and in e ac i e si ua ions. I emphasises ha esea che s canno o esee he e en s ha will anspi e
in he immedia e u u e (Cha maz, 2008; Cla ke, 2006). Mo eo e , being embedded in he esea ch
p ocess and being an ac i e pa o he mo emen s I am going o s udy, I canno de ach my posi ion
om he empi ical phenomena occu ing in he ield. Thus, cons uc i is s deal wi h “ he condi ions
and ela ions o he esea ch, conside ing hem pa o he knowledge gained om he in es iga ion”
(Cha maz, 2008: 160).
In he a ious eadings I ha e done o app oach esea ch me hodology, esea che s who, like me,
a e app oaching a quali a i e app oach o he i s ime a e o en ad ised o choose esea ch opics
ha ela e o hei own li es. This, howe e , can lead inexpe ienced esea che s (again like me) o
impo p econcei ed ideas in o he s udy (Idem, 2008); howe e , I belie e ha engaging in e lexi i y
and in oking g ounded heo y s a egies, as con i med by many p e ious s udies, can challenge my
p e iously aken- o -g an ed assump ions du ing he esea ch jou ney.
Since g ounded heo y is based on eme gence, I was able o emain open o wha was happening
in esea ch en i onmen s. Al hough I am an ac i e pa icipan in he case s udies analysed, he ac
ha I also add an academic conno a ion o my mili an expe ience has changed he way I iew he case
and hus undoub edly gene a ed a new ‘ amilia i y’ wi h he con ex s udied ha has opened me up

49
o new eading possibili ies by allowing me o iden i y eme gen p ocesses wi hin he da a collec ed
in a way ha allows me o pu sue a speci ic esea ch p oblem ha add esses hese p ocesses (idem,
2008).
This mixed me hodology, he e o e, applied o a con ex in which I was al eady embedded,
s imula ed di ec e lec ion wi h he o he ac i is s in ol ed in he case s udy p ocess o he ex en
ha i implied “a conce n o ac ion, e lec ion and empowe men (o sel and o he s) in o de o
challenge opp essi e powe ela ions” (Rou ledge, 2013: 251).
This me hodology, howe e , is inhe en ly ied o he hy hm ha esul s om he in e sec ion
be ween he ac i i ies o ac i is s in mo emen s and he esponses o go e nmen agencies and ice
e sa, u he mo e as al eady desc ibed, by in eg a ing his me hodology wi h o he me hods ela ed
o he case s udy such as g ounded heo y and eme gen heo y p ac ice, he s age o se ing esea ch
ques ions p o ides a i al ool o channelling da a collec ion and e i ica ion as e en s un old. As pe
Russell (2015), ac i is e hnog aphy is cha ac e ised by he p og essi e acknowledgemen and
concen a ion on a speci ic con adic ion, inconsis ency, o pa adox ha a ises wi hin he con ex ual
complexi ies o a socially and poli ically au onomous en i onmen . As he in e wea ing o collec i e
heo y and e e yday p ac ice, ac i is e hnog aphy can be mas e ed once he on ological,
epis emological, and poli ical issue has been iden i ied (Picke ill & Cha e on, 2006).
As can be seen gi en he many di icul ies I had o con end wi h, I had o adop a mixed
me hodological ool ha could ha e he capaci y o be lexible conce ning he e en s ha we e
happening and ha could hen be used by he g ass oo s u ban mo emen ac i is s hemsel es o by
o he academics engaged in he p ac ice o building a heo e ical b idge be ween he academy and
he mo emen , p omo ing he p oduc ion o knowledge elabo a ed by mo emen s by emphasising
he ac ha his knowledge is no p oduced solely and exclusi ely by academic ci cles. Howe e , he
u ban mo emen ac i ely p oduces knowledge in con empo a y socie ies.
CASE STUDIES AND COMPARISON OF TWO SIMILAR CASES
The compa ison o he wo case s udies is pa o he analy ical s a egy I ha e decided o ollow. The
case s udy is a me hodology o enqui y ha in es iga es a con empo a y phenomenon (which is
happening a ha pa icula ime) wi hin he con ex in which a communi y o ac ac s in i s li e
con ex (Yin, 2009). The e o e, using his speci ic s a egy helped me unde s and he con ex ual
condi ions ha occu ed in he pas in he wo case s udies o be e analyse wha is happening igh
now.
50
S a ing om he design o he esea ch ques ions, I could also de i e meaning ul insigh s in o he
choice o he cases, again ollowing he ‘who,’ ‘wha ,’ ‘whe e,’ ‘how,’ and ‘why’ se ies—speci ically,
he how and why ques ions ocus on wha I am in e es ed in answe ing. I also paid special a en ion
o ying o de ine he case. I wan ed o a oid alling in o he e o o de ining he uni o analysis in
one way only o ind ou la e ha he phenomenon I was s udying had o he conno a ions.
Acco ding o Yin, one o he main objec i es a his s age is o iden i y he heo y ha will be
examined and o lis i al hypo heses ha could explain he da a. The i e easons single-case designs
a e chosen a e c i icali y, ex e mina ion, ypicali y, e ealing powe o longi udinal possibili y. The
eason o selec ing a design in a mul i-case s udy is i s eplicabili y, h ough which one can unde s and
he ac o s ha led o success ul esul s in one case bu less success ul esul s in ano he (Yin, 2009).
The selec ion o he case s udies could ha e been mo e p oblema ic and di icul o me due o
he many a ian s analysed. The heo e ical con ex o my esea ch, as desc ibed in he p e ious
chap e , is he p oduc ion o space by he HRM (see Chap e 2), so I i s iden i ied in bo h ci ies all
hose collec i es ha iden i ied hemsel es as pa o he HRM and ha ac i ely pa icipa ed in he
ac i i ies ha he mo emen p oposed o was among he o ganise s o hese ac i i ies, de ining
hemsel es as au onomous and adop ing a s a egy o con lic wi h espec o public policies and he
esul ing u ban ans o ma ions p oposed by he ins i u ions.
The doub s I had om he ou se we e jus i ied by he ac ha I did no know whe he o main ain
he case s udy app oach on he u ban mac o-a ea and hus compa e he wo mo emen s in he wo
ci ies by analysing hei ela ions wi h he ins i u ions, o whe he o go in o speci ics and choose
speci ic local case s udies in ce ain neighbou hoods whe e hese ac i i ies and collec i es we e mo e
p esen . I ha e op ed a his poin o a mul i-scala app oach (Robinson, 2016), which in he cou se o
he wo k, a emp s o b oaden he scale o obse a ion in o de o ob ain a comple e pic u e o he
issue add essed (Fly bje g, 2006); his is because he opic o he hesis in ol es se e al ques ions ha
need o be answe ed a di e en scales and me hods.
The e o e, he hesis is de eloped o a ‘mac o’ con ex , mainly o iden i y, on he one hand, he
public policies ha he wo coun ies ha e adop ed o e he las 50 yea s and wha u ban
ans o ma ions ha e esul ed in bo h case s udy ci ies while on he o he hand analysing wha
esponses HRM has gi en o hese ans o ma ions. This mac o-con ex ualisa ion was also aluable o
me o iden i y he di e en cha ac e is ics o he poli ical s uc u e o hese wo sou he n Eu opean
coun ies. Then, a a la e s age, I shi ed o a ‘meso’ scale o he speci ic case s udies in an in o ma ion-
o ien ed selec ion, i.e., o maximise he use ulness o in o ma ion om small samples and indi idual
cases by selec ing cases acco ding o expec a ions abou hei in o ma ion con en (Fly bje g, 2006).
The choice o compa ing wo ci ies, such as Rome and Lisbon, was dic a ed by wan ing o compa e
wo sou he n Eu opean capi als ha a e pe iphe al o Eu opean de elopmen policies (Tulumello,
51
2022a), hus con ibu ing o he sca ci y o s udies a ailable oday on sou he n Eu opean housing
policies. Ins ead, he speci ic cases chosen o his hesis ocused on wo au onomous spa ial
expe iences de eloped wi hin wo neighbou hoods ( he Os iense neighbou hood in Rome and he
A oios neighbou hood in Lisbon) ha , due o hei cen ali y, a e no de ached om he b oade
u ban ends wi h espec o he u ban ans o ma ions ha ha e aken place in ecen yea s in he
wo ci ies analysed.
In bo h chosen neighbou hoods, he e is an ac i is ecosys em o spaces and collec i es ha
ecognise hemsel es as an ac i e pa o he HRM and spa ial expe iences closely ela ed o he
mo emen . The e o e, hese wo neighbou hoods cons i u e an exci ing an age poin o explo ing
how housing s uggle collec i es ha e eme ged and de eloped in Lisbon and Rome, especially o
analysing wha spa ial p ac ices hey ha e elabo a ed. Fo hese easons, he choice o he speci ic
case s udies ell, as a as Lisbon is conce ned, on an associa i e space loca ed in he hea o he
A oios neighbou hood called Si igai a, which hos s he wo g ea es housing s uggle collec i es in
Lisbon (S op Despejos and Habi a), while o he Roman case s udy he choice ell on a squa housing
managed by CCLC called Po o Flu iale, also in he hea o he Os iense neighbou hood, which in
addi ion o housing 50 amilies o squa e s now ep esen s an open social space o he
neighbou hood.
Th ough he di e en scales ha will be analysed in his hesis, he e o e, I wan ed o ca y ou “a
e lexi e and in e p e a i e app oach” (Neuman, 2003: 103) wi h an analy ical me hodology ha will
he e o e be di ided in o wo pa s. The i s ‘mac o’ phase will analyse he housing policies and u ban
ans o ma ions ha he wo case s udy ci ies ha e unde gone and he ela ed ac i is esponses and
ajec o ies ha mo emen s ha e p ac ised om he 1970s o he p esen . This phase will be
cha ac e ised by he analy ical me hod o collec ing and analysing documen a y da a. The second
‘mesophase, on a local scale, will be cha ac e ised by using he me hodology o ac i is e hnog aphy
and supplemen ed by in e iews and documen a y analysis, consis ing o he desc ip i e analysis o
he wo case s udies.
In e na ional compa a i e analysis s udies a e o conside able impo ance in a ious social
sciences. On he one hand, a compa a i e app oach can lead o a deepe unde s anding o wha is
di e en and wha is simila be ween he coun ies examined in e ms o bo h public policy (Al es,
2016) and mo emen esponse; on he o he hand, as his esea ch will no be educed o lis ing he
simila i ies and di e ences, as i will wan o con ibu e o gene a ing a mo e p o ound analysis wi h
espec o u u e u ban challenges, in o de o apply he knowledge gained in he wo case s udies
examined (Alleg a, 2020).
Mo eo e , while a i ing a compa a i e e lec ions on public and housing policies, u ban
ans o ma ions and ac i is ajec o ies in he wo coun ies, he hesis does no in end o de elop a
52
con en ional compa a i e analysis, nei he on a ‘mac o’ (na ional - coun ies) no on a ‘meso’ (local -
neighbou hoods/spaces) scale. On he one hand, he mac o-scale compa ison se ed o unde s and
wo scena ios ha a e simila and di e en a he same ime. On he o he hand, he compa a i e iew
applied o he ‘meso’ scale o wo neighbou hoods is o look a wo eali ies o d aw lessons om how
al e na i e spa ial expe iences ha e de eloped om a simila ‘mac o’ con ex .
One o he main objec i es o his compa ison, he e o e, will no simply be o classi y di e en
ypes o policies and he ela ed esponses o u ban mo emen s bu o unde s and in dep h why
ine i able con lic s ha e occu ed in he p esen day and wha consequences hey ha e b ough
conce ning he ans o ma ion o he u ban ab ic. This p ocess will be possible by ying o analyse
he ecen his o y o he wo coun ies unde s udy o e he las 50 yea s, compa ing housing policies
and he a ious u ban ans o ma ions ha ha e occu ed in he wo coun ies, which will lead us o
unde s and how u ban mo emen s ha e in u n eac ed o hese policies h ough he de elopmen o
new spa ial p ac ices. When mo ing om one case o wo, one is o e ed he oppo uni y o en e he
ealm o a compa a i e s udy ha gene a es hypo heses, also allowing one o examine how common
mechanisms a e in luenced by he pa icula cha ac e is ics o each case (Becke , 1968).
In his hesis, he e o e, he e will be a mo e lexible app oach, which will engage wo di e en
cases in a dialogue encompassing dynamics a a ious scales, hus acili a ing a b oade
concep ualisa ion (Robinson, 2016). This app oach will s imula e new ques ions abou how u ban
space is p oduced in he wo ci ies unde s udy and by whom:
- Iden i ying simila i ies and di e ences in he s a egies, ac ics and ou comes o g ass oo s
mo emen s in di e en con ex s. This can help me unde s and he unde lying ac o s ha
con ibu e o he success o ailu e o hese mo emen s and de elop mo e e ec i e s a egies
o social and poli ical change.
- By examining he expe iences o HRMs in di e en con ex s, I can gene a e new ideas and
insigh s ha can be applied in o he con ex s. Fo example, s a egies ha we e success ul in
Rome can be adap ed and applied in Lisbon, o ice e sa.
- Compa a i e esea ch can also help build ansna ional solida i y be ween g ass oo s
mo emen s by highligh ing e e yday s uggles and challenges. By ecognising he ypical
s uggles o di e en social mo emen s, mo e obus ne wo ks o solida i y and suppo can
be buil .
- Finally, compa a i e esea ch can in o m policy and p ac ice by p o iding e idence-based
ecommenda ions o policymake s and p ac i ione s. Fo example, esea ch on he
p oduc ion o space o g ass oo s mo emen s can in o m u ban planning and de elopmen
policies o communi y-based app oaches o housing and land use.
53
Compa a i e esea ch on g ass oo s mo emen space p oduc ion can help us be e unde s and
social and poli ical change dynamics and de elop mo e e ec i e s a egies o building mo e jus and
equi able socie ies.
DATA COLLECTION
The me hodology o da a collec ion o he analysis o he case s udies included bibliog aphic analysis
(documen a y, a chi al and digi al), as well as mili an e hnog aphy a he mee ings o he collec i es
in bo h Lisbon and Rome, ac i e pa icipa ion in he ac ions o he collec i es and spaces s udied, and
especially abou he speci ic case s udies, he p ima y ool on which I based my analyses we e eco ded
in e iews wi h ins i u ional and mili an poli ical ac o s.
Du ing he p ocess p io o da a collec ion, e en hough I had al eady decided on a me hodology
o ac ion o he eme ging heo y, I s ill ied o collec he da a ying o imagine how I would hen
analyse i in he ollowing s eps and wha I could use i o , Yin explains ‘How and wha o compose,
case s udies’. He ecommends ha esea che s s a wi h he end in mind, beginning o ou line he
inal epo be o e he case s udy begins (Yin, 2009).
The analysis in ol ed an explo a ion o he heo e ical p oposi ions ha guided me in selec ing
my case s udies. I assessed he unde lying p oposi ions ha shaped each case s udy’s o iginal
objec i es and design. These p oposi ions, in u n, encompassed esea ch ques ions, li e a u e
e iews, and no el hypo heses o p oposi ions.
Be o e p oceeding wi h he in e iews, I analysed a ious o ms o documen a ion, bo h schola ly,
o ind ou abou exis ing esea ch on he case and in o mal, o ob ain as much in o ma ion on he wo
case s udies h ough he analysis o he documen s p oduced by he collec i es and he spaces
iden i ied. I began wi h he p oduc ion o a ch onology o he las wo yea s in bo h he Lisbon case
and he Roman case, making use o he social Facebook pla o m whe e I iden i ied, wi hin S op
Despejos, Habi a, Si igiai a, RdA, Zona F anca and Disg aça page o he Lisbon case, all he e en s and
ac ions p oduced in he las wo yea s, d awing up a de ailed ch onology o e en s, a icles and public
demons a ions. As o he Roman case, I did he same by analysing he Facebook pages o CCLC, BPM
and Po o Flu iale.
S a ing om his ch onological da abase, I iden i ied he ac ions and e en s ha seemed mos
in e es ing o me by sea ching o a ious documen s ela ed o hese issues. The p ima y sou ces o
his exe cise we e ound wi hin he websi es managed by he collec i es I was app oaching o s udy,
namely he websi es o Habi a and S op Despejos collec i es in Lisbon and CCLC and BPM in Rome.

54
These documen s helped me o o mula e he ecen his o y o hese collec i es along wi h he
in e iews, and I was able o access hese speci ic documen s:
- Le e s, memos and o he communiqués;
- Agendas, announcemen s and minu es o mee ings and o he w i en epo s o e en s;
- Video documen a ies o HRMs ac ions o p ac ices in bo h Lisbon and Rome;
- A icles in al e na i e newspape s close o he mo emen s o ac i is communi y newsle e s.
On he o he hand, I s a ed looking o mo e o mal documen a ion bo h h ough he analysis o
ins i u ional documen s on esea ch opics as well as a collec ion o da a o he a ious schola ly
p oduc ions on he opic ha I decided o s udy h ough a sea ch on academic sea ch engines such as
google schola o he academia.edu websi e whe e I encoun e ed se e al documen s close o my case
s udies:
- Bibliog aphic and a chi al da a, documen s o he ins i u ions in ol ed;
- P ess collec ion: newspape s, bulle ins and magazines;
- Scien i ic a icles and doc o al heses p oduced by o he esea che s;
Documen analysis was c ucial in elabo a ing he his o ical ajec o y o he housing policies and
ela ed u ban ans o ma ions o he wo case s udy ci ies and he ac i is ajec o ies o HRM om
he 1970s o he p esen . Fo he case s udies, on he o he hand, again ollowing Yin’s (2009)
ins uc ions, he mos c ucial use o he documen s was o co obo a e and augmen he e idence
om he case s udies o p o ide u he case-speci ic de ails, as i is possible acco ding o he au ho
o conclude he documen s. By s udying hese documen s, I also d ew up a mo e de ailed in e iew
guide wi h espec o he opics I conside ed mos impo an .
Ha ing chosen o use ac i is e hnog aphy in ieldwo k, acco ding o Boni e al. (2020), he use o
in e iews is p i ileged a he han obse a ion because he esea che , in his case, ends o o ganise
a na a i e pa h on which he/she in e enes li le, mainly because he/she poli ically sha es he
ajec o ies o he esea ch ac o s and whe e he e o e he c i ical gaze is almos exclusi ely di ec ed
a he ins i u ional coun e pa o he mo emen . Wi h espec o ins i u ional analysis, he e a e
disco dan posi ions wi h espec o his me hodology. On he one hand, some a gue ha he
e hnog aphe mus main ain his pa isan iewpoin on he case s udies. In con as , o he s belie e ha
he ela ionship wi h he coun e pa o he mo emen is a signi ican po en ial poin o obse a ion.
In my case, I decided o in e iew bo h ac o s, especially in he Roman case, whe e a con e gence o
in e es s led o he inal esul o Po o Flu iale p ojec . The e o e, bo h ac o s had conside able weigh
in he de elopmen o he p ojec .
55
In e iews, as men ioned abo e conce ning my me hodology o ac ion, a e he sou ces o
in o ma ion o which I ga e he mos impo ance; I conduc ed 29 in e iews in Lisbon and hen ac ually
used only 24 in his hesis (see esponden s’ lis able 1) while in Rome, I conduc ed 21 in e iews and
hen ac ually used 15 (see esponden s’ lis able 2), in e iewing HRM ac i is s, poli ical ac o s on
housing issues and academics ac i ely in e es ed in he opic ollowing he sa u a ion s a egy o
g ounded heo y (Glase e al., 1968). As he igu es o be in e iewed can be summa ised in hese
h ee ca ego ies, I decided o se di e en guidelines o each o hem; as a as he guideline o
mili an s is conce ned, I se up a i s d a ha I ehea sed wi h he i s in e iewees who ha e known
me o a long ime and oge he wi h hem I e ined he ques ions o ask he o he in e iewees, s ill
main aining a mo e in o mal app oach always ying o ask a ew b oad ques ions o gi e eedom o
esponse bu s ill keeping he ocus on he heme o HRM, he igh o he ci y and he impo ance o
space o mo emen s. Du ing he in e iew p ocess, I ollowed my line o enqui y bu asked my
ques ions unbiasedly o gi e he in e iewees as much eedom o esponse as possible.
As o he in e iews wi h poli ical ac o s and academics, howe e , I decided o do hem a a la e
s age, when I had al eady collec ed su icien da a bo h h ough my s udy on he subjec and h ough
he in e iews wi h he mili an s in ol ed o se a mo e o mal and speci ic guideline on opics ha I
conside ed mo e cong uen o he ad ancemen o my esea ch.
Hal o he Lisbon case in e iews we e conduc ed by me and Ma co Alleg a (2023) o w i ing he
a icle ‘Housing Ac i ism and u ban space du ing he Co id-19 pandemic. Resea ch no es on he Bai o
o A oios’ esponded di ec ly o he same in e es s and ques ions ha I posed o he elabo a ion o
his esea ch hesis. Howe e , hese in e iews did no lead o heo e ical sa u a ion in my case. To
answe all he ques ions in his hesis, I had o in eg a e new in e iews done only by me.
Fo he in e iews I did wi h ac i is s in Rome, I ealised ea ly on du ing my i s pe iod o ieldwo k
ha as I had no been in hose en i onmen s o a long ime, i would no ha e been app op ia e o
s a wi h he in e iews s aigh away and I decided o allow some ime o pass so ha I could
in eg a e be e du ing he i s ew mon hs. Du ing he i s se en mon hs I spen in Rome (July 2020
- Janua y 2021), du ing he Co id-19 pandemic, I mainly ied o e-es ablish social and poli ical
ela ions be ween mysel and he o he ac i is s and hen asked hem o be in e iewed la e . A e
alking wi h my supe iso s on his issue, I esol ed ha my kind ed ac i is s should ha e been mo e
acquain ed wi h me in hei day- o-day communica ions be o e being consul ed. In addi ion, I de ised
some addi ional sa egua ds ha migh help hem eel mo e a ease in on o he eco de e en when
I app oached he majo i y o he people I planned o in e iew ( he i s in e iews we e only
conduc ed du ing he second Roman s udy pe iod, which an om July 2021 o Janua y 2022). Righ
o he ba , I planned he mee ing se en days ahead. Second, I would in o m hem in ad ance o he
gene al subjec o he ques ions— o ins ance, he HRM, he ela ionship wi h ins i u ions, and he
56
ela ionship be ween he mo emen and spaces—so ha hey could begin conside ing he opic ha
was sugges ed and no ha e o ask complica ed ques ions on he spo . I would walk hem h ough he
en i e p ocedu e and go o e he pu pose o he in o med consen o m in de ail when i came ime
o he in e iew. Once I had explained e e y hing, he i s ques ion was whe he hey had a ques ion
o me conce ning he p ojec I in ended o de elop. I el ha he use o he ape eco de could be
p oblema ic o he in e iewed ac i is s, al hough I gua an eed anonymi y and he ac ha I would
be he only one wi h access o he in e iew con en s; ye , he amilia i y unde aken o e he
ollowing mon hs pu he in e iewees a ease, and hey ne e asked me o emo e he ape eco de
o no o use ce ain pa s o he in e iew (which I p omp ly sugges ed be o e I s a ed eco ding). I
hey el i app op ia e, I would be p epa ed no o use ce ain pa s o he in e iews ha migh
jeopa dise hei subjec i e igu e o he mo emen .
The in e iews om he Roman case a e mo e p esen in his hesis han hose om he Lisbon
case; his is because, as desc ibed abo e, gi en he Co id eme gency, I could no inse mysel as I
would ha e liked in he Roman con ex . In his way, he Roman in e iews we e undamen al o he
analysis o hose p ocesses ha I was no able o ollow and he e o e had mo e signi ican weigh and
impo ance han hose in Lisbon, whe e being an ac i e pa icipan and, hanks o he o ganisa ion o
speci ic e en s I was able o collec no es bo h o e en s and mee ings and in o mal con e sa ions wi h
o he ac i is s, so in he case o Lisbon he in e iews we e s ill undamen al bu only used when I
needed o con i m my desc ip i e hypo heses abou he case I was ecoun ing.
The demeanou I adop ed as an ac i is e hnog aphe du ing da a collec ion exempli ies he
challenges in ol ed in a me hodology such as his, which is ela ional and si ua ed. Using his
me hodology in ol es employing emo ional in elligence and sensi i i y o espec and ensu e he well-
being and subjec i i y o he pa icipan s wi h whom I also sha ed my daily li e (G azioli, 2018: 61).
Emo ional sensi i i y ha I no only had o ha e du ing ieldwo k o in e iews bu also had o main ain
du ing he da a analysis and w i ing phase.
DATA ANALYSIS
The choice o an ac i is e hnog aphic me hodology also in luenced my da a analysis, a p ocess I
decided o complemen wi h o he me hodological app oaches such as g ounded heo y and
compa a i e case s udy da a analysis. The ela ional e lexi i y I adop ed as an ac i is e hnog aphe
in he da a collec ion phase had o be ansla ed in o he w i ing phase o he hesis. Gi en ha he
da a and hei quali a i e implica ions we e in ima ely connec ed o he con ex ual ela ionships in
which hey we e collec ed, he analysis and ieldwo k momen s we e inhe en ly in e wined. This
57
aligns wi h he epis emological pe spec i e o my esea ch p ojec , which emphasises he in ol emen
and e e yday expe iences wi hin he de elopmen o social mo emen s (Picke ill & Cha e on, 2006).
Fu he mo e, my ex ensi e engagemen in ac i ism o e se e al yea s has made me pa icula ly
a uned and sensi i e o hese dynamics.
The sys ema isa ion o he da a ook place i s ly h ough he o ganisa ion o a p o isional index
wi h mac o- hemes. Once he p o isional index was subdi ided, I s a ed o ill each chap e wi h
speci ic bibliog aphical e e ences on ha heme. A a la e s age, a e ansc ibing he in e iews, I
placed he in e iew pa s ha e e ed o ha speci ic heme in he app op ia e chap e s. Then, I
in eg a ed my speci ic e lexi e analyses om my ield no es wi h espec o wha I had expe ienced
as an ac i is e hnog aphe and based on my expe ience in he ield o ac i ism be o e s a ing his
esea ch, hus in eg a ing wha I had empi ically obse ed in he bibliog aphic e e ences and
in e iews. To p oceed wi h his p ocess o e hnog aphic w i ing, I, he e o e, had o c ea e a
connec ion be ween empo al, poli ical and spa ial scales o make sense o he pic u e I was ying o
compose (G azioli, 2018: 62).
In o de o be able o place he collec ed da a empo ally, I w o e down a ch onology o e en s
om he e y beginning, he ac ions ca ied ou by he mo emen s, newspape a icles and legisla i e
o elec o al in e en ions by poli ical au ho i ies ha deal wi h he opics o s udy in bo h cases. A
he beginning o he collec ion, I d ew up a ch onology o he ecen pas , which I hen cons an ly
supplemen ed du ing my esea ch pe iod o include all hose e en s ha ook place a he same ime
as my ieldwo k. Thanks o his ch onology, I was able, a he da a analysis s age, o quickly ind he
da e, he i le and small no es desc ibing he e en s and ac s I had wi nessed. I hen de eloped hei
in e nal na a i e wi hin he mac o- hemes de ined in he index, combining heo e ical conside a ions
and policy e lec ions om my ield no es (Picke ill & Cha e on, 2006; Russell, 2015).
Howe e , once I deal wi h he ‘spu ious’ na u e o my da a, I ealised ha o inco po a e he
in e iews in o my e hnog aphic w i ing deeply, I needed o de elop my own indi idualised me hod o
analysis and ansc ip ion.
In g ounded heo y, he da a coding and analysis p ocess encompasses a leas wo dis inc s ages:
ini ial coding and ocused coding. The da a is ho oughly examined and explo ed du ing he ini ial o
open coding phase (Cha maz, 2008). This pi o al coding s age en ails a shi in ocus om he esea ch
ield o da a analysis, as i in ol es simul aneous da a collec ion and analysis. Coding is pe o med
unde he e ol ing heo y du ing he da a collec ion (Ibid., 2008).
Abou he in e iews conduc ed in Lisbon, I was able, hanks o being in eg a ed wi hin he
([HOusing PE spec i es and S uggles]; he ea e [HOPES]) esea ch p ojec , o access unds o he
ansc ip ion o a ious in e iews conduc ed bo h wi hin he p ojec and my doc o al esea ch,
conside ing he in ica e and in e p e a i e na u e o he discu si e laye s wi hin he in e iews
64
he ac ions. An es ima ed 1,500 public housing uni s we e squa ed du ing his pe iod (An unes, 2017:
242).
Soon a e his se ies o squa ing, a g ass oo s o ganisa ion among hese communi ies ha had
unde aken his s uggle o be e housing condi ions became necessa y. Thus, ‘squa ing
commi ees’, ‘au onomous commi ees’ and ‘au onomous e olu iona y commi ees o esiden s and
squa e s’ (Pin o, 2015) we e quickly o ganised and o med o discuss common p oblems ha migh
a ise wi hin he new squa ing in a mo e o ganised and s anda d o m.
Pa allel o hese commi ees, commissions sp ang up wi hin he many in o mal neighbou hoods
in Lisbon. These commi ees immedia ely began a p ac ical p ocess o sel -cons uc ion and
imp o emen o he p ima y condi ions o he in as uc u e in hei neighbou hoods, demons a ing,
on he one hand, a subs an ial endowmen o sel -o ganisa ion and, on he o he hand, a s ong
iden i y linked o hei neighbou hoods (San os, 2015). This a ilia ion wi h in o mal neighbou hoods
was demons a ed by he ac ha hese commi ees e used o be eloca ed wi hin Social Housing,
con using he ins i u ions ha had al eady begun a p ocess o housing eloca ion o hese amilies.
Wha hey demanded was an imp o emen in he in as uc u e and condi ions wi hin he
neighbou hood wi hou being eloca ed o o he pa s o he ci y.
The ex eme le ha had jus a i ed in pa liamen , in a con ex o comple e bu eauc a ic
diso ganisa ion, ailed o p opose go e nmen p og ammes o sol e he housing p oblem, so much so
ha he issue was comple ely absen in he elec o al p oposals; only he Ma xis pa y ([Popula
Democ a ic Union]; he ea e [UDP]) decla ed in i s elec o al p og amme ‘house yes shacks no’
(San os, 2015). The pa ies in powe had no ye sensed he se e e housing c isis ha he people we e
endu ing and we e, he e o e, unp epa ed o he chaos and ana chy esul ing om he la ge squa ing
mo emen s and he commi ees o ganised wi hin he in o mal neighbou hoods.
“The e was a gene al clima e o sub e sion, which suppo ed a powe ul mo emen o he igh
o housing,” says Helena Rose a, an a chi ec and o me Councillo o housing in he [Lisbon Ci y
Council] ([Câma a Municipal de Lisboa]; he ea e [CML]) in an in e iew (Público, 2010). This clima e
has a ou ed spo adic episodes o iolence in a new na ional poli ical and social ension scena io, bu
mainly due o he ecen weak ins i u ions in powe . “The ela ionship o he ci izen wi h he au ho i y
was comple ely di e en om wha i is oday,” explains Manuel Salgado, a chi ec , o me own
planning Councillo o he CML and o me membe o a esiden s’ commi ee (ibid., 2010).
The e o e, he S a e in he pos -Ap il 25 e a needed o be p epa ed and inope a i e due o a
comple e lack o s uc u e and pe sonnel o go e nmen and adminis a i e posi ions (San os, 2015).
This si ua ion ce ainly ga e mo e eedom o ac ion o he sel -o ganised g ass oo s popula
mo emen s, which we e able o o ganise, g ow and ca y ou hund eds o squa ing in wo yea s
wi hou eso ing o signi ican ep essions by he police and e en suppo ed by hem.

65
The i s esponse o he p o isional ins i u ions o his phenomenon came only a yea a e 25
Ap il wi h Dec ee-Law 198-A/75 o 14 Ap il, which legalised squa s ca ied ou on he condi ion ha
he squa ed dwellings we e emp y be o e being occupied, i.e., wi hou people al eady li ing he e.
This was he jus i ica ion o he legisla o :
“Hund eds o housands o amilies a e in he coun y wi hou housing o li ing in subhuman
condi ions. Fu he mo e, i is clea ha despi e he measu es al eady aken o unde conside a ion,
he e will be no possibili y, no e en in he medium e m, o sol ing he se ious p oblem o adequa e
housing o hese amilies h ough new cons uc ion. (...) i is necessa y o sol e he p oblems aised
by he squa ing o acan dwellings ha ha e occu ed. (...) i mus be acknowledged ha , al hough
hey we e buil illegally - which canno be ole a ed in he u u e - hey we e buil o mee he u gen
needs o ex emely disad an aged s a a o he popula ion” (In oduc ion Dec ee-Law 198-A75).
These s a emen s by he legisla o hin well a he clima e o social and class change ha p e ailed
a he ime o he PREC, whe e despi e he illegali y o he ac , he legi imacy o he disad an aged
classes o sa is y hei own needs is ecognised. On he o he hand, his dec ee was hough o be
enac ed because he now-g owing mo emen could ha e a ec ed p i a e p ope y conside ed
‘sac ed’. The legisla o also decla ed ha such a dec ee was o ‘elemen a y social jus ice’ and ha “as
long as he e a e people wi hou houses, i will no be pe missible o he e o be houses wi hou
people” (In oduc ion Dec ee-Law 198-A75). Wo ds ha , al eady ollowing he p omulga ion o he
Po uguese Cons i u ion jus a yea la e , would ha e been di icul o p onounce because o he
cons i u ional consec a ion o he p ope y igh , which I will analyse below.
E en hough he dec ee legalised mos o he squa s, i did no con ince he squa ing commi ees,
as se e al communi ies ha we e pa o he commi ees we e e ic ed om ha momen on, so much
so ha se e al demons a ions we e o ganised demanding (‘Fim dos despejos pelo di ei o à
habi ação!’, i.e. ‘S op e ic ions o he igh o housing!’), he (‘legalização imedia a das casas
ocupadas!’, i.e. ‘‘immedia e legalisa ion o squa ed houses!’) and he e oca ion o Dec ee-Law 198-
A/75 (An unes, 2017: 245). Ano he o he poin s ha shly c i icised by he commi ees was he
punishmen o wo yea s in p ison o anyone who squa s since he p omulga ion o he law, i.e., hey
we e ying o he i s ime o cu b his con lic ha exploded in Po uguese ci ies.
Un il he end o 1974, he commi ees consis ed almos exclusi ely o esiden s o o ganised
neighbou hoods who had no ye been in ol ed in he le -wing pa ies being o med in hose yea s.
Howe e , wi h he in ensi ica ion o he e olu iona y c isis since Augus 1975, he pa ies became
inc easingly p esen in he mee ings and demons a ions o ganised by he commi ees (San os, 2015).
These pa ies called hemsel es pa ies o he p ole a ia , ha ing as hei p ima y objec i e he
es ablishmen o a dic a o ship o he p ole a ia . Fo hese pa ies, he e was no p ole a ia in he
neighbou hood commi ees bu unde -p ole a ia , i.e., wi hou any e olu iona y consciousness and
66
he e o e ulne able o e o mis in luences in a conse a i e populis democ a ic S a e. Ne e heless,
despi e he a ious con lic s, he commi ees ep esen ed a pool o ac i is s o he pa ies o enlis in
hei as-ye un illed lis s, as well as an in e es in being able o con ol he g ass oo s mo emen
closely.
A e olu iona y clima e was hus o med ha seemed uns oppable, and his si ua ion
undoub edly a ou ed he inc easingly adical asse ion o pa y mo emen s. The ([Po uguese
Communis Pa y]; he ea e [PCP]) and o he adical pa ies had mo e and mo e powe o e he
mo emen o he ex en ha hey we e able o con ol a ious ac ions as he ec ui men o a ious
ac i is s began, leading o an undoub ed weakening o he inhabi an s’ commi ees (Ce ezales, 2003).
I was p obably om his weakening ha a new con used mili a y coup o a coun e - e olu iona y
na u e was igge ed on 25 No embe 1975. This o ced he People’s Mo emen o e hink i s en i e
s uc u e comple ely, i.e., s op a acking wi h new squa ing play ully and concen a e on de ending
i s undeniable conques s collec ed up o ha poin , hus beginning o ha e a mo e passi e and
conse a i e s a egy o he goals al eady achie ed.
The poli ical scena io changed subs an ially in 1976 a e he new S a e coup o 25 No embe . The
cons i u ional go e nmen s decided ha he solu ion o he housing p oblem was up o he ee
ma ke and ha local au ho i ies should p e e ably p o ide di ec p omo ion (Pin o, 2015).
Inhabi an s’ associa ions and commi ees we e downsized and o ced o o de ; 25 No embe a ose as
a ‘necessi y’ o democ acy o be es ablished h ough he classical, non- e olu iona y p ocess ha was
aking place.
In his way, he inhabi an associa ions ha we e ac i e be ween ‘74 and ‘76 appea ed in he eyes
o bo h le and igh -wing pa ies mo e as g ass oo s o ganisa ions, which we e igh ening (San os,
2015), as hey we e seen as uncon olled and ana chic g oups ha had o be con olled ei he h ough
he ins i u ionalisa ion o mo emen s o h ough ep ession.
Acco ding o San os (2015), he s uggle o housing in hose yea s was also he only a ea in which
ic o y could be claimed, albei pa ial in many cases. The ag a ian e o m ailed; en e p ises e u ned
o hei owne ’s hands, and social li e was no malised. Howe e , he squa ed houses con inued o
belong o he people. I is no su p ising, he e o e, ha i was p ecisely in he housing sec o ha he
mos spon aneous and au onomous ini ia i es ook place, ou side he dynamics o pa y, o ganisa ion
and s uggle, and he genesis o esiden s’ commi ees; he e o e, o ganised ci izens con ibu ed much
o his ic o y o e he igh o housing.
67
Local Ambula o y Suppo Se ice (SAAL)
As desc ibed abo e, he PREC saw he eme gence o mul iple communi y o ganisa ions, h ough which
new social, poli ical, and especially housing p ac ices we e being expe imen ed wi h since i was
p ecisely he issue o decen housing ha was one o he main demands immedia ely a e 25 Ap il
ha ce ainly in luenced he gene a ion o poli ical consciousness wi hin hose communi ies ha he
PCP de ined as ‘unde -p ole a ia ’ wi hou he e o e a class consciousness and ulne able o populis
manipula ion.
In his p oli ic con ex o ac i e pa icipa ion and demands o undamen al igh s, he [Local
Ambula o y Suppo Se ice] ([Se iço de Apoio Ambula ó io Local]; he ea e [SAAL]) was
p omulga ed on 6 Augus 1974 wi h he ollowing objec i e: “ o suppo , h ough he Ci y Councils,
he ini ia i es o he poo ly housed popula ions o collabo a e in he ans o ma ion o hei
neighbou hoods, in es ing hei la en and possibly mone a y esou ces” (DG, I se ies, 6 Augus 1974,
182: 873). A he ime, 90,000 people we e li ing in 18,500 shacks in Lisbon, which indeed cons i u ed
a h ea o he p o isional go e nmen ha had been se up, which, al hough i condemned he
squa ing mo emen ha had been gene a ed, unde s ood i by ini ia ing a legalisa ion p ocess.
The SAAL was o med by a specialised echnical body o suppo , h ough he municipal chambe s,
he ini ia i es o popula ions in he housing c isis, di ec ly ans o ming he neighbou hoods in which
people li ed h ough in es men in ma e ial goods o mone a y unds (San os, 2015) hus di ec ly
esponding o he claims o he commissions ha we e o med wi hin he in o mal neighbou hoods.
They we e a ge ing hese in es men s p ima ily a he inhabi an s o he in o mal neighbou hoods
h ough punc ual in e en ions o sol e wha was called a ‘na ional shame’ a he ime.
SAAL ep esen ed wha can be called he i s social policy on housing c ea ed a e he Re olu ion.
Thus, he i s p og amme was concei ed and w i en om a collec i e p o es a ound he
undamen al igh o housing. I was he e o e bo n o suppo he popula ion in hei igh o housing
while a he same ime sa egua ding he igh o place (Ibid. 2015). In o he wo ds, o ensu e ha
communi ies could emain wi hin he neighbou hoods whe e hey had always li ed and owa ds which
hey nu u ed a s ong eeling o emo ional, social and spa ial belonging in di ec esponse o he needs
ha he inhabi an s hemsel es had exp essed.
Ano he impo an aspec was ha his suppo should occu h ough he ac i e pa icipa ion o
he popula ion in e es ed in he p ojec . Based on his p inciple, one o he i s s eps was o b ing
communi ies oge he and p opose he p ojec o he neighbou hood b igades, who would analyse
he case and de e mine wha kind o suppo o p o ide o he communi y (An unes, 2017). Thus, he
SAAL p ocess was based on a bo om-up app oach, which was undoub edly a me hodology o ac ion
ha ga e ise o he expe imen a ion o au onomous p ac ices and sel -cons uc ion, inally gi ing a
68
oice o he u ban popula ion in need. This op ion allowed he c ea ion o s ong bonds be ween
esiden s, pu ing hem a he cen e o discussion, ac ion and ini ia i e wi h espec o how hey
wan ed o build hei homes and neighbou hoods.
I is in e es ing o no e ha in he dialogue/con lic ual ela ionship ha exis ed be ween he
commissions and he new p o isional S a e, in one o he c i ical poin s o he SAAL - he incen i e o
sel -building and inancial in es men by esiden s - he e we e a ious disag eemen s, i.e. i was no
always well accep ed by all commissions as well as by he mo e adical poli ical g oups, ecei ing
a ious c i icisms (San os, 2015).
The whole mo emen owned upon Sel -building as hey wan ed o include he concep o
housing wi hin he (s ill p oposed) Cons i u ion as a igh and he e o e demanded ha he S a e buil
he houses, no i s inhabi an s. In his ega d, he commi ee o he slum dwelle s o Lisbon conside ed
his p inciple double capi alis exploi a ion, indica ing: “sel -building (...) is no hing bu a o m o
double exploi a ion. A e a ull day’s wo k o line he pocke s o he capi alis s, we had o s ay la e
in o he nigh o wo k on building houses” (CNS, 1976: 119).
To ein o ce hese posi ions, demons a ions we e o ganised in Lisbon, unde he claim o ‘houses
yes shack no’ wi h mo e han en housand people composed o he inhabi an s o 50 di e en
neighbou hoods. These demons a ions we e called by a ious commi ees o Lisbon inhabi an s, wi h
a ound 20,000 demons a o s (San os, 2015).
Among he c i icisms le elled a his p ojec , se e al au ho s conside ed ha he consolida ion o
ep esen a i e democ acy (o he S a e) aking he place o di ec democ acy (o he SAAL) led o a
dec ease in he popula mobilisa ion capaci y o esiden s’ commi ees (Ce ezales, 2003; Pin o, 2015).
A he same ime, i is undeniable ha he SAAL, and he e o e he ins i u ions ha p omulga ed
i , we e s ongly in luenced and p essu ised o p esen his p og amme by he popula mo emen , his
being a p io i y in e en ion subo dina ed o he conc e isa ion o he igh o housing o he igh o
he ci y unde he con ol o he o ganised inhabi an s. This was exp essed h ough se en undamen al
p inciples: Con ol o e he loca ion o housing uni s, con ol o e echnical suppo wo k,
managemen o he wo k, con ol o he inancial p ocess and social managemen o houses and
neighbou hoods (San os, 2015).
Thus, he SAAL ep esen ed a con o e sial p og amme ha only some imes enjoyed he suppo
o some o he mo e ep esen a i e commi ees since i ep esen ed he i s social and poli ical
p og amme ha en isaged he ac i e pa icipa ion o he communi y. Howe e , he h ea el by he
mo emen a he same ime was ha h ough he ins i u ionalisa ion o popula p ac ices, he
commi ees and, hus, he popula mo emen would lose powe (Bandei inha, 2007). In o he wo ds,
a dicho omous en i onmen was c ea ed whe e some accused SAAL o being an ex eme measu e by
implemen ing a me hodology based on di ec democ acy and in popula plena y mee ings. In con as ,
69
o he s claimed i was a eac iona y measu e whose objec i es we e o demobilise he squa ing
mo emen s o acan houses and exploi wo ke s by o cing hem o inance and cons uc hei own
houses.
Acco ding o he in en o y made in he ‘SAAL Whi e Pape ’ up o Oc obe 1976, o he 246
eques s o in e en ion egis e ed h oughou he coun y, 170 ope a ions we e ini ia ed and
concluded, co e ing a uni e se o 41,665 amilies (CNS, 1976). In Lisbon, mainly collec i e buildings
we e cons uc ed - by he exp ess will o he esiden s - al hough a ew dozen single- amily houses
we e buil .
The SAAL p ocess, acco ding o Helena Rose a, ook he wind ou o he sails o he squa s.
Suddenly, people we e inding a ehicle o imp o e hei li es wi hou he mo al bu den o p ope y
enc oachmen h ough suppo o imp o emen s and sel -building. “I was i al. The ene gy was
channelled in ano he di ec ion, and squa ing was no longe he immedia e goal o hose seeking
be e housing condi ions,” summa ises Helena Rose a (Público, 2010).
FROM THE DEMOCRATIC NORMALISATION OF 1976 TO THE EARLY 1990s
(1976 – 1993)
A e wo yea s o in ense ac i is e o s on he pa o he g ass oo s mo emen s igh ing o he igh
o decen housing ha esul ed in e olu iona y poli ical p og ammes o he e a dic a ed by he end
o he ascis egime in Po ugal, a p ocess o democ a ic no malisa ion began in 1976 wi h se e al
main s ages, such as; he en y in o o ce o he Cons i u ion o he Po uguese Republic (25 Ap il), he
i s p esiden ial elec ions (27 June), he inaugu a ion o he i s cons i u ional go e nmen (23 July)
and he i s local elec ions (12 Decembe ) (An unes, 2017: 264), hese e en s, punc ua ed by he
popula o e, hey ine i ably in oduced a poli ical mode a ion in he coun y, i mly consolida ing he
Po uguese le -wing pa ies, mainly he PCP and he UDP, which espec i ely assumed powe in
pa liamen h ough holding he majo i y o sea s in wha would become Po ugal’s i s cons i u ional
go e nmen . The big lose s in hese i s elec ions, as hey ailed o gain any pa liamen a y
ep esen a ion h ough he o e, we e he mo e adical le -wing pa ies, which was also due o hei
signi ican agmen a ion du ing he elec ion campaign.
Rega ding housing, he p omulga ion o he long-awai ed Po uguese Cons i u ion on 25 Ap il
1976 es ablished wo undamen al igh s: he ‘ igh o p i a e p ope y’ and he ‘ igh o housing’.
ARTICLE 62.
(Righ o p i a e p ope y)
1. E e y pe son is gua an eed he igh o p i a e p ope y and i s ansmission du ing li e o
dea h, acco ding o he e ms o he Cons i u ion.

70
2. Ou side he cases p o ided o in he Cons i u ion, exp op ia ion o public use may be ca ied
ou only upon paymen o ai compensa ion.
ARTICLE 65
(Housing)
1. E e yone has he igh , o himsel and his amily, o a dwelling o su icien size, in hygienic
and com o able condi ions, which p ese es pe sonal in imacy and amily p i acy.
2. To ensu e he igh o housing, he S a e is esponsible o :
a) Planning and implemen ing a housing policy ha is included in he gene al eo ganisa ion
plans o he e i o y and suppo ed by u banisa ion plans ha gua an ee he exis ence o an
adequa e ne wo k o anspo and social acili ies;
b) Encou age and suppo ini ia i es by local communi ies and he popula ion o sol e hei
housing p oblems and encou age sel -building and he c ea ion o housing coope a i es;
c) Encou age p i a e cons uc ion subo dina e o he gene al in e es .
3. The S a e adop s a policy ha ends o es ablish a en sys em compa ible wi h amily income
and access o home owne ship.
4. The S a e and local au ho i ies exe cise e ec i e con ol o e eal es a e, p oceed o he
necessa y na ionalisa ion o municipalisa ion o u ban land and de ine he espec i e igh o
use. (Cons i uição da República Po uguesa, 1976).
An impo an poin o explain wi h espec o hese wo cons i u ional igh s is how he cou s
in e p e hem, i.e., ha he p ope y igh is a igh ha can be de ended in cou . P ope y canno
be aken om he ci izen excep in excep ional bu emune a ed cases. While he igh o housing is
p og amma ic (Tulumello & Sil a, 2019; Violan e, 2023), i.e., one canno appeal o he cou o he
‘me e’ ac o being e ic ed. One can only do so i he ules o e ic ion a e no en o ced. Gene a ing a
dicho omy in he case since housing, as opposed o p ope y, can be aken away om he ci izen
despi e he cons i u ional igh .
Wi hin he a ious cons i u ional poin s dealing wi h he igh o housing and he p ope y igh ,
egula ions we e in oduced ha suppo he “ini ia i es o local communi ies and he people o sol e
hei housing p oblems”, as well as he “encou agemen o sel -building” and he “c ea ion o housing
coope a i es” (Cons i uição da República Po uguesa, 1976). The popula sel -o ganisa ion p ocesses
undoub edly in luenced he in oduc ion o hese ins umen s expe imen ed wi h in he wo yea s o
he PREC ollowing he model o he housing policies p oposed by SAAL.
In e es in housing coope a i es a ose as ea ly as 1974, when he go e nmen , awa e o he
po en ial shown by he coope a i e mo emen in o he Wes e n coun ies, p omo ed he c ea ion o
housing coope a i es and emo ed obs acles ha limi ed hei de elopmen (An unes, 2017).
71
Mo eo e , du ing he PREC, he coope a i e mo emen enjoyed g ea p es ige o he yea s o s uggle
agains he dic a o ial egime as i was one o he signi ican poli ical in il a o s. This si ua ion
in ensi ied in he ollowing yea s wi h he mo emen ’s pa isanship (Lei e, 2011).
Inhabi an s’ commissions immedia ely a e he coup con inued o exis . Howe e , hey we e no
included in he cons i u ional ex . They we e only ins i u ionally accep ed i hey we e linked and
bound o local au ho i ies (San os, 2015), i.e., he uling pa ies adop ed a unique con ol o he
commissions o s ip hem o all he au onomous powe hey had enjoyed in p e ious yea s.
The Cons i u ion, o ha e been w i en in 1976, ce ainly had he ad an age o including in i s
a icles undamen al igh s ha o he cons i u ions do no ha e, as in he case o I aly, o example,
ano he case s udy o his esea ch ensh ined mo e han 30 yea s ea lie . Including he igh o housing
as one o he undamen al igh s was undoub edly a c ucial s ep o he s uggles and housing policies
ha ollowed. Howe e , he p o ec ion o inhabi an s and homes is no ully gua an eed since A icle
65 is in e p e ed poli ically and legally as a p og amma ic igh , lea ing he S a e and he judicia y ee
o in e p e and, he e o e, o ac wi h espec o he mo emen s’ claims o he igh o housing.
F om 1976 onwa ds, he squa ing mo emen also came o a s ands ill hanks o emo ing he
esiden s’ commi ees om he poli ical scene. In hose yea s, he e was also a s ong wa e o e ic ions
owa ds hose who had al eady squa ed o we e in an i egula si ua ion in he ace o he new laws
o he i s cons i u ional go e nmen . Residen s’ commi ees unde he slogan (‘Ninguém deixa os
ocupan es sozinhos’, i.e. ‘No one lea es he squa e s alone’) o ganised hemsel es h ough
associa ions agains e ic ions o gi e legal suppo o he e ic ed amilies. S ong solida i y mo emen s
wi h he e ic ed amilies we e also c ea ed, b inging ood and clo hing and cons an concen a ion on
he planned day o e ic ion (Ce ezales, 2003).
F om his momen on, he ep ession agains he squa e s inc eased conside ably h ough
a ious cou ulings o e ic ions, and as a esponse o his ep ession, he esis ance o he commi ees
inc eased, and hey became o ganised again. In 1977, o s op his esis ance, he go e nmen issued a
dec ee-law ha punished all who would esis e ic ion a e a cou uling wi h up o wo yea s in
p ison.
Mo eo e , many o he echnical lo ds in cha ge o he commissions du ing he e olu iona y
pe iod los legi imacy due o he poo elec o al esul s ob ained by he adical le pa ies, and se e al
indi iduals we e eplaced in he la e 1970s by mode a e poli icians om he so-called ‘a c o powe ’
(Fe ei a, 1987). On his si ua ion, Fe ei a poin s ou , “o a ma ked ideological na u e and u bulen
mani es a ions, in 1974/75 sec a ianism g adually e ol ed in o clien elism and pa y nepo ism”
(Fe ei a, 1987: 15). This also ansla ed in o a mode a ion o he poli ical dialec ic o he pa ies ha
s opped inci ing and ins iga ing he ac i e pa icipa ion o ci izens in p ac ices o sel -o ganisa ion
72
excep in he cases o he cons i u ion o coope a i es ha we e supposed o ac acco ding o well-
s uc u ed and he e o e ins i u ionalised ules.
The e was hen a s ong g ow h in Po ugal o communi ies g ouping in coope a i es o sol e he
housing p oblem, ollowing he e olu ion om only 40 coope a i es ha exis ed in 1974 o 258 in 1979
a e he p omulga ion o he Cons i u ion (San os, 2015), wi h mo e emphasis in he la ge u ban
cen es.
Ano he undamen al poin ha will be pa o housing policies in Po ugal is undoub edly he
igh o p ope y, which will see go e nmen s om 1976 onwa ds ocus on p i a e home owne ship
as one o he cen al housing policies. Al hough A icle 62 does no openly o esee a p og amma ic
dimension o owne ship, which is he case in I aly, successi e go e nmen s, since he p omulga ion o
he Cons i u ion, ha e ne e heless a ou ed i h ough a ious p og ammes. These include, o
example, he subsidised c edi p og amme, which sough o educe he obs acles c ea ed by high
in e es and in la ion a es; his sys em was in g ea demand as ea ly as 1976, wi h 26,896 c edi
applica ions eaching 64,793 in 1981 (An unes, 2017: 282). One o he mos equen c i icisms o he
subsidised c edi policy was based on he claim ha he loans we e mainly aimed a he middle class,
lea ing ou a la ge segmen o he popula ion (Minis é io do Equipamen o Social, 1983).
As o Lisbon, since he 1974 e olu ion, i has con inued o build Social Housing o occasional
and local pu poses. I should be emembe ed ha municipal e-housing in e en ions o pe manen
en al housing began in he mid-1960s and we e ein o ced in 1970 wi h he ‘slum e adica ion plan’
(Ibid., 2017). Be ween 1974 and 1985, app oxima ely 10,000 homes we e buil o e-housing and
simila si ua ions.
F om he 1980s onwa ds, Po ugal unde wen subs an ial changes ha saw, in addi ion o he
consolida ion o he democ a ic sys em, he ull adop ion o he ma ke economy, he opening o
cus oms ba ie s, he libe alisa ion o banking compe i ion and he p og essi e educ ion o in la ion
and in e es a es (No onha, 2022). These s uc u al changes we e indeed s ongly in luenced when
Po ugal applied o join he ([Eu opean Economic Communi y]; he ea e [EEC]), an applica ion ha
ma e ialised on 1 Janua y 1986. Compa ed o o he Eu opean S a es, Po ugal was socially and
economically lagging, which esul ed in he a i al o c i ical s uc u al unds o comba he coun y’s
exogenous and endogenous inequali ies.
The eal es a e ma ke du ing his pe iod enjoyed conside able bank concessions, mainly accessed
by he Po uguese middle class h ough he educ ion o in e es a es, and he sp ead allowed many
amilies o become homeowne s (Se a, 2002). All his happened in he same his o ical pe iod in which,
be ween 1981 and 1991, he ci y o Lisbon saw a sha p decline in he numbe o esiden s o a ound
18% (INE, 1991).
73
Buoyed by i s new- ound economic s abili y, he new cen e- igh go e nmen inc eased public
spending in he 1980s, bu he si ua ion quickly degene a ed, o cing he coun y in o a pain ul
ecession be ween ‘83-’84 and ha ing o u gen ly eques a new inancial aid package om he
In e na ional Mone a y Fund, which mean a hea y s ain once again on he shoulde s o Po uguese
amilies (No onha, 2022).
F om he mid-1980s un il he mid-1990s, Po ugal, led by he cen e- igh coali ion, expe ienced
signi ican economic g ow h (albei p ima ily induced by he in low o EEC/EU unds). Du ing his
pe iod, an ambi ious neolibe al-o ien ed e o m p og amme was implemen ed in he coun y (ibid.,
2022). One o he mos signi ican e o ms in his ega d is he 1989 e o m ha epealed he
cons i u ional p o ision on he i e e sibili y o he na ionalisa ion o p i a e en e p ises, ini ia ing a
libe alisa ion p ocess ha included p i a isa ion as an e ec i e s a egy o ac ion (mo e han 100
S a e-owned en e p ises we e pu on he ma ke be ween 1989 and 1995, and he public sec o was
educed om 20% o ([G oss Domes ic P oduc ]; he ea e [GDP]) o 10%) (F ain, 1995).
Howe e , Po ugal’s en y in o he EEC/EU ce ainly bene i ed he coun y’s in e nal GDP, as being
among he poo es membe s a es, i was also one o he p ima y bene icia ies o Eu opean s uc u al
unds (Sil a, 1997). Thus, in he second hal o he 1980s, while he middle class could access bank
c edi unds o become homeowne s, he poo e classes saw hei housing condi ions wo sen
conside ably, inding hemsel es o ced o sol e hei housing p oblems on hei own, o en illegally.
This esul ed in an enla gemen o he in o mal neighbou hoods ha exis ed in he subu bs o he
p ominen Po uguese ci ies, which was, he e o e, in e e yone’s eyes, one o he main p oblems in
Lisbon. This scena io a ec ed a subs an ial pa o he popula ion and was isible in se e al places,
e en in he cen e.
Acco ding o a ious schola s on he opic in he ea ly 1990s, he si ua ion in Lisbon had no pa allel
in any Eu opean ci y, le alone among capi al ci ies (Cab al & Ra o, 2001: 5). In 1990 (acco ding o CML
da a), 10% o he popula ion li ed in 20,000 empo a y dwellings in poo neighbou hoods (Alleg a e
al., 2017).
The po e y, exclusion, seg ega ion and s igma isa ion o hese neighbou hoods we e e iden , as
we e he se e e hygienic and sani a y de iciencies. These ‘neighbou hoods’ we e mainly buil on s eep
slopes o in ha d- o- each places in he shadow o he ci y, whe e housands o indi iduals esided,
who we e o ced in o illegal sel -building choices o imp o e hei condi ions, d i en abo e all by an
absence o plans o in eg a e he poo e classes in o access o a decen home.
Thus, in he ci y o Lisbon, he e we e abou 200 in o mal neighbou hoods sca e ed h oughou
he ci y. The e we e abou 25,000 p eca ious dwellings o be demolished in a uni e se o abou 80.000,
o a ound 11.5% o Lisbon’s popula ion (An unes, 2017: 240), ep esen ing he eali y o he u al
exodus ha had aken place in p e ious yea s as well as he concen a ion o immig an s om
80
which only indi ec ly included ci izenship, i.e. h ough ehousing and he p ospec o gi ing hem a
home. In his same pe iod, howe e , associa ions we e bo n on he subjec o housing, mainly linked
o claims wi h espec o in o mal neighbou hoods, which, howe e , laid he ounda ions o he
subjec o housing o become cen al again wi hin he poli ical claims o ci il socie y, somehow
a ou ing he bi h o HRM in he ollowing decades. This is also because, acco ding o a ious au ho s,
wi h he comple ion o he PER and he aboli ion o in e es subsidies, public in es men in housing
undamen ally ends, o he ex en de ined as “housing d augh ” (Alleg a e al., 2017).
I is also impo an o no e ha Lisbon’s popula ion dec eased in hose yea s, om 691,063
esiden s in 1991 o 564,657 in 2001 (INE, 2001). As o he ci y’s u ban expansion, despi e he
dec ease in popula ion in he cen e, new a eas o housing con inued o be buil . No ably, he Pa que
da Nações (a e EXPO’98) and he Al o do Lumia . Thus, wi h he beginning o he 21s cen u y, a new
phase o housing policies began, cha ac e ised by he need o ca y ou u ban egene a ion
in e en ions in se e al disquali ied places in he ci y, mainly due o he demog aphic decline and he
abandonmen o he Po uguese capi al’s cen e, which saw mos o he buildings in he cen e
abandoned and le o decay.
In 2007, in he immedia e p e-c isis pe iod, he uling PS go e nmen launched a [Na ional
S a egic Plan o Housing] ([Plano Es a égico de Habi ação 2008/2013]; he ea e [PEH]), endowed
wi h a pionee ing and in eg a i e ision ha en isaged di ec s a e in es men s in he ehabili a ion
o he housing s ock and he e i alisa ion o he en al ma ke , also gi ing a cen al ole o local
au ho i ies (Mendes, 2020b). Howe e , he execu ion o his law was clea ly in e up ed by he c isis
and he subsequen pe iod o aus e i y (2011-2015), and as I will desc ibe in he nex chap e (see
Chap e 5), he a ious go e nmen s had o ebalance spending on all social policies, including housing,
a a ime when he economic and social li ing condi ions o Po uguese households we e adically
de e io a ing.

81
4b) The I alian case
INTRODUCTION TO THE ROMAN CASE
The Roman case s udy, wi h espec o he yea s aken in o conside a ion, de elops in a e y di e en
con ex om he Po uguese one, i.e., in he 1970s, Po ugal was coming ou o a dic a o ial egime
while in I aly, his p ocess ook place almos 30 yea s ea lie . Fo his eason, o compa e he wo cases
in he same his o ical pe iod, i is necessa y o in oduce some o he ajec o ies o he HRM as well
as some o he housing policies in he p e ious yea s ha occu ed in Rome.
The Roman case on his issue also di e s s ongly om o he la ge I alian ci ies ega ding he
o ms o esis ance o he la ge numbe o people a ec ed by he housing c isis. Resis ance in he
s uggle o housing in Rome is, as in Po ugal, an issue ha has de eloped, a leas o e he las 60
yea s.
The ascis dic a o ship, headed by s a esman Beni o Mussolini in I aly, ended on 25 Ap il 1945. I
did no oppose land specula ion du ing he wen y yea s in powe , hanks o which so-called (‘Bo ga e’,
i.e. ‘in o mal neighbou hoods’) and a ious shan y owns buil by immig an s and displaced pe sons
om he ci y cen e de eloped in di e en a eas o Rome (Insole a, 2011).
The end o he egime coincided wi h he end o he Second Wo ld Wa , whe e unds om he
Ma shall Plan (a US- unded ini ia i e launched in 1948) we e eleased o help he economic eco e y
and econs uc ion o Wes e n Eu ope a e he wa . Rome, in pa icula , had su e ed signi ican
damage, wi h many his o ic buildings and monumen s damaged o des oyed by bombing, hen
es o ed o ebuil hanks o his und.
Du ing he 1950s and 1960s, he s uggle o he igh o housing in Rome had di e en p ac ices
compa ed o he yea s I will discuss in his chap e , as he main demands came om he popula ion o
he ‘Bo ga e’ o demand be e housing and hygienic condi ions, also using public demons a ions
agains he poli ical au ho i ies o demand access o essen ial se ices such as elec ici y o e en
unning wa e and sewage (Mudu, 2014a). Many o hese public demons a ions we e di ec ly
suppo ed by he ([I alian Communis Pa y]; he ea e [PCI]) when i was s ill in poli ical opposi ion in
he [Rome Ci y Council] ([Comune di Roma]; he ea e [CdR]) be o e i s abilised in powe in 1976 and
eplaced he ([Ch is ian Democ a s Pa y]; he ea e [DC]) o he i s ime a e he end o he egime.
The decade o he 1960s was he pe iod in which he [Gene al U ban Regula o y Plan] ([Piano
Regola o e Gene ale]; he ea e [PRG]) was app o ed o he i s ime in Rome, bu in addi ion o his
e en , i is decisi e o epo ha du ing his pe iod a s ong p ocess o depopula ion a ec ed Rome’s
his o ic cen e. In he 20 yea s be ween 1951 and 1971, Rome’s his o ic cen e saw i s o iginal
popula ion hal ed (Insole a, 2011).
82
A he same ime, he e was a educ ion in he s ill nume ous shan y owns (whe e 62,351 people
li ed in 16,506 households in 1968), achie ed h ough he inc eased cons uc ion o Social Housing
dis ic s (Ibid., 2011). This was mainly due o he enac men o a ious na ional policies ha aimed o
inc ease he a ailabili y o a o dable housing and encou age he cons uc ion o Social Housing, in
pa icula wi h he Na ional Housing Plan (Law 167/1962), which aimed o add ess he coun y’s
housing sho age and imp o e he quali y o exis ing housing. Wi hin he plan, he e is he law on:
[Social Housing] ([Edilizia Residenziale Pubblica]; he ea e [ERP]), which p o ided o he cons uc ion
o new Social Housing uni s by public au ho i ies ha we e S a e-owned, wi h special a en ion o he
housing needs o low-income amilies. The law also p o ided o he ehabili a ion o exis ing buildings
o Social Housing.
Ano he ex emely iolen u ban planning p ocess ha a ose in hose yea s in he ci y o Rome
was he phenomenon o (‘abusi ismo edilizio’, he ea e ‘unlaw ul la s, building o neighbou hoods),
i.e., he cons uc ion o dozens and dozens o en i e housing dis ic s wi hou building app o al by he
public adminis a ion, which was unpa alleled anywhe e else in I aly. In he ea ly 1960s, an a e age o
15,500 unlaw ul la s we e buil annually un il he su eal annual a e age numbe o no less han
54,000 unlaw ul la s was eached in he ea ly 1970s (Ibid., 2011).
Fo many Roman ci izens, om he pos -wa pe iod un il he ea ly 1970s, housing, he e o e, ook
on ex emely p eca ious o ms, bo h h ough an in o mali y ha a ose om below, h ough he sel -
cons uc ion o he ‘Bo ga e’, and h ough an in o mali y ha a ose om abo e, as in he cons uc ion
wi hou planning app o als o en i e unlaw ul neighbou hoods (Pizzo & Al a illa, 2017). And i was
om hese communi ies ha he o ganised g ass oo s mo emen s o housing s uggle we e bo n, as I
will analyse in his chap e , which ga e ise o he squa ing p ocesses in he ci y o Rome.
These p ocesses i s saw indi idual amilies o indi iduals p ac ising squa ing by necessi y
wi hou being o ganised in o a mo emen du ing he ea ly 1960s and hen ans o med and e ol ed
in o an au hen ic o ganised g ass oo s mo emen a he end o he same decade wi h he c ea ion,
o example, o he [Bo ga a Agi a ion Commi ee] ([Comi a o di Agi azione Bo ga a]; he ea e [CAB]),
an o ganisa ion made up o slum dwelle s, women, young people, s uden s, PCI g ass oo s mili an s
and le -wing Ca holics (Ma chini, 2018).
F om a his o ical poin o iew, he housing s uggles in he ci y o Rome we e cha ac e ised om
he beginning by a s ong poli ical alence. Du ing his i s phase, he claims o he commi ees
conce ned, on he one hand, he elimina ion o he ‘Bo ga e’ hemsel es and, on he o he , he
alloca ion o he inhabi an s o housing in S a e-buil ERP. The squa ing o emp y buildings hus
became a s anda d o m o p o es (Mudu, 2014a; Tozze i, 1989), sus ained by he cons an low o
mig an s in a ci y hi by a se e e housing c isis o which he public adminis a ions we e unable o ind
a solu ion and suppo ed publicly and poli ically, especially in he ini ial phase, by he hen PCI.
83
FROM UNLAWFUL BUILDING TO THE ‘BORGATE’ MOVEMENT (1970 – 1980)
In he Rome o he 1970s, he e o e, he cons uc ion o unlaw ul buildings, uelled by amilies o
(‘palazzina i’ i.e. ‘building specula o s’), was no longe an excep ion bu a e i able model on which
he new ci y o Rome was buil , and he hing ha s ands ou mos is ha his model was es ablished
p ecisely when he ci y’s demog aphic g ow h seemed o come o a s ands ill. The popula ion ha
lu ks in hese la s and o which en i e unlaw ul neighbou hoods ha e been buil is ce ainly ha o
he inhabi an s o he ‘Bo ga e’ and he las immig an s o a i e in he ci y. Howe e , i also includes
ha segmen o he middle class ha s ill needs o be able o access bank c edi (Insole a, 2011). The
in e wining o hese needs, o which he public ins i u ions we e unable o p o ide an answe , c ea ed
a e i able pa allel building ma ke , which was no able o be ma ginalised, also hanks o he e y
sca ce p oduc ion o public housing p oposed by he adminis a ion in hose yea s. Fo his eason, he
only solu ion p oposed o hose looking o a house as pa o a lowe social class was o expose
hemsel es o he p oposals o he ‘palazzina i’ who illegally began o lay he ounda ions o domina e
he p ope y ma ke in he ollowing yea s in Rome.
The legisla i e and bu eauc a ic con usion ha did no delinea e he adminis a i e
esponsibili ies a he h ee le els p esen , i.e., S a e, egion and municipali y, mean ha ‘palazzina i’
played wi hin hese legisla i e aul s o he poin o making unlaw ul cons uc ion almos a pe manen
legal s a us (D’albe go, Moini, & Pizzo, 2015). Thus began a p ocess o u ban ‘ eco e y’ o 84 unlaw ul
a eas classi ied as ‘O’ zones by he subsequen municipal a ian in 1978.
In he same pe iod and hus in pa allel wi h hese p ocesses o eal es a e specula ion, an
o ganised HRM began o o m, mainly o med by ci izens and small associa ions ha , s a ing in he
second hal o he 1970s, decided o use he squa ing o abandoned buildings, bo h public and p i a e,
o gi e a physical place o hei poli ical and social ac i i ies, becoming one o he p ima y p ac ices o
he adical and you h mo emen s o he ex a-pa liamen a y le ha sough abandoned spaces
a ailable o c ea e au onomous spaces whe e hey could expe imen wi h new p ac ices o sel -
cons uc ion and sel -o ganisa ion.
Thus, in he 1970s, no only in Rome, new o ms o doing and hinking abou squa ing we e bo n,
gi ing ise o he so-called [Sel -managed Squa ed Social Cen es] ([Cen i Sociali Occupa i
Au oges i i]; he ea e [CSOAs]), wi h he aim o ep esen ing and making hemsel es ecognisable
h ough he physical occupa ion o space o ep oduce poli ical models o hose g oups and collec i es
and o de elop new cul u al p ac ices. This p ocess i s ook place in Milan (Cecchi e al., 1978), and
hen ollowing he decline o he adical mo emen s in he la e 1960s and ea ly 1970s, a new cycle o
s uggles began.
84
Public and ga he ing spaces wi hin I alian ci ies began o sh ink mo e and mo e, and wha we e
public spaces disappea ed o access became inc easingly limi ed (Mudu & Rossini, 2018). In he 1970s,
some I alian ci ies s a ed o p i a ise public spaces, o en by selling o en ing publicly owned land o
p i a e de elope s. Fo example, in he Pa ioli Dis ic in Rome, he ci y go e nmen sold a la ge
po ion o public land in he neighbou hood o p i a e de elope s, who buil a high-end esiden ial
complex ha included ga ed communi ies and p i a e pa ks. The de elopmen es ic ed public access
o wha was once a public space and limi ed he use o i s acili ies o hose who could a o d o li e in
he new complex.
As a esponse o his ep ession o space, solida i y ne wo ks, mainly oo ed in he sphe es o
labou and educa ion, began o o m new spaces o sociabili y and poli ical nodes wi hin hese CSOAs.
This new o m o squa ing had al eady had punc ual expe iences in he 1960s (Tozze i, 1989). S ill, i
was no un il he 1970s ha his p ac ice became one o he main ins umen s o poli ical claiming no
only by he HRM bu also by all hose collec i es ha ecognised hemsel es wi hin non-py amidal
s uc u es and ou side pa y logic, e en i hese i s spaces could no no mally las mo e han a ew
mon hs. These ac ions also enjoyed he poli ical and logis ical suppo o he PCI, which con inued o
openly suppo squa ing and CSOAs, especially public p ope y, un il i s ic o y in he 1976 municipal
elec ions.
Du ing i s yea s in opposi ion, he PCI o ien ed much o i s poli ical ac ion owa ds housing
p oblems, wi h he pa y’s neighbou hood o ices also playing a pi o al ole in o ganising he old
bu ghe s o a ou and access as many la s as possible (Mudu, 2014a). Du ing he ea ly yea s o he
decade o he 1970s, he p ac ice o squa ing was no only a p e oga i e o he mo emen . The e
we e many indi iduals no linked o any pa y o mo emen who egula ly squa ed emp y buildings
o la s, an ac ion linked mo e o an essen ial need o no ha ing access o decen housing han o a
mo e gene al s uggle agains ( he ‘ca o i a
4
‘, i.e. ‘cos o li ing’) (Daolio, 1974).
I was o hese easons, and again hanks o he in e en ion o he PCI, ha a g ea mo emen
began h oughou he coun y in hose yea s ha sough o o ganise he wo king class, which ook o
he s ee s and squa ed many ac o ies in p o es a he oil c isis o 1973, which la e led o a inancial
c isis. The so-called Au onomia Ope aia, o ganised a s ong mo emen o s uggle dic a ed by he need
o p o ec hei wages as well as o ensu e adequa e access o essen ial goods and se ices such as
ood, shel e , se ices and anspo (Rami ez, 1975).
Among he a ious demands was included ha access o housing, and i was p ecisely on his issue
ha he i s poli ical disag eemen s a ose be ween he PCI and he mo emen . Va ious o ganisa ions
close o he PCI (such as he Unione Nazionale Inquilini Assegna a i o Alleanza Nazionale Inquilini)
4
Tha in ole able in la iona y p essu e ha hinde ed he li e o he wo king class in hose yea s.
85
con inued o p omo e squa ing, bu only o public housing, seeing i only as a s a egy o nego ia ion
wi h public ins i u ions, while neighbou hood collec i es belonging o an au onomous mo emen
began o a ge p i a e housing as well, a guing ha en s should no ake up mo e han 10% o
wo ke s’ wages (Mudu, 2014a: 100).
A he u ban planning le el, one o he mos impo an s uc u al e en s ha ook place in his
decade was he subdi ision o Rome in o 155 u ban zones wi hin 20 (‘Municipi’ he ea e ‘Dis ic s’).
This esul ed in he decen alisa ion o powe h ough ha subdi ision (Insole a, 2011). One o he
c i icisms was ha his subdi ision needed o include an in-dep h s udy ha jus i ied he es ablished
bounda ies. This decen alisa ion o bo h he S a e in o egions and he municipali ies in o Dis ic s
was associa ed wi h he democ a isa ion o poli ical p ocesses, i.e. o ensu e g ea e pa icipa ion,
ep esen a i eness and decision-making esponsibili y, which, howe e , ins ead o s eng hening
public powe , made i bu eauc a ically hea ie .
Mo eo e , i was in his clima e ha bo h he weigh o he new HRM and he g ass oo s
communi ies, especially hose belonging o he ‘Bo ga e’, inc eased. In e es ingly, many o hese
‘Bo ga e’ communi ies we e headed by neighbou hood pas o s who minis e ed wi hin he in o mal
neighbou hoods. One o he mos impo an in his ega d was ha o San Paolo uo i le mu a led by
Abbo Gio anni F anzoni, who, wi h his pas o al le e ‘The Land is God’s’, in oduced a new poli ical
in e p e a ion o land and house owne ship. The le e o he Abbo o San Paolo deals di ec ly wi h
he cen al issue o he di icul ies o ci y go e nmen and he eno mous injus ices in he ield o
p ope y owne ship:
“The index ha se es o ma k he classical s uc u e o he ci y o he capi al, o gi e i now a
ce ain objec i e jus i ica ion, is he p ice o land. I is p ecisely om he di e ing alue o he land on
he ma ke ha inequali y in he use o he ci y is codi ied; in u n, he exis ence o a land ma ke
equi es, o i s implemen a ion, legal owne s. The p i a e owne ship o land is he e o e no he di ec
cause o specula ion, he exploi a ion o he land, o he capi alis use o he ci y; and i , howe e , a
necessa y condi ion o all his o ake place unde he gua an ee o he legali y and jus ice o capi alis
socie y, based p ecisely on p op ie a y indi idualism” (F anzoni, 1973).
In addi ion o he expe ience o San Paolo, o he communi ies began o s uggle wi h he same
dynamics. Fo ins ance, a he Acquedo o Felice, ano he p ies , F Robe o Sa delli, conduc s in ense
social wo k in he la ge ‘Bo ga a’. In P a o Ro ondo, ano he la ge ‘Bo ga a’ in he no h o Rome, F
Ge a do Lu e led a sys ema ic denuncia ion o he ci y adminis a ion’s delays and called o
in e en ions in a ou people expe iencing homelessness. So much so ha in Feb ua y 1972, 13
p ies s published a le e o he Ch is ians o Rome in which hey denounced u ban injus ice. The
g ass oo s communi ies a e so nume ous ha ci y coo dina ion was necessa y o make he opics o
e lec ion and ini ia i es homogeneous (Insole a, 2011). And i was also hanks o his e y s ong

86
clima e o cul u al enewal pushing om below ha a he 1976 municipal elec ions, he PCI, which
had al eady conque ed mos o he p ominen I alian ci ies a ha ime, also es ablished i sel in Rome
wi h he elec ion o mayo Giulio Ca lo A gan as head o he capi al’s go e nmen , who s a ed ha he
sec o s he would a ou we e cul u e and u ban planning, s a ing ha a he ime o he elec ions,
Rome’s only p ima y indus y was cons uc ion.
In hose yea s in Rome, he issue o housing and, abo e all, he issue o u ban planning, o how o
build he ci y, was one o he main opics o he mo emen and he public adminis a ions. The ask
weighing on he newly elec ed PCI, especially in own planning due o he legacy le by he
adminis a ions and he many unlaw ul cons uc ions ha had aken place in p e ious yea s, was
eno mous. In no ci y in he Wes e n wo ld had i been es ima ed ha so many unlaw ul
neighbou hoods had e e had o be eckoned wi h in a s a us ha was, among o he hings, booming
(Ibid., 2011). Pa adoxically, ha ing o eclaim and ehabili a e he Roman subu bs in hose yea s mean
accep ing and legi imising he unlaw ul p ac ice, e en going so a as o nego ia e plans wi h he e y
pe pe a o s o cons uc ing en i e unlaw ul neighbou hoods in he Roman subu bs (Pizzo & Al a illa,
2017).
In a nu shell, he ci y’s u u e had o be discussed a he able wi h hose who we e gu ing i ,
whe e he economic in e es s o he amilies who owned Rome’s housing companies we e a ahead
o he social in e es s o a ci y amid a housing c isis. In such a con ex o powe des abilisa ion and
wi h p ima y capi alis in e es s linked o he housing issue, a signi ican shi in he balance o powe
ook place. These included he eme gence o a ious c iminal o ganisa ions ha ook ad an age o his
ins abili y o en e he lou ishing p ope y ma ke . Among hese was he Magliana gang, a c iminal
o ganisa ion ha o igina ed in he Roman neighbou hood o he same name and assumed hegemony
in he Roman ma ia.
By in e wining hese in e es s, complici y was es ablished be ween his c iminal o ganisa ion and
he ins i u ions in powe . Va ious in es iga ions now con i m ha he Magliana gang, as well as o he
c iminal o ganisa ions, had di ec business ela ions in hose yea s, e en wi h Va ican inance as well
as wi h he a ious municipal councils ha succeeded one ano he o e he yea s (Ibid., 2011).
The mo emen , he ins i u ions and he en y o his hi d ac o ep esen ed by he o ganised
unde wo ld and he cons uc ion unlaw in hose yea s seem o be a elling on pa allel acks, each
wi h i s p oposals ca ying ou p ojec s, he o me linked o social policies and he la e d i en by
economic in e es s, in he middle a public adminis a ion ha legally is he only one ha would ha e
he execu i e powe o ac ion o deal wi h he p oblem was caugh be ween wo i es, mos ly g asping
ep ession owa ds he mo emen s and making ag eemen s wi h he builde s o he unlaw ul
neighbou hoods.
87
One o he p ac ices ha began o lou ish he HRM in hose yea s was he p ac ice o sel -
cons uc ion and he o ganisa ion o he housands o squa ing la s in Rome as a social and poli ical
esponse o he p ice inc eases o essen ial se ices (Bales ini & Mo oni, 1997). In I aly, be ween 1969
and 1975, 20,000 la s (be ween public and p i a e) we e squa ed. While in Rome in he mid-1970s,
an es ima ed 4,000 la s we e squa ed by he mo emen (Comi a i au onomi ope ai di Roma, 1976).
A e his long decade o s uggles, con lic s and claims, one o he esponses a he legisla i e
le el om he go e nmen and hus o indi ec in e ac ion be ween mo emen and ins i u ions came
in 1978, h ough he p omulga ion o he ‘Equo Canone’ law (law no. 392/1978) in which he en al
ma ke was inally egula ised a a na ional le el, his law se a ceiling on en s in he ci y a a o dable
p ices o low and medium-income enan s, wi h au oma ic enewals o con ac s, bu i mus be added
ha e y ew p ope y owne s espec ed his law, p oducing among o he hings a decla ed boyco
o he same (Mudu, 2014a: 100).
A he end o he 1970s, he housing si ua ion o Romans was as ollows: 600,000 people li ed in
he consolida ed ci y. One million in he expansion a eas came up a ound he ime o he 1962 plan,
and 350,000 people li ed in public housing, mainly in he eas e n a ea. On he o he hand, he unlaw ul
ci y housed an imp essi e numbe o 800,000 inhabi an s (Ma chini, 2018). The unlaw ul
neighbou hoods, he e o e, managed o p o ide people wi h housing bu d i en by pu ely economic
in e es s, hey ans o med en i e e i o ies in o do mi o y dis ic s, comple ely dep i ing hose who
wen o li e he e o many essen ial se ices, bo h connec ing and sani a y, some imes e en dep i ing
hem o wa e o mon hs a a ime (Pizzo & Al a illa, 2017).
In 1979, in new elec ions, he PCI was econ i med, and Luigi Pe oselli was elec ed mayo (1979-
1981). Wi h he elec ion o he new mayo , he elec o al p omises and he poli ical commi men o he
las 20 yea s ha he PCI had demons a ed on he issue o housing we e ul illed, h ough a cons an
e i o ial p esence in he subu bs, so much so ha as soon as he was elec ed he immedia ely
implemen ed a massi e public housing plan, h ough which he demolished all he known ‘Bo ga e’ in
Rome (which is no o say ha he demolished all he p eca ious in o mal buildings in Rome).
Mos amilies we e ehoused in he neighbou hoods buil unde Law 167 o 1962. The aim was o
p o ide he public body wi h conc e e ools o plan in e en ions in he housing sec o and o
in luence, h ough hese, he layou o he u ban e i o y, comba ing land specula ion and di ec ing
building de elopmen wi h he a ea plans o be buil on exp op ia ed a eas. The e o e, a s ong public
in es men p og amme was omen ed no only o demolish he ex eme p eca iousness o he
‘Bo ga e’, bu also o elaunch he issue o subsidised Social Housing and es a building p oduc ion
(Ibid., 2018). This plan was also necessa y o cope wi h he c isis in he building sec o in hose yea s
and y o coun e he ampan unlaw ul cons uc ion, which had a conside able economic and
employmen weigh in he ci y o Rome.
88
As in he case o Lisbon o he PER, his was he las ealisa ion o an ac ual public housing
p og amme in Rome. The e was a gigan ic mo e in hose yea s. Thousands o amilies om he subu bs
loaded all hei belongings on o ucks p o ided by he municipali y o each he new ERP
neighbou hoods buil . On he day o he abandonmen , he ‘Bo ga e’ we e demolished o a oid u he
occupa ion.
The e o e, he eme gence o HRM in Rome saw an ini ial phase om he 1950s o he 1970s,
mainly led by he PCI, which o ganised communi ies o demand be e quali y housing, suppo ing he
squa ing o public buildings only (Mudu, 2014a). In he 1970s, he eme gence o o ganisa ions o he
ex a-pa liamen a y le , o ganised wi hin squa ed spaces and wo ke s’ au onomous mo emen s,
changed he cha ac e is ics o he ajec o ies o esis ance, consec a ing he squa ing p ac ised by
he HRM as a p ac ice o poli ical nego ia ion as well as a p ac ice o p oducing au onomous space
wi hin he Roman u ban ab ic whe e o ms o li ing and esis ance in con lic wi h ins i u ional
de elopmen p ac ices could be p ac ised wi h he o ma ion o he i s CSOAs. So much so ha he
PCI was no longe he only ac o o con lic on he housing issue (Bales ini & Mo oni, 1997) as he
mo emen bo n in hose yea s acqui ed i s poli ical discou se and es ablished i sel as an impo an
oice in he public deba e on he housing p oblem in Rome.
FROM THE ADVENT OF NEOLIBERAL POLICIES TO THE RISE OF HRM (1980 –
1990)
The 1980s opened in I aly wi h one o he legisla i e policies ha would mos in luence ci y
go e nmen in he ollowing yea s h oughou he coun y, namely Cons i u ional Cou uling No. 5
o 25 Janua y 1980. The Cou decla ed he ule on exp op ia ions o public u ili y uncons i u ional,
which had subs an ial epe cussions, especially on he exp op ia ion o houses (Insole a, 2011). This
uling will se e ely limi he possibili y o implemen ing public go e nance o he ci y om now on, as
i also ques ions he amoun o economic compensa ion o he exp op ia ion o land o he
cons uc ion o se ices and public spaces.
The 1980s, he e o e, in Rome, as in he es o he coun y, ep esen ed a pe iod o p o ound
s uc u al change o powe , wi h he beginning o he loss o powe o he public adminis a ions in
he ci ies, h ough he inc easingly e iden hando e o he adminis a ion o se ices om he public
o he p i a e sec o . As a esul , all public measu es issued om ha poin on also los hei
en o ceabili y, and public p e oga i es in he e i o y g adually hollowed ou .
In 1981, as al eady b ie ly men ioned, Pe oselli’s plan o elimina e all he ‘Bo ga e’ om he
capi al was inally concluded, he las ‘Bo ga a’ on he P enes ina was des oyed, and in i s place, a
g een pa k was buil o he communi y (Ma chini, 2018). To ehouse he housands o amilies li ing
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in he subu bs, dozens o popula neighbou hoods we e buil : To Bella Monaca, Co iale, Lau en ino
38, Vigne Nuo e, and Se pen a a. The esul s, howe e , a e a less han expec ed. The isk is ha o
ha ing mo ed amilies om a ghe o o shacks o a ghe o o conc e e (Clemen i & Pe ego, 1983),
many essen ial se ices such as collec i e spaces, which we e one o he ea u es ha ga e he subu bs
hei mos ecognisable cha ac e , a e missing, and e y li le a en ion is paid o building quali y.
Those neighbou hoods, which we e supposed o be sel -su icien buildings su ounded by
g eene y o gi e new digni y o amilies a i ing om he subu bs, u ned in o no hing mo e han
‘do mi o y’ neighbou hoods poo ly connec ed o he ci y bu dependen on i . While he a eas
be ween hese cons uc ions con inued o inc ease in alue, once again con inuing he game o p i a e
owne s, he unde wo ld and he expansion o he unlaw ul ci y.
Among he main swindles ca ied ou in he ci y o Rome by p i a e indi iduals agains he public
in he cons uc ion ield a e hose ca ied ou wi h he egula o y plans. Wi h he law men ioned abo e
167 o 1962, p i a e indi iduals immedia ely ealised ha his was a golden oppo uni y o make
p o i s, as companies would ob ain land concessions and public unding o build houses, which hey
could sell o en . In his scam, builde s and poli icians colluded o alloca e housing uni s o people
who did no mee he eligibili y c i e ia, such as middle-class amilies o hose who al eady owned
p ope y. In some cases, builde s c ea ed ic i ious households o ecei e subsidised housing uni s. This
audulen alloca ion o housing uni s esul ed in a sho age o a o dable housing o low-income
amilies who needed i . In addi ion, i pe pe ua ed social inequali y, as hose who we e al eady well-
o could access housing o he mos p eca ious amilies. In he ci y o Rome alone, mo e han 100
subsidised housing dis ic s we e buil be ween 1969 and 1989 (Ma chini, 2018). An in e en ion bo n
o help he many amilies wi h a low income and, in he case o subsidised housing, wi h an a e age
income insu icien o ind housing solu ions a ma ke p ices, has hus u ned in o a business only o
building specula o s, o en linked o he o ganised unde wo ld.
All his was ca ied ou in comple e con as o he communi y’s ac ual needs. The new 1981
census con i ms, as did he p e ious ones, ha Rome was no longe g owing demog aphically despi e
he ac ha he u ban expansion p ojec emained one o he co ne s ones o Roman le -wing
poli ics. And abo e all, one o he mos impac ul e en s, as happened h oughou Eu ope in I aly as
well, he 1980s ep esen he yea s in which neolibe al ideals ook hold and s abilised wi h g ea e
in ensi y, p ecisely a a ime when, as discussed, public go e nance o he ci y en e ed a c isis, lea ing
he dominan ma ke g oups o lay he ounda ions o sup emacy o p i a e go e nance o he
ollowing decades.
The PCI g adually los i s poli ical abili y o mobilise he classes li ing in subu ban a eas du ing
hose yea s in Rome, p obably because o he p ema u e dea h o Mayo Pe oselli (Coppola, 2008).
This was p ima ily due o he PCI’s gene al inabili y o comp ehend he new social ends o mig a ion
96
unusual collabo a ion ha he 1998 egional law on he ‘sel - eco e y’ o eal es a e was app o ed
( egional law no. 36/1998).
This law was p omulga ed mainly o ecognise housing squa ing as an al e na i e ins umen o
deal wi h he housing p oblem. Fo he mo emen , he p omulga ion o his law was a huge ic o y,
he bill was p ac ically w i en only by he mo emen and app o ed in he egion, and i is he i s
ime such a esul has been achie ed (In e iew R3). The buildings owned by he CdR and p e iously
squa ed a e eno a ed a he municipali y’s expense as a as he building’s ex e io is conce ned. In
con as , he in e io s a e eno a ed by he coope a i e o med by he squa e s, who become
legi ima e enan s o be ween 150 and 300 eu os a mon h o epay he loan hey asked he banks o
he eno a ion. The house emains he p ope y o he public body, which can be assigned o o he s
a e a gene a ion.
Soon a e wa ds, he i s wo squa ing sel - eco e y expe iences we e bo n in Rome in Via
Isido o del Lungo and Via Rigola. Despi e his i s posi i e p ac ice-sha ing expe ience be ween
ins i u ions and he mo emen , he only one in I aly, i s ill needs o sol e he slow I alian bu eauc a ic
machine. Like o he laws in he pas , he sel - eco e y law could ha e been mo e e ec i e when
implemen ing p ojec s. This was also because i ep esen ed jus a d op in he ocean compa ed o he
eno mous housing p oblem in Rome, which in hose yea s was becoming inc easingly s a i ied and
dis an , no only e i o ially bu abo e all socially. This law was applied in e y ew cases, ailing a all
o espond o he eno mous demand and need o Social Housing on he pa o ci il socie y. In Rome
alone, housands o people we e on he lis o apply o access o Social Housing.
The second hal o he 1990s saw new de elopmen s on he issue o housing, neolibe al policies,
and he poli icisa ion o home owne ship as he main ins umen o alloca e housing o he popula ion
in oduced deb as he main ins umen o con ol people’s li es, he middle class in pa icula . In
con as , he poo classes we e excluded om any housing access p og amme enac ed in hose yea s.
In Rome, i is in e es ing ha he cen e-le coali ion ha go e ned he ci y be ween 1993 and 2008
suppo ed and implemen ed neolibe al policies. Howe e , on he o he hand, s ong esis ance also
a ose in ex a-pa liamen a y and au onomous con ex s (Mudu, 2014a). The discussion o housing in
hose yea s was pa o he poli ical discou se on he pa o bo h ins i u ions and mo emen s, being
one o he cen al hemes among he claims o g ass oo s collec i es.
So much so ha in 1999 he ex eme p essu e o he mo emen s and especially o CCLC, which
had al eady s a ed a igh o he ecogni ion o he ‘s a e o eme gency’ yea s be o e, led o he i s
a i ica ion o he (‘P o ocollo sull’eme genza abi a i a’ i.e. ‘Housing Eme gency P o ocol’), which
p o ided o 170 billion old li e (abou 85 million eu o) o he pu chase o new Social Housing, as well
as he inancing o six o he sel - eco e y p ojec s and o he in e en ions in some Roman subu bs
(CCLC, 2014). Howe e , his, as well as o he esolu ions in he pas p oposed and app o ed hanks o

97
HRM p essu e, was ne e implemen ed due o he slowness o he adminis a i e, bu eauc a ic
machine, making i clea on he pa o he HRM ha con lic leads o a dialogue wi h ins i u ions and
some imes o esolu ions a ou able o he mo emen ’s demands bu , gi en he sys emic legisla i e
and execu i e slowness i canno be he only o m o ac ion, so hey con inued wi h a dual s a egy o
ac ion, ca ying on dialogue when necessa y bu a he same ime con inuing wi h hei housing
squa ing p ojec s as he only way o alloca e houses o hose who needed hem, and squa ing new
CSOAs o asse spa ial and poli ical p ac ices wi hin he e i o ies o he ci y o Rome.
In he mean ime, he ‘unlaw ul housing’ sp ead so much ha i was almos he only way o make
and build he ci y. In 1997, wi h esolu ion numbe 92, he ci y council iden i ied ano he 355
esiden ial unlaw ul buildings sanc ioned o in he p ocess o being sanc ioned unde Law 662/1996:
whe e mo e han 30,000 inhabi an s li ed. Th ee yea s la e , wi h esolu ion numbe 176 o 2001,
ano he 41 unlaw ul buildings we e iden i ied. These, oo, we e sanc ioned and no pe ime e -ma ked,
lea ing i up o hose esponsible o he abuse hemsel es o esol e as hey saw i o d aw up he
pe ime e s (Insole a, 2011). The cul u e o unlaw ul building now endemic in he ci y o Rome, in
addi ion o he damage done by he abuses hemsel es, has also gene a ed a se ies o laws o
amnes ies dedica ed o bu ying a p oblem ha was no known o no wan ed o be go e ned,
genuinely lea ing he u u e o he ci y o Rome in he hands o specula o s and o ende s.
The 1990s, on a na ional le el, hus ep esen ed an appa en change o di ec ion in housing
policies, which adap ed o global neo-libe al policies and comple ely ans o med. Rega ding he en al
ma ke , o ins ance, om 1992 onwa ds, i was de egula ed en i ely ollowing he boyco by
landlo ds o hose men ioned abo e na ional ‘equo canone’ law on en con ol o 1978, de egula ion
comple ed by he mode a e cen e-le go e ning coali ion in 1998 wi h he app o al o Law 431
(Mudu & Rossini, 2018). Mo eo e , in he 1990s, Social Housing su e ed g ea ly, as i was ha dly buil
by he public adminis a ion, lea ing he middle and lowe classes wi hou any p o ec ion om ising
en s, agg a a ing an al eady delica e si ua ion.
This gene a ed s ong esis ance in a ci y like Rome whe e he mo emen , a en i e o he housing
issue, had a solid suppo base ep esen ing a eal coun e ailing powe . Social deba e on he issue
was also c ea ed by he ac ha hese p i a isa ion policies di ec ly a acked he middle class, and he
housing p oblem in hese yea s was no longe jus a p oblem o he poo class.
The 2000s opened once again wi h a g ea e en , he Jubilee, which again saw a new season o
u ban planning wi h ex ao dina y in e en ions, despi e he g ea scandals o ‘Tangen opoli’
7
and he
1990 Wo ld Cup he Roman building bosses con inued o ac wi h he same dynamics. The Jubilee, also
led by he cha isma ic igu e o Ka ol Woj yla, who o ganised he his o ic mee ing in Rome o a million
7
A na ionwide judicial in es iga ion in o poli ical co up ion in I aly.
98
young people om all o e he wo ld, concen a ed he spo ligh o he global ne wo k and he
emendous in e na ional ou ism ci cui on Rome in a g ea e numbe s han in p e ious yea s.
In 2000, he e o e, Rome o icially en e ed he e a o globalisa ion, playing a signi ican ole in
in e na ional ou ism. This new isibili y b ough o Rome in es o s al eady p esen and well-known
in he ma ke and in e na ional in es o s such as he wo ld’s bigges ho el names. The numbe o ho el
beds in Rome had eached a ound 94,000 by 2002. O he en i e o e , ha in he his o ic cen e was
abou 41,500, o 44.1% o he o al (Insole a, 2011). The low o isi o s was concen a ed in he cen e,
o cou se, a exceeding he numbe o esiden s daily, ans o ming he cen e in o a place o
widesp ead ou is consump ion ha gene a ed income bu slowly e ased i s ace.
Meanwhile, ISTAT ce i ies ha be ween 1991 and 2001, some 180,000 Romans le he ci y o
mo e o neighbou ing municipali ies, a numbe equal o I aly’s wel h la ges ci y by popula ion size
(Ibid., 2011). In he Roman subu bs, ano he ci y model has been buil , in ol ing he cons uc ion o
eno mous shopping cen es wi h en i e do mi o y neighbou hoods buil in he immedia e icini y.
Space has been inc easingly des oyed as a social cons uc o be ans o med in o pu e in e es and
consume ism. In hose yea s, 36 mega shopping cen es we e buil , now p esen in e e y Roman
neighbou hood. Wi h hese in e en ions, he e o e, he ci y is no longe designed o mee he social
needs o ci izens bu is me ely a esponse o land in e es s o eed he signi ican in es men unds
and he globalised economy.
The HRM con inues wi h squa ing, and o he au onomous spaces a e es ablished in he
neighbou hoods. New o ms o coexis ence, cul u e and poli ics a e p ac ised om hese o s, and
o he au onomous social cen es such as ‘S ike’ and ‘Benci enga’ we e bo n be ween 1996 and 2001.
Be ween 1990 and 2001, 49 CSOAs we e ac i e in Rome (Mudu & Rossini, 2018). The o ganisa ion o
he HRM, and wi h hem hose who p ac ice squa ing as a poli ical claim, has changed and e ol ed
compa ed o he i s expe iences o he 1980s (Senzamedia, 1996). Fo example, he e is no longe a
s ong de achmen be ween CSOAs and housing squa ing as a ious spaces include he wo p ac ices
in he same space, e en i o en only mili an s o hose om he social cen e i sel o he HRM a e
included in he housing CSOAs. This means ha he HRM has unde s ood ha one canno only igh
o housing bu p oducing au onomous spaces and inse ing hem wi hin e i o ies whe e social
policies a e cons an ly unde mined means igh ing o a mo e jus and inclusi e ci y. The mo emen
will ake up his heme in he ollowing decades and will become cen al o acing new poli ical
ajec o ies. Secondly, he CSOAs ha e gained mo e poli ical weigh o he ex en ha , o e he yea s,
hey ha e been able o ha e a say in some s uc u al decisions on he issue and hus come o suppo
and collabo a e wi h public ins i u ions. As discussed, hey do o he egional law on sel - ehabili a ion
and eme gency housing.
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In Janua y 2001, be o e he dissolu ion o he Ru elli Consilia u a, which will go down in he o al
his o y o Rome’s ba s as ‘ he iend o he p ies s and he palazzina i’, i.e. he one who p i a ised
Rome, he HRM once again occupies he Ci y Council Chambe . The nex day, he ‘Housing Eme gency
P o ocol’ discussed in ‘99 was app o ed. Tha same e ening, he HRM occupied he Lazio Region’s
Public Wo ks Depa men , and he measu e was inally a i ied (CCLC, 2014).
In he mean ime, a new mayo was o ed o in Rome. Once again, one om he cen e-le
coali ion, Wal e Vel oni (2001-2008), was elec ed, bu he e ic ions con inued du ing his e m. The
esolu ion on he housing eme gency, app o ed sho ly be o e, was also applied o e ic ees om
squa ing managed by HRM, as in he case o he e ic ion o 35 amilies om he CSOA Angelo Mai.
This egula ion was a ool o espond o he g owing housing c isis. HRM also applied i o he
squa e s, ma king a his o ic ic o y because, a las , he e was no longe any need o use exis ing
public asse s. Howe e , essen ial unds we e alloca ed o new acquisi ions o asse s and he s a o
sel - eco e y p ojec s, e en hough i was applied e y ew imes.
Wi h Wal e Vel oni as mayo , he housing c isis explodes, he ci y ills up wi h empo a y en s
o homeless people, and shacks eappea in a ious pa s o he ci y, especially on he banks o he
Tibe and Aniene i e s, made up mainly o new mig an s a i ing in he ci y—hund eds o cases o
amilies who, losing hei homes, ind hemsel es sleeping in hei ca s. The igu es speak o 20,000
homeless, o which one mus add he p eca ious child en o ma ke libe alisa ion, who a e unable o
ha e ne e been able o pay en by s aying in hei pa en ’s homes.
Thousands mo e people joined CCLC in hose yea s, so much so ha o he g oups we e bo n ha
deal speci ically wi h he s uggle o housing in he ci y, wi h di e en s a egies such as he case o
‘Ac ion’, which was bo n in 2002 om he ans o ma ion o he associa ion ‘Di i o alla casa’ c ea ed
in 1999. Ac ion was bo n wi h he need o app oach he housing issue wi h a mo e lexible app oach
o poli ics and hus o ins i u ions, including wi hin i s claims p ecisely ac i e pa icipa ion in
ins i u ional poli ics (F anche o & Ac ion, 2004). While a ew yea s la e , in 2007, he hi d g oup in
he ci y o he mo emen called ‘Blocchi P eca i Me opoli ani’ (BPM) was bo n, which p ac ised
squa ing and managed en sel -managed spaces in Rome o se e al yea s.
In 2002, he e o e, he si ua ion became un enable, and he mo emen , s eng hened by he new
adhesions and he lack o esponse om he public adminis a ion, se i s sigh s on a new ound o
squa ing. Squa ing is p ac ised on emp y buildings in Via B uno Pellizzi. Va ious schools le
abandoned, like he one in Casalbe one, an ex-cinema, he Impe o, in To pigna a a, and e en an ex-
cynod ome ha was abandoned a e g eyhound acing became illegal in I aly in 2001, in Viale
Ma coni, now home o he me opoli an p eca ia ’s LOA Ac obax P ojec (CCLC, 2014).
In he Os iense Dis ic , home o many mili a y ac o ies due o i s p oximi y o he Tibe Ri e ,
once a p e e en ial anspo ou e o hea y ehicles in hose yea s, he e a e many abandoned
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o me ac o ies and ba acks in a e y cen al Dis ic ye le o u ban decay. CCLC and he newly-
es ablished neighbou LOA Ac obax, which main ains a mo e au onomous app oach and is no solely
ocused on he housing s uggle mo emen , decided o collabo a e. On 2 June 2003, hey join ly
p ac ised squa ing in he o me ba acks o Po o Flu iale ia Os iense, whe e 150 amilies
immedia ely se led. These amilies included no only I alians bu also a signi ican pe cen age o
Magh ebi and Sou h Ame ican amilies. This se ies o squa ing, which I will discuss in he ollowing
chap e s in mo e de ail, led o he e-app op ia ion o a undamen al igh by hund eds and hund eds
o people, including s uden s, amilies, p eca ious wo ke s and mig an s.
In 2004, housing alloca ion unde he eme gency housing p o ocol was esol ed a e h ee yea s,
he imescale was e y long, and he eme gency inc eased. I was impossible o wai ha long o he
many amilies a ec ed by such an u gen p oblem as housing, he cen e o Rome con inued o emp y,
and p eca iousness inc eased. Add o his he u gen e ic ion eques s om he P e ec u e, which
weigh like boulde s on people’s li es unde execu i e e ic ion, squa ing and HRM. Wha s ands ou
abou he Roman HRM is ha no a emp a ep ession succeeded in hose yea s o s op he housands
o people om sel -o ganising a ound he p ima y need o housing. The mo emen emains s anding
h ough i s e i o ialised s uc u e h oughou he ci y and con inues o p oduce new spaces o
esis ance.
In Feb ua y 2005, a UN delega ion was in I aly o e i y he I alian go e nmen ’s espec o he
igh o housing, ensh ined in A icle 11 o he ‘In e na ional Co enan on Economic, Social and Cul u al
Righ s’, signed by ou coun y in 1966 and a i ied by law 881 o 25 Oc obe 1977. Fo ou days, his
in e na ional delega ion me wi h local adminis a o s, enan s’ associa ions, mig an and poli ical
e ugee commi ees, and he a ious ac o s, and also me wi h HRM (CCLC, 2014). The delega ion
aimed o unde s and how e ic ions, ising en s and he sale o public p ope y we e managed. Among
he a ious ins i u ional mee ings i a ended, i also isi ed some o he squa s in he ci y un by he
g oups ha o med he HRM. A communiqué om he CCLC eads, “We ecalled ha , in ecen yea s,
i was ou s uggles, om an i-e ic ions picke s o squa ing, ha conc e ely ‘sa egua ded’ a igh
ecognised by in e na ional ea ies, bu iola ed by indi idual go e nmen s” (ibid., 2014).
Mo eo e , inally, in 2005, a e yea s o s uggle and p essu e om he mo emen , he CdR
a i ied esolu ion 110/05 ‘P og amma ic esolu ion on housing policies and he housing eme gency in
he Rome municipal a ea’, which succeeded in eleasing unds o a public housing plan, ano he
gla ing example o he di ec ela ionship be ween he mo emen and he ins i u ions, albei ca ied
ou h ough con lic . This law was in oduced by Ac ion and, a e Regional Law No. 55 o 1998 (‘sel -
eco e y’), is one o he mos ele an ins umen s o comba housing di icul ies wi h he di ec
pa icipa ion o he social ac o s in he s uggle o housing. Thanks o he app o al and
implemen a ion o his ins umen , o he i s ime, he ins i u ions ecognised he g owing housing
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ha dship in Rome as an eme gency issue equi ing hei a en ion (Caciagli, 2022). In addi ion, he
esolu ion gua an eed he exis ence o an ‘e ic ion house’ in each neighbou hood o espond o cases
o eme gency pos -e ic ion.
I is in e es ing o no e a his poin how he HRM in Rome has e ol ed and sh unk om he local
and ma ke policies in o ce in he a ious decades. The housing s uggle mo emen in he 1960s and
1970s, oge he wi h he PCI, managed o imp o e housing condi ions o he lowe social classes,
whe e he main demands we e o mo e Social Housing and be e housing condi ions. These p essu es
also led o a en con ol law la e boyco ed by landlo ds.
Commencing in he 1980s, he mo emen began o de ach i sel om poli ical pa ies, emb acing
an au onomous policy and ex ending i s squa ing p ac ices beyond public a eas o a ge p i a e
spaces. This shi led o a s ong c i ique o he building specula ion ca ied ou by he mos in luen ial
amilies in Rome. In he 1990s, a signi ican sys emic change occu ed h ough applying neolibe al
policies. These policies inc easingly a ou ed he inclusion o p i a e unds in public housing, esul ing
in an imbalance o powe ha ampli ied he social and poli ical in luence o weal hy amilies compa ed
o he lowe middle class. Consequen ly, en s escala ed, leading many amilies in o a housing c isis.
As a esul , hey sough assis ance om he HRM and eso ed o illegally squa ing en i e abandoned
buildings. This no only se ed as a means o nego ia ing wi h au ho i ies bu also ul illed hei basic
need o housing.
Al eady in he 1990s, he HRM g ew hanks o he inclusion o new ac o s, such as he s uden
mo emen and many mig an amilies who had a i ed in he ci y; his p ocess led he new millennium
o a new phase co esponding o he momen a e he an i-G8 demons a ions in Genoa in 2001, wi h
he c ea ion o social o ums and an a icula ed an i-globalisa ion mo emen ha led o he
consolida ion o new o ms o squa in he ci y o Rome h ough he c ea ion o nume ous CSOAs ha
ep esen ed eal s ongholds o he mo emen whe e o hos coun e cul u al e en s and expe imen
wi h new o ms o coexis ence wi hin he ci y and ha would ep esen in he yea s ollowing he
2007/08 c isis he spaces whe e o p ac ice new o ms o coexis ence and daily li e in opposi ion o
he neolibe al de elopmen model ha con inued o be he only possible model.

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CHAPTER 5. Housing Policies and u ban ans o ma ion om
pos -c isis 2007/08 o he p esen
A e analysing he u ban ans o ma ions and housing policies implemen ed by a ious go e nmen s
and municipali ies, as well as he ac i is ajec o ies de eloped by social mo emen s on he housing
issue du ing he la e 20 h cen u y, I will now shi my ocus o he wo case s udy ci ies. I will begin by
examining he global inancial c isis ha un olded in 2007/2008, as i ep esen s a signi ican u ning
poin ega ding housing policies, subsequen u ban ans o ma ions, and he o ganisa ional and
poli ical demands o u ban social mo emen s ega ding housing. Howe e , he nex chap e will
p esen a comp ehensi e analysis o hese mo emen s (see Chap e 6).
In his sec ion, I will b ie ly in oduce he 2007/08 c isis and hen unde s and i s e ec s on he wo
case s udy ci ies wi h espec o he social policies enac ed. This c isis was igge ed by he inance-
housing nexus, i.e. by he bu s ing o a housing bubble in he economy o he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
de i ed om subp ime mo gages. This c isis highligh ed he p oblem ha eal es a e asse s we e
gene ally o e alued and ha se e al households we e exposed o subp ime mo gages on a global
scale (Ga cia, 2010; Schwa z, 2012). In a nu shell, he on model imposed by ins i u ions and cen ed
on home owne ship (see Chap e 4) ended up imploding, causing an economic c isis ha hen apidly
sp ead o all o he sec o s o he economy, exace ba ing social and, hus, housing inequali ies in he
wo case s udy coun ies, as well as in he es o he wo ld.
This c isis hus showed he agili y o he sys em o home owne ship inanced h ough bank
c edi , as i on ally a acked all hose households ha in he decades be o e he c isis had decided o
buy a house h ough his op ion, os e ed h ough speci ic p og ammes by bo h case s udies
go e nmen s. The e o e, “in ecen decades, many households, suppo ed by acili a ed access o
cheap c edi in pa allel wi h he de elopmen o a model o u ban expansion based on he mass
p oduc ion o new cons uc ion, especially in he subu bs o me opoli an a eas” (Mendes, 2018a: 4),
ha e gone in o deb o buy a p ope y agilizing hei economic posi ion in ela ion o his c isis.
Compa ed o wha has been analysed so a , housing has aken on di e en unc ions in ou
cu en socie y, bo h in he ma ke and in he social sphe e: i has assumed a p ima y ole in he
insc ip ion o he logic o inancializa ion in con empo a y economies and in he end o household
indeb edness, a logic ha is cen al o neolibe al policies (Rolnik, 2013), which gene a ed he
condi ions o he explosion o he housing bubble; i is a componen o he ans o ma ion o u ban
economies and consequen ly o he p oduc ion o social li ing spaces in me opoli an e i o ies; i is
an inc easingly pe cep ible dimension o he wo sening o ms o social inequali y be ween hose who
ha e access o i and hose who do no ; and o all hese easons, he e o e, i is no su p ising ha
housing eme ges, especially in he pos -c isis pe iod, as one o he cen al social claims o he new and
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old u ban social mo emen s ha base hei s uggle on he concep o housing and hen expand hei
claims on he igh o he ci y om his.
In he Eu opean case, he coun ies ha ha e su e ed mos om he e ec s o he c isis a e
undoub edly he coun ies o sou he n Eu ope, and p ecisely due o he aus e i y policies ha we e
subsequen ly p oduced ha e pa icula ly a ec ed he inhabi an s o la ge ci ies (Tulumello & Dagkouli-
Ky iakoglou, 2021). Sou he n Eu opean ci ies, he e o e, p esen ele an cases o s udying he e ec s
o he inancial c ash on housing ma ke s (Les egás, 2019) and, hus, on wha e ec his c ash had on
u ban ans o ma ions. Fo his eason, and s a ing om he wo Eu opean case s udy capi als, I will
analyse in his chap e wha policies we e de eloped by ins i u ions o cope wi h he c isis and wha
u ban ans o ma ions in space ollowed in he pe iod om he 2007/08 global economic c isis o he
new Co id-19 global pandemic c isis.
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5a) The case o Lisbon
FROM THE IMMEDIATE POST-CRISIS PERIOD TO THE TROIKA AGREEMENT
(2007 - 2012)
Du ing he p e-c isis yea s in Po ugal, a s a egy was ini ia ed o sell o public asse s, a ou ing p i a e
companies. Be ween 1995 and 2011, he CML sold almos 8,000 housing uni s i owned. Con as ingly,
du ing he pe iod be ween 2008 and 2010, a no able shi occu ed as 20 en i e Municipal Dis ic s,
comp ising o e 4,800 housing uni s, we e made a ailable o sale, including p ope ies owned by he
municipali y (CML/DMHDS, 2011: 33).
As w i en in p e ious chap e s, successi e go e nmen s since he 1980s ha e acili a ed access
o c edi o buying one’s own home, e ec i ely inc easing he numbe o homeowne s (see Chap e
4). Howe e , his gene a ed he so-called so e eign deb c isis, which p oduced, among o he
consequences, ha Po uguese households o hose yea s we e among he mos indeb ed in Eu ope
in he pos -c isis pe iod o 2007/08. Loans o house pu chases we e esponsible o almos 45% o
bank loans and accoun ed o almos 100% o households’ disposable income (Banco de Po ugal,
2008). Mo eo e , all his has been gene a ed in a con ex whe e job acancies ha e been inc easingly
sh inking due o he bank up cy closu es o nume ous companies and ac o ies. Be ween 2006 and
2013, he Po uguese unemploymen a e doubled om 8.9% o 16.4% (Eu os a , 2018). I is
unde s andable how housing has become one o he main economic and social p oblems bu dening
Po uguese households’ expenses.
Fu he mo e, ano he da um o be analysed o he u ban composi ion o Lisbon ha is no di ec ly
ela ed o he economic c isis bu o i s deindus ialisa ion is he subu banisa ion o he ci y, which
speci ically saw an ac ual abandonmen o he his o ic co e: be ween 1991 and 2011, Lisbon’s his o ic
co e los 33.4% o i s popula ion, in 2011 25.7% o i s o al housing s ock was acan (INE, 2012), his
led o an abandonmen also s uc u al and main enance o he his o ic co e, as well as de alua ion o
bo h ma ke and en s in a ious cen al a eas o he ci y du ing hose yea s gi en he low demand.
In 2011, Po ugal’s economic si ua ion was disas ous, so much so ha i came unde in ense
ex e nal p essu e om he EU. Tha yea , The Po uguese PS go e nmen was o ced o sign a
memo andum o unde s anding wi h he T oika ins i u ions (In e na ional Mone a y Fund, Eu opean
Cen al Bank and Eu opean Commission) ha de ined he economic and inancial adjus men o be
applied in he coun y in he coming yea s. In Ma ch 2011, he go e nmen p esen ed he pa liamen
wi h a new se o aus e i y measu es, which included cu s in public sec o wages and pensions and
inc eases in axes and social secu i y con ibu ions. Opposi ion pa ies ejec ed hese measu es, and
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2018). This ebalancing o public cash in low, made possible as men ioned abo e mainly hanks o
ou ism and he success ul a ac ion o la ge o eign in es o s, did no , howe e , ansla e in o mo e
in es men in he social sec o , which is s ill unde he es ic i e egula ions imposed by he 2011
aus e i y pe iod (Seixas e al., 2019).
One o he legacies o his new economic s uc u e was ha i caused he social s uc u es o he
neighbou hoods in he cen e o Lisbon o change de ini i ely. This happened hanks o a i al p ocess
o gen i ica ion ha a acked he esiden popula ion, o cing poo , immig an and elde ly
popula ions o lea e he neighbou hoods and houses whe e hey li ed. This p ocess happened quickly
and iolen ly, eplacing hese communi ies wi h highe -income g oups (Mendes, 2018b). Thanks o
his p ocess, he u ban a eas o he cen al neighbou hoods also unde wen a apid ehabili a ion o
he housing s ock, hus emo ing he bu den om local ins i u ions o ha ing o wo y abou he u ban
decay ha was a acking Lisbon’s his o ic cen e. Howe e , his u ban ehabili a ion asse s i sel as a
ma ke s a egy ha aises eal es a e p ices as well as en al p ices, as well as he p ices o all goods
wi hin he a eas unde conside a ion, hus se ing only he in e es s o he capi alis class in he
neolibe al ci y (Ibid., 2018b).
This p ocess has os e ed he se ing o neolibe al u banism, whe e p i a e indi iduals ha e mo e
and mo e decision-making powe e en on how o manage he ci y’s public and social spaces, hus also
ein o cing he belie ha he gen i ica ion p ocess also d i en by he ou is p ojec is a necessa y
and e ec i e p ocess o he u ban egene a ion o he ci y o Lisbon (Mendes, 2018a). This has led o
an inc easingly p onounced p i a isa ion o public spaces. Thus he design o spaces o sociali y and
social ep oduc ion undamen al o he daily li e o he inhabi an s o he ci y cen e has been eplaced
by a p oduc ion o consump ion spaces o a ou accumula ion p ojec s di ec ed a a non-s able
popula ion (such as ou is s o digi al nomads), wi h mo e pu chasing powe and wi h o he needs,
co oding he u ban iden i y o he places subjec o hese new u ban in es men s and
ans o ma ions.

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FROM THE RETURN OF HOUSING TO THE CENTRE OF PUBLIC AND POLITICAL
DEBATE TO A NEW GENERATION OF HOUSING POLICIES (2015 - 2020)
The new legisla i e elec ions ha ook place in Sep embe 2015, he e o e, came wi h a his o y o
p o ound u ban impac s dic a ed by he aus e i y policies o p e ious yea s ha weakened suppo o
he incumben cen e- igh go e nmen , lea ing oom o a s ange coali ion c ea ed o gain a majo i y
in a pa liamen composed o he cen e-le PS, and he wo le -wing pa ies espec i ely he PCP and
he ([Le Bloc Pa y]; he ea e [BE]) o suppo a socialis go e nmen and hus secu e a majo i y in
pa liamen . The main concep ha uni ed hem and ha hey b ough as hei cen al heme in he
elec ion campaign was ha hey had o e e se a all cos s he aus e i y policies ha had igh ened an
unaccep able g ip on he Po uguese popula ion.
A he same ime, as discussed o ou ism, soon a e he legisla i e elec ions, a new ligh began
o shine on he Po uguese capi al ha led i o be desc ibed by CNN as he ‘cooles capi al ci y in
Eu ope’ (CNN, 2017), wi h a icles in in e na ional magazines and newspape s he a i al o ou is s
and in e na ional s uden s was no long in coming. Wi h hese new e enues in he Po uguese co e s,
Po ugal’s epu a ion as a poli ical economy is-à- is he o he S a es o he EU also began o change,
going om being desc ibed as a pe iphe al capi al o gaining posi i e commen s om a ious
p og essi e commen a o s a ound he wo ld, who saw he new go e nmen as p oo ha an
‘al e na i e o aus e i y’ could exis (The New Yo k Times, 2018).
While he Po uguese economy began a eco e y ha posi i ely su p ised e e yone, on he o he
side o he coin, he domes ic eal es a e ma ke su e ed he mos . Po ugal is a pa icula case in his
espec compa ed o he o he coun ies o he EU since i eco ded a all in p ices om he T oika
ag eemen un il 2014. Howe e , om 2015 onwa ds, he eal es a e ma ke exploded, ep esen ing
he coun y wi h he mos emendous inc ease in housing p ices in he EU. In only ou yea s, om
2015 o 2019, he Housing P ice Index had a alua ion o 41.6% (D ago, 2021: 20).
These p ice ises om 2015 onwa ds os e ed he u gency o opening up he deba e on housing
and he housing c isis once again becoming cen al o he public and poli ical discussion in Po ugal.
This was also a ou ed by he ac ha his new c isis on ally a acked he u ban middle classes, and
he new gene a ions, who no longe could access a house o hei own, we e iden i ied as he p ima y
ic ims o his housing c isis (D ago, 2021). This c isis hus unde lined how his new ci y model, which
elied almos solely on he sea ch o ex e nal inancie s o epay he public deb , weighed hea ily on
he Po uguese popula ion li ing in la ge ci ies.
Repo ing some numbe s will gi e a be e unde s anding o he scope o wha has been analysed
so a . The a e age alue o aded p ope ies had con ac ed by 33% om 2007 o 2011 du ing he
c isis yea s and doubled be ween 2011 and 2017, i.e. om 214,683 eu o o 436,176 eu o in jus six
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yea s (Les egas, 2019: 715). In e ms o he a e age en al ma ke , on he o he hand, he en o an
80 squa e me e house in he cen e ose om 276 eu os in 2011 (INE, 2013) o 850 eu os in 2017
(INE, 2018a), mo e han ipling he e o e, while he Po uguese minimum wage in he same yea s
inc eased by only 0.9% (INE, 2018b).
Wi h hese numbe s, almos he en i e Po uguese popula ion has been excluded om he eal
es a e ma ke , especially om he cen al a eas o he ci y, which has become a p i ileged place o
in es men and specula ion o o eign playe s in jus a ew yea s. In his con ex , e en he Po uguese
Na ional Bank, gi en he ala ming numbe s, wa ned o he isk o a new eal es a e bubble and i s
possible bu s ing in he ollowing yea s (Banco de Po ugal, 2018).
In he en yea s ollowing he 2008 c isis, he deba e and s a egies adop ed by local and
go e nmen al ins i u ions on he housing issue unde wen signi ican changes as he con ex i sel
changed apidly. Olde inne -ci y esiden s began o eel s ong p essu e, and he media began o ell
s o ies o e ic ions, making he housing c isis a public issue. F om 2016 onwa ds, mo e and mo e
people s a ed o alk abou he issue and he housing di icul ies he coun y was going h ough, so
much so ha he go e nmen was aced wi h a new challenge, gi ing ise o he need o launch a so-
called [New Gene a ion o Housing Policies] ([No a Ge ação de Polí icas de Habi ação]; he ea e
[NGPH]) (D ago, 2021; Mendes, 2020b; NGPH, 2017), wi h he p ima y objec i e o gua an eeing
access o adequa e housing o all, unde s ood in he b oad sense o habi a and people-o ien ed, as
well as c ea ing he condi ions o u ban egene a ion o go ‘ om excep ion o ule’ and become he
p edominan o m o e i o ial egene a ion (Mendes, 2020b: 20).
Also, ha same yea , in he 2017 Lisbon municipal elec ions, he elec o al campaign ocused
hea ily on he housing c isis. The housing issue hus e u ned o be a cen al heme in Po ugal om
2016 onwa ds, bo h in he poli ical agenda o he pa ies and he cen al claim by he HRM, which was
beginning o ake i s i s s eps a his ime.
Fu he mo e, in 2017, one o he e en s ha g ea ly impac ed public opinion on he housing issue,
in addi ion o he signi ican social p essu e, was he publica ion o he Uni ed Na ions’ Repo on he
Righ o Adequa e Housing (Fah a, 2017). This epo s ongly admonished he Po uguese go e nmen
o i s inadequa e housing policies and i s ailu e o p o ec he popula ion om he housing c isis (Di
Gio anni, 2017; Seixas e al., 2019). Du ing his pe iod, he go e nmen was compelled o inally ake
housing as a ‘poli ical p io i y’ (Público, 2017). So much so ha i led PS council p esiden An ónio
Cos a o explici ly men ion he isks o exclusion and non-access o housing o he younge
gene a ions, p ima ily dependen on an exploding en al ma ke (Tiago, 2017).
The segmen o he popula ion, he go e nmen , wan ed o a ge wi h his NGPH we e he middle
classes and, abo e all, he younge gene a ion. In esponse o his new policy need, a new sec e a y o
S a e was c ea ed in 2017 ha was comple ely dedica ed o he opic o housing. In Oc obe o he
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same yea , a documen was p esen ed o public discussion o guide he en i e new legisla i e
app oach o housing policies (NGPH, 2017).
A he municipal le el and e u ning o Lisbon, he CML no ably ecognised he need o e ain
esiden s. Consequen ly, he CML launched an ambi ious a o dable housing p og amme ha again
en isaged a solid public-p i a e pa ne ship o he cons uc ion o mixed-use complexes, in which
7,000 a o dable housing uni s we e o be buil on 15 plo s by he yea 2021 (Seixas e al., 2019: 239).
Th ee yea s a e he launch o his p og amme, only 700 la s ha e been alloca ed (Público, 2020a),
i.e. ba ely 10% o he planned o al.
The ex o he NGPH (2017) s a s by c i icising all housing policies o p e ious decades ha
ocused hei economic e o s mo e on acili a ing he pu chase o own homes, pu ing households
in o deb and causing he mos signi ican economic bu den in he pos -c isis 2008 in which abou ¾
o public spending in he sec o om 1987 o 2011 was spen , se ing wo main objec i es:
- Inc easing he public housing s ock wi h a a ge o 5% o he o al housing s ock agains he
cu en 2% mean adding abou 180,000 new Social Housing uni s.
- A o dable en p og ammes acili a e access o housing o he young and middle classes.
In 2018 he NGPH was inally app o ed (Council o Minis e s Resolu ion No. 50-A/2018, 2 May).
Whe e he e a e mul iple ools o achie e he goals ha he guidelines had ou lined, such as: To
espond o amilies li ing in a si ua ion o se e e housing dep i a ion; To gua an ee access o housing
o all hose who ha e no esponse h ough he ma ke ; To c ea e he condi ions o ehabili a ion o
be he main o m o in e en ion a he le el o he buil en i onmen and u ban de elopmen ; To
p omo e social and e i o ial inclusion and housing choice oppo uni ies.
These objec i es we e o be achie ed h ough he p og ammes: (‘Fi s Righ ’, he ea e ‘P imei o
Di ei o) - suppo p og amme o access o housing; Po a de En ada - U gen housing suppo
p og amme; (A o dable en p og amme’, he ea e ‘P og ama Renda Acessí el’);Po a 65 Jo em -
Financial suppo sys em o en ing by young people; [Na ional Fund o he Rehabili a ion o he Buil
En i onmen ] ([Fundo Nacional pa a a Reabili ação do Edi icado]; he ea e [FNRE]); Rehabili a e o
en ; IFRRU 2020 - Financial ins umen o u ban enewal and e i alisa ion.
To espond o he i s poin , ha o elimina ing se e e housing dep i a ion, he new sec e a y o
S a e, Ana Pinho, i s commissioned he [Ins i u e o Housing and U ban Rehabili a ion] ([Ins i u o da
Habi ação e da Reabili ação U bana]; he ea e [IHRU]) o iden i y amilies li ing in se e e housing
dep i a ion, a i ing a a coun o mo e han 26,000 (IHRU, 2018). The p ima y s a ed goal was o
elimina e all housing dep i a ion in he coun y by 2024, p oposing wo main p og ammes o add ess
his need:
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- The ‘P imei o Di ei o’ p og amme ga e many o powe s o municipali ies in o de o a oid one-
size- i s-all legisla ion in Po ugal and hus be able o be e de ine hei needs and esponse
ools h ough local housing s a egies, wi h unding om he cen al s a e.
- The Ga eway p og amme is aimed a hose amilies who need empo a y housing o some
speci ic eason and in a pu ely eme gency con ex .
O hese, he ‘P imei o Di ei o’ p og amme was undoub edly he mos ambi ious, as i se i sel
la ge -scale and longe - e m objec i es, while he second ocused on sol ing one-o eme gency
p oblems. This p og amme, which was inally launched in 2019, immedia ely showed s ong
pa icipa ion by many municipali ies e en hough mo e unding has ye o be alloca ed o da e, as seen
om he i s epo on i s implemen a ion in No embe 2020 (IHRU, 2020). This i s epo indica es
models o ehabili a ion, he pu chase o new buildings and he cons uc ion o new buildings o
comba he se e e housing sho age. In Lisbon, he a ailable dwellings esul ing om his p og amme
o da e a e only 144 (Ibid, 2020). Thus a e s ill e y ew conce ning he eno mous agili y o he
amilies a acked by he housing c isis.
In sho , he NGPH is based on a ision o u ban policy ha a ou ing he exis ing buil
en i onmen h ough in e en ion s a egies ha inc ease he quali y o li e o he esiden
popula ions. Fu he mo e, in his ision, o cou se, housing assumes a cen al ole as a social ac o
ha is undamen al o main aining he quali y o li e and human well-being, bu which has become a
ac o o p o i and specula ion o he poin o annihila ing he social alue o housing wi hin successi e
housing policies (Mendes, 2020b).
Al hough he discou se con ained in he NGPH documen s ongly c i icises p e ious housing
policies, as hey did no conside he social alue o housing, his has no ansla ed in o a commi men
by he go e nmen o alloca e o he housing sec o he budge alloca ion ha would allow a eal
imp o emen in access and housing condi ions in Po ugal, con inuing o p e e a S a e-p i a e
a angemen . This he o ic pe pe ua es he no ion ha he S a e canno le e age he capi al needed
o c ea e eal a o dable en . This lea es public housing policy, once again, suscep ible o specula i e
ma ke logic (Mendes, 2020b), wi h he ul ima e goal o injec ing in es men in housing o gene a e
p o i and ep oduc ion o eal es a e capi al and no ha ing he p oduc ion o a o dable housing as a
p ima y conce n.
This is also e iden in he plan’s in e nal P og ama Renda Acessí el (Dec ee-Law No. 68/2019, o
22 May), which says: “I will be based on ax incen i es o public and p i a e en i ies, collec i e and
singula , ha pu hei u ban buildings o ac ions on pe manen housing lease wi h he en alue
limi de ined by he p og amme” (NGPH, 2017: 17). This p og amme has no been e y success ul
despi e he incen i es o landlo ds. Howe e , his ac was e e sed wi h he a i al o he pandemic,
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whe e hanks o he cancella ion o ou ism in he coun y, landlo ds in es ing in sho - e m
accommoda ion o ou is s we e o ced o pu hei la s on he en al ma ke , hus joining his
p og amme.
The p omo ion o a o dable en was hus he only policy c ea ed o ease he bu den o housing
c edi s o he Po uguese middle class. The go e nmen , in his ega d, p oposed a ious ins umen s,
such as a amewo k o he p o ision o social o a o dable en al housing ha was inancialised by
c ea ing he FNRE, which was endowed wi h he owne ship o S a e-owned eal es a e (Tulumello &
Dagkouli-Ky iakoglou, 2021: 45).
Wi hin his amewo k, he NGPH posi s ha he sole esponsibili y o he S a e is o uphold an
ins i u ional amewo k conduci e o ma ke ope a ions (Mendes, 2020b). Consequen ly, his
app oach pe pe ua es he in e es s o inancialised capi alism and he in luence o global ac o s wi hin
he inancial eal es a e complex, o en a he de imen o he social dimensions o housing (B andão
e al., 2018).
FROM THE OUTBREAK OF THE PANDEMIC TO THE NATIONAL RECOVERY AND
RESILIENCE PLAN (2020 - 2023)
This NGPH had been p oposed and ac i a ed be o e he pandemic, which in oduced new eme gencies
and deeply unde lined he Po uguese middle class’s housing sho ages. These p og ammes ha e also
been c i icised as hey s ill need o sol e he p oblem o ising p ices being linked o he ma ke p ice
(and no o household c edi ) wi hou a emp ing o coun e i . They, he e o e, ha e ye o gene a e
a conc e e p oposal agains he housing boom ha b oke ou wi h he c isis.
The s a e o eme gency due o he expansion o he Co id-19 pandemic was issued by he
Po uguese go e nmen on 18 Ma ch 2020 h ough P esiden ial Dec ee-Law No. 14-A/2020, leading
he communi y o comply wi h measu es such as manda o y social isola ion, es ic ions on eedom
o mo emen , esis ance and economic ac i i ies (Mendes, 2020a: 318).
These es ic ions led he coun y and all o he EU membe S a es o se e ely es ic in e na ional
a el. Fo Po ugal, his mean gi ing up one o he majo e enues on which mos o he pos -c isis
2007/08 economic eco e y was based. By al oge he cancelling ou is inpu s, Po ugal immensely
impac ed he coun y’s economy (D ago, 2021).

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A ew days la e , also hanks o he p essu e imposed by wo documen s issued by he HRM
oge he wi h an [Housing S udies Ne wo k] ([Rede de Es udos sob e Habi ação]; he ea e [Rede H
8
])
which eached housands o people in jus a ew days, “ he Assembly o he Po uguese Republic
accep ed wi h app o al and a sense o u gency some o he p oposals made, and he plena y’s
consensus led he P esiden o he Republic o p omulga e Law 1-A/2020 on 19 Ma ch ‘Excep ional
and empo a y measu es in esponse o he epidemiological si ua ion caused by he SARS-CoV-2
co ona i us and Co id-19 disease’” (Mendes, 2020a: 325), which es ablished he immedia e
suspension o e ic ions, he suspension o hose in p eca ious condi ions o he paymen o home
mo gage ins almen s, and he eloca ion o amilies o indi iduals in di icul y wi hin Ai bnb o ho els
ha we e excep ionally emp y du ing a s a e o eme gency, hus imposing, albei in an excep ional
case, he igh o housing o e he igh o p ope y.
Mo eo e , in July 2020, Fe nando Medina, he o me mayo o Lisbon, p esen ed an in e iew in
The Gua dian announcing ha he pos - pandemic ci y would no ollow he pu ely ou is model ha
had been de eloping p e iously, announcing he launch o a p og amme aimed p ecisely a
econ e ing he s ock o sho - e m ou is accommoda ion in o s able adi ional en s a a o dable
p ices (D ago, 2021: 55), o balance wi h his social quo a he p ice ha he ci y and in pa icula he
poo e classes had o bea o his ou is in asion.
Immedia ely a e he publica ion o his a icle, he ‘Secu e Ren P og amme’
9
was launched.
Va ious c i ics desc ibed his as a pu ely p e-elec o al ope a ion because o he ollowing yea ’s
elec ions since he desc ibed ou is in asion had been acili a ed in p e ious yea s by he same
Socialis pa y in powe . Conside ing ha in he cen e o Lisbon a he end o 2019, he e we e mo e
han 19,000 housing uni s dedica ed o sho - e m ou is en als and ha his p og amme a he end
o 2020 had egis e ed only 249 dwellings (among o he s s ill unde nego ia ion) (idem, 2021: 56), i
can be con i med ha he alues achie ed a e ce ainly shallow o achie e he con e sion Medina
alluded o.
Gi en he in ense p essu es ha all S a es o he EU had o ace gi en he Co id-19 pandemic
c isis, he Eu opean Council c ea ed he ‘Nex Gene a ion EU’, a ool o mi iga e he economic and
social impac o he c isis, helping o ensu e long- e m sus ainable g ow h and add ess he challenges
o dual clima e and digi al ansi ion. This ins umen con ains he ([Reco e y and Resilience Plan];
he ea e [RRP]), an in es men plan o all Po uguese based on h ee s uc u ing dimensions:
Resilience, Clima e T ansi ion, and Digi al T ansi ion.
8
A ne wo k o housing s udies ha came in o being wi h he p oposal o p omo e p ecisely ac ion- esea ch on
he opic o housing. The ne wo k consis s o a ound 60 people including academics, ac i is s and o he
membe s o ci il socie y.
9
Municipal p og amme o inc ease he supply o a o dable housing.
119
This p og amme en isaged a EUR 16 billion loan o Po ugal “wi h an implemen a ion pe iod un il
2026, which will implemen a se ies o e o ms and in es men s aimed a es o ing sus ained economic
g ow h a e he pandemic, ein o cing he goal o con e gence wi h Eu ope o e he nex decade”
(AGE, 2022).
Housing wi hin he Po uguese RRP has assumed a cen al ole conside ing ha mo e han 10% o
he o al in es men (a ound 2 billion eu os) will be alloca ed o i , seeking o espond o he wo sening
socio- e i o ial inequali ies p oduced o e decades on his issue. The RRP, he e o e, also ecognises
wi hin i s ex ha “i has become clea e ha housing condi ions a e an impo an ac o in social
inequali y, ulne abili y and e i o ial seg ega ion” (RRP, 2020: 45) and also acknowledges ha
housing is a undamen al social ac o o e e y human being, wi hou which o he undamen al igh s
may also be pu a isk. Indeed, wi h he pandemic, housing has assumed such a undamen al ole in
he igh agains he global heal h c isis ha i e en became a slogan claimed by HRM in Lisbon: ‘How
can I qua an ine wi hou housing?’.
Th ee p og ammes di ec ly a ec he house wi hin he RRP:
1. P og amme o suppo access o housing (EUR 1251 million, eno a ion o Social Housing s ock).
This p og amme picks up he line o ac ion launched by he 2018 ‘P imei o Di ei o’ p og amme
o’ suppo 26,000 amilies wi h decen housing. This igu e esumes he analysis made in 2018.
The e o e, i does no analyse he new cases ha en e ed he housing eme gency a e he
pandemic (Rede H, 2021).
2. Na ional s ock o eme gency and empo a y accommoda ion (EUR 186 million).
This p og amme p o ides housing designed o be empo a y o suppo hose in eme gency
need, such as immig an s, e ugees, nomadic amilies, and ic ims o domes ic iolence and
human a icking.
3. Ene gy e iciency in buildings (EUR 600 million).
P og amme o comba ene gy po e y in he esiden ial sec o and boos he economy in his
sec o o p i a e companies.
Despi e, he e o e, he subs an ial in es men in he housing sec o , especially when compa ed
wi h he I alian case, he S a e-p i a e axis seems o con inue o be he p e e ed modus ope andi o
he Po uguese go e nmen , which does no seem o be seeking new o ms o inancing ha a ou
he non-p o i social and solida i y economy sec o s as p omo e s and execu o s, o he de imen o
he co po a e and eal es a e sec o s (Rede H, 2021). Thus, despi e he wo majo c ises so close
oge he , he o ms o neolibe al go e nance ha ha e ma ked he housing and social policies o
Eu ope and Po ugal in ecen decades, as well as he ans o ma ions o he u ban ab ic and he
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p oduc ion o space in he ci y o Lisbon ha a e s ongly linked o hese policies jus desc ibed, do no
seem o ha e changed, a leas a he ins i u ional le el.
121
5b) The case o Rome
FROM THE 2007/08 CRISIS THROUGH A NEW PRG FOR ROME AND THE
BERLUSCONI PIANO CASA (2007 - 2013)
The 2007/08 c isis, as discussed in Po ugal and e en mo e agg essi ely in o he coun ies such as
Spain and G eece, led o nume ous mo gage e ic ions, as many households could no bea he sha p
inc ease in bank loans. In I aly, he same c isis did no ha e he same e ec s, as he mo gage ma ke
held up be e hanks o he in oduc ion o some deb subsidy measu es (Mag i & Pico, 2012).
Howe e , despi e his, he e was an inc ease in bank non-pe o ming loans in he agile economies o
many I alian households.
In he yea s p eceding he c isis, he Roman case had speci ically seen a subs an ial inc ease in
GDP, some imes e en bucking he na ional end. This occu ed mainly hanks o ( he ‘Roma Model’,
he ea e ‘Modello Roma’). Du ing he pe iod om 1993 o 2008, he cen e-le jun as led by Ru elli
and Vel oni implemen ed a ans o ma i e p ocess ocused on s uc u al change, d i en by he
knowledge economy and o ien ed owa ds sec o s such as new echnologies, mass ou ism, inance,
ad anced se ices, audio isual, cul u e, and esea ch (De Mu o, Monni & T idico, 2011). This model
was applied o ackle he public adminis a ion c isis and p oduced economic g ow h, a leas un il he
ou b eak o he global economic c isis (Tomassi, 2013).
Speaking o GDP, i is c ucial o unde s and wha was he ac ual weigh o he [Roman
Me opoli an A ea] ([A ea Me opoli ana di Roma]; he ea e [AMR]), in he yea s o he ou b eak o
he c isis, compa ed o he na ional eali y, and a s udy by Sampaolo (2018) helps us in his ega d. The
GDP o Lazio is compa able o ha o I eland and highe han ha o G eece. In con as , he GDP o
he AMR, second in I aly only o ha o he Milanese Me opoli an A ea, is equi alen o ha o he
whole o Romania. A he egional le el, he AMR is home o 73.7% o he egional popula ion and
p oduces 82% o he egional GDP. This igu e indeed ep esen s a s ong imbalance a he egional
le el. Howe e , i applied a he na ional le el, i can be seen ha he GDP p oduced by he AMR is
ela i ely low compa ed o o he Eu opean capi als a only a ound 9% o he na ional GDP, compa ed
o much highe pe cen ages in o he Eu opean capi als, e.g. Pa is (30%), Vienna (26%), Copenhagen
(39%) and London (22%) (Sociali, 2008). In ou compa a i e analysis, i is also wo h no ing ha he
GDP p oduced by he AML in ela ion o he na ional GDP is a ound 37%, i.e., ou imes highe han
ha o Rome. This igu e will be help ul o u u e analyses o unde s and he ac ual weigh ha he
wo capi als ha e wi h espec o he legisla i e a en ion o na ional go e nmen s.
Wi h he a i al o he c isis, he e o e, his g ow h p ocess su e ed an ab up hal , mainly due o
he bu s ing o he eal es a e bubble ha in he ea ly 2000s in Rome had made i impossible o many
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So, in 2013, in addi ion o he na ional policies on he ‘u gen measu es o elaunch he economy’
o educe he public deb , he same ime, unds we e alloca ed o he lowe middle class ha
an icipa ed he policies o he 2014 Piano Casa, such as a und o de aul ing enan s es ablished by
Dec ee-Law 102 o 2013 and he na ional und o suppo access o en ed housing o Law 431 o 1998
is e inanced wi h an endowmen o 200 million eu o o he yea s 2014 and 2015.
The app oach o he 2009 Piano Casa, based on a dual ack, he adi ional ERP one, mo eo e
inc easingly esidual, and he ERS one h ough he in eg a ed sys em o eal es a e unds p omo ed by
he Minis y o Economics, is econ i med in 2014 by he new Piano Casa o Minis e Lupi by he
go e nmen led by Ma eo Renzi in a coali ion be ween cen e-le and cen e- igh and ou lined in
Dec ee-Law no. 47 o 28 Ma ch 2014. The Piano Casa aims o add ess he nume ous p o iles ela ed
o housing policies and en al suppo ools, aking in o accoun he p olonged unde unding o he
sec o , which has led o a subs an ial numbe o acan dwellings agains 650,000 applica ions
na ionwide o access ERP.
On he one hand, his Piano Casa in oduced empo a y inancial aid o ‘no guil y’ (blameless)
enan s and hose in p i a e enancies. On he o he hand, i in oduced a mo e ad an ageous ax
egime o landlo ds in all la ge ci ies and majo p o incial owns, i.e. he so-called (‘cedola e secca’
i.e. ‘ la ax o landlo ds’) lowe ed o 10% (Di Felician onio & O’Callaghan, 2020: 19).
In o de o enhance he a ailabili y o Social Housing na ionwide, he Lupi-Renzi Dec ee (A . 10
bis) in oduced a p o ision ha au ho ised he sale o alloca ion o ERP dwellings o eal es a e unds,
some imes exemp ing hem om ele an inancing egula ions (Ibid., 2020). Consequen ly, e en ERP
uni s o iginally subjec o ime cons ain s on sales can now be sold o hi d pa ies (Bo ghe i, 2015).
Mo eo e , he plan emphasised he di es men o Social Housing (A . 3) by es ablishing a o m
o ‘ igh o buy’ o ERP enan s. Unde he new legisla ion, new enan s o ERP houses a e g an ed he
op ion o pu chase hei uni s a e a pe iod o se en yea s (Di Felician onio & O’Callaghan, 2020).
While he bill acknowledges he challenges associa ed wi h housing access, i simul aneously
accele a es he p i a isa ion o he ERP s ock, p esen ing a dual discou se on he ma e .
In sho , ERP dwellings wi hin his Piano Casa a e conside ed o be he ui o an old sys em o
communi y in e en ion, and all a e hough o be managed om abo e and bu den he ins i u ional
adminis a i e sphe e.
Acco ding o Paolo Be dini, he pa adox o his sys em lies in he ac ha in I aly, only one in en
o he amilies on he anking lis o an ERP house ac ually access i , and many o hose who ha e such
a low income ha hey a e by sui able eligible o Council Housing do no e en apply o i . Wi h he
in oduc ion o ERS, a emendous ideological change was made, an ideology ha has become
es ablished in he las wo decades in he discou se o Social Housing (Be dini, 2014). So much so ha ,
acco ding o a ious au ho s, he inancializa ion o ERS in I aly was only p omo ed as a ool o

129
s imula e economic g ow h (by elaunching he eal es a e and cons uc ion indus y) a he han o
imp o e he housing sys em (Bo ghe i, 2015: 48).
An essen ial aspec o he Lupi Piano Casa is he inclusion o measu es aimed a add essing
p ope y squa ing. Housing policies, he e o e, acqui e a secu i y dimension as Dec ee 47 speci ies
ha indi iduals who unlaw ully squa on a p ope y wi hou legal owne ship a e ineligible o apply o
esidency o access public se ices.
A icle 5 o he 2014 Piano Casa is he main ins umen o pu suing he ‘ igh agains squa ing’
wi hou eso ing o c iminal law en o cemen . In ac , he a icle in e enes on wha is expec ed a
adminis a i e le els, as i p ohibi s by de aul he legi imacy o egis e ing someone’s esidence in a
building o public housing uni ha has been squa ed (A icle 5 o Law No. 80 o 23 May 2014). Denying
esidency means denying he igh o o e as well as denying undamen al ci il igh s such as access o
social se ices (including heal hca e and educa ion o child en).
In addi ion o making li e di icul o hose al eady squa ing, his a icle aims o discou age u u e
squa ing since squa e s a e banned om pa icipa ing in he p ocedu es o he alloca ion o ERP
housing o i e yea s a e he da e o asce ainmen o squa ing. Since i s applica ion in 2014, A icle
5 has p o en o be a e y e ec i e way o c ack down on a massi e numbe o squa e s wi hou ha ing
o sea ch o illegal si ua ions one by one, as his is also used as a ool o clea squa ing wi hou di ec ly
eso ing o he police (Caciagli, 2022: 143). By allowing so-called ‘whi e e ic ion’, i.e. wi hou he
in e en ion o he police, elec ici y and wa e se ices a e disconnec ed om squa ing dwellings,
making li e impossible o he inhabi an s.
In 2015, one yea ollowing he app o al o he mos ecen Piano Casa, he Depa men o
P ojec s and De elopmen o he CdR, iden i ied housing as he mos p essing economic and social
challenge o p esen and u u e u ban go e nance. Du ing he same yea , o e 40,000 households
we e o icially ecognised as being in a s a e o a housing eme gency, cons i u ing 66% o he o e all
housing demand (Depa men o De elopmen P ojec s and Eu opean Funding, 2015). The p e alence
o e ic ion p ocedu es p o ides u he insigh . In 2014, a o al o 8,264 households unde wen
e ic ion, equi alen o one e ic ion o e e y 240 households, compa ed o a na ional a e age o 1
e ic ion o e e y 334 households (G azioli & Caciagli, 2018: 53).
Al hough house p ices did no change much in I aly and Rome du ing hose yea s, indeed, he e
was a sligh all in p ices. The inc ease in po e y and inequali y mean many amilies could no longe
gua an ee c edi o en paymen s (Tulumello & Ca uso, 2021). This indica es how he policy
ins umen s applied o comba he economic c isis in hose yea s s ill p o ed ine ec i e o many
I alian households. In addi ion o poo economic suppo legisla ion o hese households, he e has
also been a change a he heo e ical le el. As discussed in he wo Piano Casa o ecen yea s, he
concep o ‘Council Housing’ has been eplaced by he concep o Social Housing (Be dini, 2014). This
130
concep ual change inds an immedia e applica ion in abandoning a sys em based on he cons uc ion
and eco e y o public housing and in he assump ion o a model based on suppo ing he en y o
amilies in o he ee ma ke h ough ERS (Caciagli, 2022: 100).
Be ween 2015 and 2018, new special egional unds we e in oduced o suppo housing expenses
aimed explici ly a indeb ed households. In pa icula , a und o empo a ily suspending en
paymen s and e ic ions was in oduced (Laws No 124/2013 and 80/2014) and a dedica ed und o
suppo amilies unde going e ic ion o de aul (Laws No 102/2013).
Rega ding public p ope y managemen , Rome manages only a pa o he public housing on i s
e i o y ( he Region manages many), abou 80,000 la s and may ha e abou 1,500 a ailable o new
enan s e e y yea (Mudu, 2014a: 103). Mo eo e , acco ding o he 2008 PRG, he CdR canno build
new public housing di ec ly. I mus ely on a p i a e ini ia i e by iden i ying new a eas o subsidised
housing (A ea Plans 167) o pu chasing exis ing p ope ies. The e o e, he Region mus p o ide he
economic esou ces, which ha e meag e esou ces, especially o cons uc ing new ERP houses. In
o de o ha e a na ional o e iew o unde s and he educ ion o Social Housing in I aly, he ERP
housing s ock has educed om 1 million homes in 1991 o 900,000 in 2001, hen becoming abou
800,000 in 2007 (Ci alia, 2010) and jus o e 740,000 in 2015, his educ ion is mainly due o he
p ocesses as men ioned ea lie o selling o he s ock and secu i isa ion.
These ope a ions a e ul ima ely enabled by delibe a ely weak public in e en ion, opaque
policymaking and unclea delibe a i e p ocesses, which ep oduce sys emic co up ion as an in eg al
pa o he u ban egime alongside legal p ac ices and ac o s (Chiodelli & Gen ili, 2021). This pa e n
was pa ly highligh ed by he Ma ia Capi ale
13
ial, which conce ned widesp ead co up ion in
subcon ac ing essen ial municipal acili ies, including wel a e se ices and Social Housing (Be dini &
Nalbone, 2011).
The Ma ia Capi ale in es iga ion and subsequen an i-co up ion measu es ha e e ealed he
pe asi eness o se ice ou sou cing schemes (Coppola & Punziano, 2018). In o he wo ds, while he
c isis in u ban se ices exposes he adminis a ion's incapaci y, co up ion highligh s he in ol emen
o ce ain p i a e ac o s in os e ing his incapaci y, as well as ha o in e media y ac o s who suppo
he b oade ou sou cing o se ices.
In he las ew yea s analysed in his ex , Rome’s g ow h has been concen a ed mo e on sec o s
such as ou ism and public se ices wi h li le p opulsi e capaci y. Tou ism in Rome, as discussed, had
al eady exploded hanks o he in e na ionalisa ion o he ci y a e signi ican e en s such as he
Jubilee o 2000 (see Chap e 4), hus be o e he Po uguese case. In such adminis a i e con usion
13
Also called Ope a ion Mondo di Mezzo, is a jou nalis ic e m used o de ine he collusion be ween public
adminis a ion o icials and a ious companies and i ms linked o la ge Roman builde s such as Massimo
Ca mina i and Sal a o e Buzzi.
131
linked o he a ious scandals ha eme ged, he only sec o ha seemed o be holding i s own in hose
yea s, and indeed g owing, was ou ism. Acco ding o he ‘Osse a o io En e Bila e ale Tu ismo del
Lazio’, in 2015, he e we e 17 million a i als and o e 40 million p esences a he p o incial le el,
almos 60% ela ed o o eigne s. Since 2005, a i als ha e g own by almos 68% and p esences by
56%. I is mainly he in e na ional componen ha has g own, wi h an inc ease o 76% in a i als and
65% in p esences (Osse a o io EBTL, 2016).
Howe e , he phenomenon has also seen a adical change in he igu es o e ing accommoda ion
and beds in pa icula , wi h he ad en o new ools such as Ai bnb, wi h o e 24,000 lis ings in Rome
alone and mainly in he ci y's cen al a eas. Thus, Rome’s ou ism boom is also uelled by he housands
o beds o e ed o ou is s ha do no appea as adi ional economic ac i i ies (Sampaolo, 2018).
O icially, he e a e abou 167,000 beds in Rome’s accommoda ion es ablishmen s, o which sligh ly
less han wo- hi ds (61.5%) a e hose o he ho el o e , while he emaining 38.5% conce n non-ho el
s uc u es such as bed & b eak as s and holiday homes (Censis, 2016). Since 2000, he yea o he
Jubilee, he o icial o e has hus inc eased by 67%, wi h a 41% inc ease in ho el beds and a eal boom
(+164%) in non-ho el s uc u es (Ibid., 2016).
This undoub edly ep esen s a g ea sou ce o income o hund eds o Roman amilies who ha e
gi en alue o hei eal es a e asse s. Howe e , acco ding o some au ho s, i also ep esen s an
e olu ion, ealised hanks o he new digi al ools, o he me e logic o en ha has sus ained he ci y's
economy and om which i seems complica ed o b eak away in o de o p opose new models, a leas
a he ins i u ional le el, o bo h social and economic g ow h. Mo eo e , an economy based on en s
ep esen s he main ac o o he s ong economic and social inequali ies p esen in he ci y o Rome
(Pizzo, 2023) since i an economy a ou s he accumula ion o (p i a e) weal h while p oducing li le
(collec i e) alue, i is no su p ising ha hose who a e ich become e en iche , as he opposi e is
also ue.
In 2016, new municipal elec ions saw he elec ion o Mayo Vi ginia Raggi, who saw a new pa y
([Mo imen o 5 s elle]; he ea e [M5S]) in powe in Rome o he i s ime. This new adminis a ion
could ha e aised hopes o a mo e p oduc i e dialogue app oach be ween he public adminis a ion
and he a ious o ganisa ions and collec i es in ol ed in he housing issue. Howe e , acco ding o
a ious collec i es in e iewed, his ela ionship has become ense and unp oduc i e, demons a ing
wo di e en isions o wha is mean by he de elopmen o he ci y and he ole o housing in u ban
space (In e iews R3, R4, R13).
“Absu dly, I mus admi ha wi h he igh -wing, no o say he ascis , go e nmen o Alemanno,
who is somehow used o dealing wi h social issues, a leas we could alk, we could con on each
o he . Whe eas wi h he M5S we aced a wall. We could no alk because we could no ind a common
s a ing poin ” (In e iew R3).
132
This is also e iden om he ac ha al hough housing was one o he main poin s o he elec o al
campaign (Raggi, 2016), housing policies ha e con inued o play a ma ginal ole in he se o
go e nmen ac ions. E en he delega ion o he Housing Councillo in he CdR was only assigned many
mon hs a e he elec ion, lea ing a acuum in he ins i u ional e e ence on he housing issue o a
long ime (Caciagli, 2018).
In ecen yea s, he issue o p eca ious housing expe ienced in he ci y o Rome seems o be back
in he spo ligh , mainly hanks o Augus 2017, whe e on 10 Augus , he Rome Police Headqua e s
p oceeded o he e ic ion o he building in Via Quin a alle ( o me headqua e s o he INPS o ices)
squa ed since 2013 by o e 100 I alian and o eign amilies o ganised by CCLC in he Cineci à Dis ic .
On 24 Augus , he o he hand, he building was e ic ed in Via Cu a one, loca ed nea he cen al Piazza
Indipendenza, wi h mos E i ean amilies (Caciagli, 2018). This e ic ion a ac ed a lo o media
a en ion due o he cen ali y o squa ing and he clashes be ween police and squa e s ha ook
place in Piazza Indipendenza.
The CdR immedia ely ailed in bo h si ua ions o espond o he e ic ion si ua ions gene a ed, as
hese amilies had been e ic ed wi hou an al e na i e solu ion. Only in No embe , and hanks o
s ong media p essu e on he case, did Mayo Raggi p o ide a p ocedu e o empo a y housing
loca ed in he subu bs wi h e y high cos s (RomaToday, 2017), demons a ing how e en his ci y
council has con inued o ea he housing issue as a public o de p oblem ins ead o a cen al issue o
social policies.
E en a he na ional le el, ollowing he wa e o a neolibe al economy and he wo p e ious Piano
Casa, policies seem o ha e s opped in es ing in ERP p og ammes, only elabo a ing ools o help
amilies en e he ma ke and hus no ackling he main c ux o he p oblem. While a he local le el,
housing policies, also due o an absence o unds om abo e (Puccini, 2016), ha e inc easingly played
a ma ginal ole, esponding only spo adically o eme gencies ha , o some eason, had been
media ised mo e han hey should ha e been, as seen in he case o summe 2017.
Fo some ime in Rome, he e o e, he housing c isis has been expe ienced as an eme gency e en
hough he da a show he s uc u al na u e o he p oblem in he economic, social and e i o ial
sys em (D’Aniello, 2021). Wi h he impo e ishmen o he middle class in ecen yea s, oge he wi h
he di icul ies in accessing c edi o housing and he p eca iousness o employmen , he numbe o
hose who can no longe access housing has expanded (Puccini, 2016), s ongly in e wining he
housing issue wi h he social issue, despi e his, howe e , he issue does no seem o be pa o he
ins i u ional p io i ies, alling wi hin hose issues ha he Roman adminis a ion has long classi ied as
‘eme gency egimes’ such as: ‘Roma eme gency’, ‘housing eme gency’, ‘was e eme gency’, ‘mig an
eme gency’, o e en ‘po hole eme gency’, ‘ allen ees eme gency’ and ‘wild boa eme gency’
(Coppola & Punziano, 2018).
133
Thus, he pos -c isis housing policies o 2007/08 seem o ha e accen ua ed he social and
economic di ision o he ci y, c ea ing a s ong di ide be ween a Rome ha is ad ancing in
de elopmen and a Rome ha emains ancho ed o he c isis, be ween he Rome ha is highly
de eloped in e ms o ou ism and e ia y ac i i ies and he Rome ha , con e sely, is cha ac e ised
by a concen a ion o p o iles indica ing condi ions o subal e ni y and ma ginali y (Coppola &
Punziano, 2018).
Since he beginning o he c isis, he [Associa ion o Building Cons uc o s o Rome and P o ince]
([Associazione Nazionale dei Cos u o i Edili]; he ea e [ACER]) es ima ed ha 57,000 amilies we e
li ing in inadequa e o seg ega ed housing in Rome, wi h 37,500 acan o unsold homes. The e e -
inc easing numbe o enan e ic ions and o eclosu es exace ba ed hese igu es. 73% o he 6,113
e ic ion injunc ions issued in Rome in 2018 in ol ed economically non-complian enan s, and an
addi ional 7,778 e ic ion eques s we e iled by indi idual landlo ds, eal es a e companies, o banks
ha o eclosed on p ope ies (G azioli, 2021: 65). On he o he hand, he e has been an inc ease in
applica ions o ERP and/o ‘eme gency housing’ acili ies. Al hough he numbe o ERP applica ions
will exceed 13,500 in 2020, only a ew la s will be alloca ed annually om 2017 o 2020 (57 in 2018
and 300 in 2019) due o poo main enance o a lack o s a o p ocess applica ions quickly (ibid., 2021:
66).
In he case o e ic ees and squa e s, he sys em is s uc u ed a ound empo a y housing
assis ance cen es un by p i a e companies con ac ed by he CdR. Finally, app oxima ely 16,000
homeless pe sons a e ins i u ionalised wi hin he shel e ne wo k (G azioli, 2019). In his con ex i is
unsu p ising ha many people wi h housing needs ha e chosen o squa in ERP la s o , e en mo e
equen ly, p i a e homes.
A he end o 2019, wo e en s occu ed ha a e wo h analysing o unde s and be e he case
s udy o Po o Flu iale in his hesis (see Chap e 7). The i s is he case o he unused unds o he
[Wo ke s’ Housing Managemen ] ([GES ione CAse pe i La o a o i]; he ea e [GESCAL]) o he
pu pose o building new ERPs, which 20 yea s a e he quan i ica ion and alloca ion o esou ces o
he egions in he implemen a ion o Legisla i e Dec ee 112/1998 we e s ill unused a a na ional le el,
o which app oxima ely 207 million eu o we e unspen by he Lazio egion despi e he al eady na a ed
housing c isis expe ienced in Rome.
La e on, hanks o he law o 27 Decembe 2019 (GU Se ie Gene ale n.304), wi h an ini ial
endowmen o 853 million eu os (o which a pa o he ex-GESCAL unds a e s ill unused and a ailable
in he Minis y) and wi h a somewha di e en app oach om ha o he p e ious ede elopmen
p og ammes, he [Inno a i e P og amme o he Quali y o Inhabi ing] ([P og amma Inno a i o
Nazionale pe la Quali à dell’Abi a e]; he ea e [PINQuA]) is ac i a ed, which I will analyse in mo e
de ail in he ollowing chap e s (see Chap e 7), aimed a in ensi ying he pe iphe al a eas by inc easing

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ERP and suppo se ices. The objec i e is, he e o e, o imp o e wi hou consuming new land
accessibili y sa e y, social cohesion and housing quali y wi h a iew o en i onmen al sus ainabili y in
cohe ence wi h he mos ecen EU guidelines on sus ainable in as uc u es.
The call o p oposals p o ides o wo ypes o p oposals; he i s can be inanced up o he
amoun o EUR 15 million, and he second is called High-Pe o mance Pilo P ojec s and o e s he
possibili y o accessing up o EUR 100 million in unding. In July 2021, he commission concluded i s
wo k. I elied on he 2.8 billion ecei ed, subsequen ly assimila ed in o he RRP und, decla ing 271
ou o 290 p oposals eligible, o 92%, o which only h ee we e in Rome, which I will analyse in he
ollowing chap e s (see Chap e 7).
FROM THE OUTBREAK OF THE PANDEMIC TO THE NATIONAL RECOVERY AND
RESILIENCE PLAN (2020 - 2023)
I aly was he i s coun y in he Eu opean communi y o be a ec ed by he co ona i us when, on 30
Janua y 2020, wo ou is s om China es ed posi i e o Co id-19. The ins i u ional esponse was
immedia e, so much so ha on 1 Feb ua y 2020, h ough a esolu ion o he Council o Minis e s, a
s a e o na ional eme gency was decla ed (OJ Gene al Se ies no. 26 o 01-02-2020), hus one and a hal
mon hs be o e Po ugal.
The ci y o Rome, in pa icula , being a ci y wi h an economy based on en as analysed abo e, has
su e ed pa icula ly badly om he e ec s o he pandemic o he ex en o se e ely a ec ing ce ain
sec o s ha cha ac e ise i s economy, such as ou ism, he cul u al and en e ainmen se ices
indus y, comme ce, ca e ing and eal es a e (Roma Rice ca Roma, 2021), in addi ion o he indi ec
e ec s gene a ed by i such as he con ac ion o consump ion, unemploymen , inc eased inequali y
and he des uc ion o human capi al.
These e ec s p oduced by he S a e o eme gency hus caused u he economic p eca iousness
o many amilies, adding o he wa e o he g ea inancial ecession o 2007-08, which, as discussed
in he I alian case compa ed o he Po uguese one, seemed no ye o ha e ully eco e ed om he
p e ious c isis. The unleashed in e na ional mo o o ‘s ay a home’ was imp ac ical o many people
o would ha e been e en mo e so in he ollowing mon hs h ough he p ospec o e ic ion o
o eclosu e due o he p eca ious employmen si ua ion expe ienced by many I alian amilies.
The pandemic, he e o e, con i med hose p e- pandemic s uc u al weaknesses in social policies
wi h espec o hose households and pe sons in a si ua ion o se e e ma ginali y (Na ili e al., 2020).
These sho comings we e also clea ly highligh ed conce ning housing policies, so much so as o push
“ he go e nmen and he egions o launch eme gency ini ia i es aimed a empo a ily add essing he
economic di icul ies o poo enan s” (Ibid., 2020: 35), hus a oiding he isk o e ic ions. I will analyse
135
he e some o he main ea u es o he ‘eme gency’ measu es in oduced in 2020 in his a ea epo ed
in he same s udy by (Na ili e al., 2020):
- Mo a o ium on e ic ions he ‘Dec e o Cu a I alia’ suspended he en o cemen o e ic ion
o de s o bo h esiden ial and non- esiden ial buildings ini ially om 17 Ma ch o 30 June
2020. The e m o he suspension was hen pos poned, by subsequen legisla i e
in e en ions, o 30 June 2021.
- Solida i y Fund o mo gages o he pu chase o he i s home. The ‘Dec e o Cu a I alia’
inc eased he unds and ex ended he in e en ions o he ʹNa ional Solida i y Fundʹ (Ibid.,
2020), in oduced by Law 244 o 24 Decembe 2007.
- Na ional Fund o suppo ing access o en ed housing. Law No. 77, enac ed on 17 July 2020,
inc eased he esou ces o he Na ional Fund o Suppo ing Access o Ren ed Housing (Laws
No. 431/1998, 124/2013 and 80/2014), hus enabling local au ho i ies o g an subsidies o
low-income households o lowe he incidence o en on household income.
- In Augus 2020, he Cons i u ional Cou , which had al eady exp essed i s opinion on he igh
o housing many imes, al hough he igh o housing is no included in any a icle o he I alian
Cons i u ion, being howe e enuncia ed among he equi emen s cha ac e ising sociali y in
which he democ a ic S a e desi ed by he Cons i u ion is ealised (D’Aniello, 2021), he Cou
s a es: “A he na ional le el, housing needs, he subjec o housing policies, a e no endowed
wi h exp ess cons i u ional p o ec ion on a pa wi h o he igh s such as he igh o heal h
(a . 32) o he igh o wo k (a . 35), al hough cons i u ional ju isp udence has ecognised
hei alue as a social igh pe aining o he digni y and li e o e e y pe son. Like he o he
social igh s, he igh o housing is also, howe e , ‘condi ioned’ inancially and has no
ob ained, as happened ins ead o he igh o heal h, a pa ame e isa ion in e ms o essen ial
le els o se ices o be gua an eed h oughou he na ional e i o y” (Resolu ion No 9/2020/G
o 3 Augus 2020).
- A he end o he yea , h ough Law No. 176 o 18 Decembe 2020, a non- epayable subsidy is
in oduced o owne s o esiden ial p ope y uni s who decide o educe he en o con ac s
in o ce on 29 Oc obe 2020, o add ess he economic di icul ies o enan s and, consequen ly,
educing he isk o e ic ions.
As seen, apa om he mo a o ium on e ic ions, all he o he policies adop ed we e a me e
inc ease in he unds o policies al eady used in he pas , i.e. he go e nmen conside ed ha he mos
s a egic ools o comba ing housing ha dship we e once again en subsidies, and did no once again
p oduce p oposals o new public housing h ough a s a egic plan o de ini i ely gi e an answe o he
housands o amilies on he Social Housing lis .
136
2020 ends wi h a new ex ension o e ic ions, o which Con iedilizia
14
esponds ha he measu e
is ‘b inging millions o amilies o hei knees’, ecei ing a signi ican quan i y o c i icism om he HRM
in Rome, which in e u n men ions he housands o amilies in di icul y a a ime o housing
eme gency o whom he en bonus has no ye a i ed, which in Rome, o example, in Janua y had
only been g an ed o 30% o he 50,000 eques s (Po elli, 2022). In Feb ua y 2021, he D aghi
go e nmen o ed o main ain he e ic ion eeze un il June, while dozens o e ic ions we e ca ied
ou in majo I alian ci ies in squa ing cases, o which he eeze was no gua an eed.
The yea 2021 is he yea o he Na ional RRP, i.e. he documen ha he I alian go e nmen has
p epa ed o illus a e how i in ends o manage he Nex Gene a ion Eu unds en isaged o all EU
membe S a es. Unlike he Po uguese one, he I alian plan does no o esee a massi e alloca ion o
unds o public housing. The e a e ewe unds o public buildings han in o he Eu opean coun ies,
and hey a e e en educed compa ed o he p e ious Con e go e nmen ’s d a (D’Aniello, 2021). 7.3
billion ou o a o al o mo e han 220 billion a e dedica ed o u ban egene a ion and he
s eng hening o so-called Social Housing. O hese, only 500 million (0.5%) a e ese ed o inc easing
he a ailabili y o public ERP housing in he s ic sense. The RRP seems o ha e egene a ed abo e all
he inancial- eal es a e complex (Po elli, 2022).
The PINQuA p ojec , p e iously inanced h ough unused GESCAL unds, is also inco po a ed in o
he RRP. As discussed, he ci y o Rome has only ob ained h ee p ojec s’ hanks, among o he hings,
o he in e en ion o Roma T e. The p ojec s a e as ollows:
- The demoli ion and econs uc ion o he o me Don Calab ia school in Via Ca dinal
Cap anica, P ima alle, whe e 70 new ERP dwellings will be buil .
- The ede elopmen o he cen al pa o he R5 subdi ision in To Bella Monaca, in Via
dell’A cheologia, whe e 436 exis ing ERP co es will be ede eloped, and he a ea alloca ed
o se ices will be mo e han doubled.
- The p ojec o he Fo me Commissa ia Wa ehouses in Via del Po o Flu iale, Os iense, is
he case s udy o his hesis (see Chap e 7), o which 11 million eu os a e dedica ed.
In he PINQuA p ojec s, he e o e, he e e ence o ERP e u ns, which, al hough i ep esen s a
d op in he ocean, p oposes inno a i e p ojec s, bu always in conjunc ion wi h Social Housing, wi hou
any u he indica ion o hese wo e y di e en o ms o housing concep ion, p oduc ion and
dis ibu ion (Fes a & Cela a, 2022).
RRP in e en ions on inclusion and cohesion will also be able o d aw on he hi d sec o 's
con ibu ion. Howe e , as a as egene a ion and housing a e conce ned, his op ion is only explici ly
14
Con ede azione i aliana p op ie à edilizia (I alian Con ede a ion o Building Owne s), is he o ganisa ion o
he owne s' associa ions ope a ing in all I alian p o inces a he se ice o owne s and condominiums.
137
o eseen o In eg a ed Plans (Ibid., 2022). The ool is 'co-design', he pu pose o which is a mo e
pene a ing eading o ha dships and needs o mee new ma ginali ies and p o ide mo e inno a i e
se ices in a mu ual exchange o skills and expe iences.
While he discou se on he ci y and u ban policies, he e o e, con inues o chase a e p i a e and
ma ke logics, local public ac ion (municipali ies and egions) seems ins ead o inc easingly seek
inspi a ion in ha a chi e o knowledge and mul i o m p ac ices o p oducing al e na i e spaces ha
a e now widesp ead p ac ices in he ci y o Rome, mos o en in o mal and/o de ined as illegal, in
o de o de elop inno a i e co-design e ec i ely.
In he summe o 2021, Rome’s new p e ec Ma eo Pian edosi (cu en ly I aly’s in e io minis e
in Gio gia Meloni’s ex eme igh -wing go e nmen ), announced an accele a ion o e ic ions because
‘p i a e p ope y is sac ed’, and indeed in July, hey s a ed up again while he Cons i u ional Cou
decla es he e ic ion eeze jus ended legi ima e wi hou he adminis a ions o e ing any hing o
hose h own ou on o he s ee s, e en causing hem o lose he ew subsidies a ailable (Po elli,
2022). Rome in hose mon hs is du ing an elec ion campaign o elec a new ci y council, and he issue
o housing po e y and e ic ions is no e en men ioned despi e he ac ha execu ions s a ed again
on 1 July. In Oc obe , he new mayo Robe o Gual ie i o he cen e-le coali ion was elec ed.
I is clea om his chap e ha e en be o e he eme gence o he Co id-19 c isis, housing
dep i a ion was widesp ead in Rome. Du ing he i s mon hs o he pandemic, he p oblem was only
bu e ed by he suspension o e ic ions (Chia o, 2020), la e ex ended un il 31 Decembe 2021.
Howe e , s uc u al measu es s ill needed o be aken, e en hough expe s had s essed he need o
in es mo e esou ces in Piano Casa o o e come he limi ed a ailabili y o public housing (Na ili e al.,
2020: 35).
One o he main ac o s ha ha e gene a ed his si ua ion is since housing policies, as discussed,
a e no longe he exclusi e compe ence o he S a e. This has educed he igh s linked o ci izenship,
which ha e p og essi ely shi ed om an exp ession o s a us o a o m o con ac be ween he S a e
and ci izens (Sampaolo, 2018). In so doing, he public ac o ’s capaci y o economic and social
edis ibu ion has been conside ably educed, whe e ci izens ha e o ake i upon hemsel es
indi idually by ac i a ing hemsel es on he ma ke o mee hei igh s, which a e ine i ably
inc easingly being elega ed o needs. The e o e, ci izens' s a us loses mo e and mo e alue in a
con ex whe e he igh o housing and he igh o he ci y is no gua an eed by a public ac o bu le
in he hands o ma ke specula ion e en du ing he succession o a ious economic c ises in less han
20 yea s.
240
açade, whe e a la ge specula o s’ ship wi h big yellow c anes eady o ac ion seems o be heading
s aigh o he conques o he neighbou hood. S ill, p esen and ie ce small boa s o pi a es on he
assaul , ep esen ing he MRH, su ound i , ying o p epa e a blow, p e en ing he specula o s’
ad ance.
THE INTERNAL ORGANISATION OF PORTO FLUVIALE SQUAT AND THE
RELATIONSHIP WITH THE NEIGHBOURHOOD
F om he squa p ac ised by CCLC o he i s spa ial and poli ical o ganisa ion o Po o
Flu iale
Among he a ious sel -managed squa s in Dis ic VIII, I will analyse he speci ic case o Po o Flu iale,
which is loca ed igh in he cen e o he dense esiden ial ab ic o Os iense in a s ee pe pendicula
o he main axis o Via Os iense, which makes i easily accessible o all and pa icula ly exposed as i is
in a bus ling a ea.
Wha used o be he o me ba acks o he Ai Fo ce, abandoned o yea s, was squa ed in June
2003, a squa ca ied ou by CCLC wi h he ac i e collabo a ion o he LOA Ac obax, bo n sho ly be o e.
“A e he i s six mon hs o LOA Ac obax, we con ibu ed o squa he o me ba acks o Po o
Flu iale; his expe ience was he i s con on a ion in his neighbou hood wi h a la ge mass o people,
mainly mig an s, who ook back an en i e building and wen o li e he e” (In e iew R4). In ac , his
building was squa ed by 160 amilies in a g ea housing eme gency, mos ly mig an s and p eca ious
wo ke s who immedia ely began a p ocess o cleaning and eusing he building.
Po o Flu iale, acco ding o he mili an s, was squa ed wi h a clea objec i e. “These a e places
in he ci y ha would be subjec o specula ion, and we ook hem away om wha hey a e and he
in e es s o specula o s. Mo eo e , we said: he e he e is a mili a y p ope y ha is abandoned; in
Rome, he e a e ba acks, en i e buildings whe e en soldie s li e; hey do no wan o gi e up he
p ope y; ha a ea hen a ac ed eno mous specula i e in e es s gi en he new cen ali y acqui ed
by he neighbou hood” (in e iew R3).
The a ious squa e s in e iewed old me ha in he i s mon hs, hey li ed in en s, and only
he g ound loo and he sewe age sys em we e cleaned; he e was s ill no s abili y due o he solid
p essu e o e acua ion ha would allow he inhabi an s o in es in wo k and ime on he building.
When i was squa ed, he building had almos no hing ha could be sal aged, so he only chance o
people o s ay inside was o ans o m his space adically. So i was only in he second phase, a e a
yea o squa ing, ha wo k began on he uppe loo s. The ba h ooms we e s e ched communally a
leas un il 2007, when he squa e s managed o ob ain esidency and ecogni ion as a s a e o

241
eme gency housing. Following his ecogni ion, hey began o in es esou ces in building hei own
homes by cons uc ing se e al housing uni s wi h independen oile s and o en a mezzanine loo o
inc ease hei loo space (In e iews R1, R5, R6, R7).
This i s phase was ough o he squa e s, many o whom exi ed he squa ei he by pe sonal
choice, as hey could no cope wi h so much housing p eca i y and he possibili y o iolen e ic ion,
o he s by a selec ion o he mo emen such example, o iolence o d ug dealing “when I en e ed in
2008 a e ha ing been egis e ed on he lis and done se e al p elimina y assemblies, he e we e
many emp y spaces o be illed. Mo eo e , I en e ed oge he wi h a la ge g oup o people wi h a clea
objec i e, since he space, despi e being squa ed o ou yea s, was s ill in a s a e o abandonmen ,
a simple do mi o y” (In e iew R6). Once he squa e s me in a less p eca ious si ua ion o s abili y,
CCLC began o hink abou c ea ing a collec i e o Po o Flu iale ha could become a o ess o he
mo emen and he igh o housing in Rome.
All decisions ega ding bo h Po o Flu iale squa and he o ganisa ion o CCLC ake place h ough
a ho izon al assembly p ocess o c ea e in e nal ‘ho izon al democ acy’ h ough e ical o ms o
o ganisa ion (A ma i, 2015). This objec i e p o ides he basis o making an in as uc u e ha allows
hem o guide and coo dina e he collec i e.
Many imes, i happens ha new squa e s a e a hei i s poli ical expe ience o his kind and,
he e o e, may no be able o sus ain, due o lack o poli ical expe ience, he la ge numbe o weekly
assemblies ha a e o ganised wi hin CCLC ne wo k. CCLC decision-making p ocess is he e o e di ided
in o i e main ypes o assemblies:
Squa Assembly (whe e squa -speci ic p oblems a e discussed); Te i o ial Assembly ( o plan
conce ed e i o ial ac i i ies); In e -Commi ee Assembly (whe e speci ic p oblems o in e nal
coexis ence ha a e no deal wi h in he squa assembly a e discussed); CCLC Assembly ( ep esen s
he co e poli ical o ganisa ion o CCLC h ough complex poli ical analyses and he o ganisa ion o
ac ions); MRH Assembly (whe e di e en membe s o each collec i e mee and he poli ical s uggles
sha ed by he di e en o ganisa ions a e discussed and p oposed) (In e iew R1).
In addi ion o he pu ely o ganisa ional aspec o e en s o esol ing p ac ical issues, all hese
assemblies aim o amilia ise new people who ha e app oached he MRH wi h he s uggle. The
assembly is he space in which he ounda ions o a social mo emen a e o med (Caciagli, 2022). This
is also because, in all mo emen s uc u es, he e a e h ee main ules, which a e: i) The p ohibi ion
o disc imina ion; ii) The p ohibi ion o opp ession and iolence; iii) The ac i e pa icipa ion o
squa e s in mo emen ac i i ies (Da oli, 2018: 9). Thus, especially wi h ega d o his las p inciple,
poli ical o ma ion by squa e s is a key poin in keeping he MRH ali e. This is also because he
mo emen does no wan o become a social shock abso be , some hing ha should be up o he s a e,
he e o e, o simply gi e a home o hose who do no ha e one, bu he goal is o ha e wi hin he MRH
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conscious people who a e able o mobilise o hei igh s as enuncia ed by one o he slogans used
many imes by he MRH (‘La lo a non si delega’, i.e. ‘The s uggle is no delega ed’).
P oduc ion o au onomous and public space om below and he ela ionship wi h he
neighbou hood
The ini ial numbe o households in hese almos 20 yea s o squa ing has dec eased, and cu en ly,
abou 55 amilies o abou 150 people o 13 di e en na ionali ies li e in he building, wi h a la ge
majo i y o child en bo n and aised in he building. Despi e he condi ions o illegali y and social
con lic , o e he yea s, Po o Flu iale has aken on he conno a ions o an exempla y expe ience o
an in e cul u al condominium, capable o dealing wi h di e ences o esponding o he housing
eme gency wi h he sel -cons uc ion o domes ic spaces o p i a e use (Ca e i, 2023), and abo e all
wi h he opening up o se ices and public spaces o he ci y.
O e ime, he e o e, inc easing s abili y wi hin he building allowed he squa e s o expe imen ,
in addi ion o new o ms o in e cul u al coexis ence, new p ac ices o open up o he neighbou hood
whe e hey li ed hanks o p ojec s o labo a o y ac i i ies o a is ic, a chi ec u al and ci ic
expe imen a ion (Ibid., 2021). These expe iences also a ose om he need o de end he space ha
“un il 2008 was closed in on i sel , showing i sel only as a housing squa ha clea ly pa icipa ed wi hin
he mic o-economy o he neighbou hood (doing he ood shopping, o example)” (In e iew R7), bu
was no longe su icien , also in iew o he ans o ma ions ha he neighbou hood was unde going
as discussed in he p e ious pa ag aph.
“In 2011, we s a ed o hink abou how we could sha e his expe ience wi h he ci y and he
neighbou hood, and Po o Flu iale collec i e came up wi h he idea o hos ing a wo-day es i al called
he ‘skill sha e’” (In e iew R5), his expe ience s emmed om he collec i e’s pe cep ion o b inging
oge he he di e en skills (ce i ied and no ) ha he squa e s had demons a ed o e he yea s o
li ing oge he , hus an in e nal call i s and o emos , which hen ansla ed in o a call o he
neighbou hood communi y when Po o Flu iale opened i s doo s o he ci y in his wo-day es i al o
he i s ime.
Based on he success o his e en , i was decided o c ea e a new space wi hin squa ing, namely
he (‘Sala da è’, i.e. ‘Tea Room’). The i s con igu a ion o social s a egies o make Po o Flu iale a
space o social and poli ical elabo a ion consis ed in he o ganisa ion o wo kshops and cou ses
(Caciagli, 2022). This aspec has made his squa simila o a CSOA and o all he spaces managed by
CCLC, Po o Flu iale is undoub edly he mos equen ed, e en by ci izens who a e no close o he
MRH, hus opening up he possibili y o ac i e pa icipa ion wi hin a space e en o hose who do no
eel pa o he mo emen and hus o an in e change o expe iences ha has os e ed mu ual
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acquain ance o hese neighbou s who un il hen we e sepa a ed by p econcei ed social
cons uc ions.
Sala da è is a space he e o e ha was c ea ed inside he squa ing designed o be a cul u al place
and a ba sel -managed by ac i is s and squa e s li ing in Po o Flu iale, as well as o me squa e s
who ha e now ob ained a home. “Sala da è was a p ocess e y much linked o he women o Po o
Flu iale i ep esen ed a ool h ough which o a ac young com ades and com ades and ie hem o
he mo emen and managed o c ea e a nice g oup o people who a e now e y ac i e in he MRH”
(In e iew R1). Many ac i i ies a e o ganised he e: social e en s, open discussions and ilm sc eenings.
All hese elemen s a e b ough oge he in an a emp o p o ide a space whe e di e en o ms o
coun e -powe ind a channel o exp ession.
This space, howe e , as well as he en i e squa , is pa o a neighbou hood ha is inc easingly
o ien ed owa ds consump ion, and his o en leads ou is s o non egula isi o s o Os iense o hink
ha hey a e en e ing ano he o he cool places o he Dis ic (Caciagli, 2022). This has led he
squa e s o y o make i clea h ough he use o slogans inside he space and cons an
communica ion wi h he use s ha he place is pa o he ‘Squa House o Po o Flu iale’ logo always
p esen in all he pos e s publicising e en s, wo kshops o cou ses ha ake place inside he Sala da
è.
In addi ion o he Sala da è, he g ound loo o Po o Flu iale now houses a cycle wo kshop, a
ci cus wo kshop, child en’s wo kshops, and c a ac i i ies such as goldsmi hing, lea he goods and
ailo ing wo kshops. The cou ya d also hos s e en s such as in e cul u al lunches, ci cus caba e s and
ilm sc eenings open o he neighbou hood (In e iew R6). So, while he housing condi ion o he
amilies emains p eca ious and uns able, he new o ms o coexis ence exp essed, as well as he
o ganisa ion o social e en s o he neighbou hood, ha e g own o e ime, so much so ha
neighbou s ha e become in e es ed in equen ly passing h ough his space.
In 2013, o celeb a e en yea s o squa ing and sol e he p oblem o he g ey and un iendly
açade, he idea o pain ing he açade o Po o Flu iale was ini ia ed. And i was on ha occasion ha
he well-known s ee a is BLU, who has always been close o he mo emen , decided o pain he
eno mous açade o Po o Flu iale on bo h sides exposed owa ds he s ee , he windows a ha poin
ans o med unde he a is ’s b ush in o eno mous eyes di ec ed owa ds he ci y and he
neighbou hood.
“Be o e pain ing, we discussed a lo in he assembly, and his is ou own p ojec wi hou any help
om ins i u ions, which s a ed om he bo om. This mu al con ains many colou ul aces and
symbolises wo hings: on he one hand, i ep esen s he mul icul u al and mul ie hnic composi ion
o he squa e s li ing in Po o Flu iale and, on he o he hand, i wan s o gi e a back o he
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neighbou hood o ee and hus ac as a link be ween he squa e s and he inhabi an s o he
neighbou hood” (In e iew R5).
This opening up o he space owa ds he ou side also mean ha ing o es uc u e he physical
composi ion o he space. One o he i s pain ul choices (as i gene a ed hea ed deba es in he
assembly o e who was in a ou and who was no ) was o s op using he spacious inne cou ya d o
Po o Flu iale as a ca pa k, ans o ming i i s o all in o a la ge sha ed indoo space o squa e s
and a he same ime as a place whe e a ious Sala da è ac i i ies could be ca ied ou , hus a space
a ailable o he ci y communi y.
“When we opened he doo o Po o Flu iale, we ealised ha i was no e y in i ing and
welcoming wi h ha big g ey açade, so much so ha he e we e a ious legends in he neighbou hood
abou wha was in he e; he e o e, we decided o open Sala da è wi h he small doo di ec ly on o
he s ee o allow people o ge o know his space be e ” (In e iew R6). Fi s , hose people close o
he mo emen 's ne wo k esponded o his new opening o ge o know he new space ha had been
opened. They hen g adually began o see people om he neighbou hood who had ne e been inside
Po o Flu iale o a squa . Thanks o he sha ing o knowledge, he idea was bo n o c ea e nume ous
wo kshops and labo a o ies open o all, such as “c oche classes, cooking classes, lea ning o make
A ab b ead, lea ning he goldsmi h’s ade, o lea ning o epai bicycles, o coming o ain o become
a ci cus pe o me ” (In e iew R7). All hese se ies o ac i i ies bo n wi hin his squa ha e c ea ed new
o ms o sociabili y ha we e s ongly el o be lacking in a neighbou hood Os iense, whe e he e is a
g ea lack o social ga he ing spaces, as i was concei ed solely as an indus ial dis ic . This expe ience
also allowed he squa e s o Po o Flu iale o make hemsel es known o he neighbou hood
inhabi an s who nou ished hem, especially in he ea ly yea s, no a ew p econcep ions.
“Indeed, his place lends i sel pe ec ly on a spa ial le el whe e we can imagine he
neighbou hood squa e. The ac ha i becomes a welcoming place o he communi y makes ou
concep o e-app op ia ion e en mo e indica ed and ein o ced. Tha is, we gi e a oo o e he
heads o hose who p ac ised squa ing, bu hanks o hei new expe ience o li ing, oday, his place
is o e ed once again o he neighbou hood and o o he people who do no know he mo emen and
who may ha e p econcep ions owa ds hose who p ac ise squa ing and abo e all owa ds hose who
igh o li ing in his ci y, hus gi ing back a space no only o hose who squa bu o he whole
communi y” (In e iew R5).
Po o Flu iale, he e o e, has become a place ha anyone can pass h ough wi hou necessa ily
ha ing o consume any hing, as is he case wi h neighbou ing enues ha espond o he ules o
comme ce and capi al. This poin was men ioned se e al imes du ing he in e iews wi h Po o’s
inhabi an s o cla i y ha wha is o e ed wi hin his space is also di e en , as he goals a e di e en .
“Po o Flu iale is pa o a p ojec o conscious li ing, and we always y o communica e o hose who
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c oss his space wha we a e, so we don’ jus o e a se ice h ough ou wo kshops, bu we also do a
lo o communica ion, and o us, his is a e y s ong poli ical ac ” (In e iew R1). To squa in a disused
building is al eady a p o es in i sel , highligh ing he ja ing p esence o emp y buildings nex o
homeless people, bu in he case o Po o Flu iale, hey ha e no s opped a his and ha e he e o e
econ e ed an abandoned place in o an ac i e model o ci izenship.
I is in e es ing o no e how he ini ial decision o squa in his space did no ini ially o esee his
social unc ion, which demons a es he capaci y o poli ical and social analysis ha is he esul o
he cons an assemblies ha ake place in hese spaces, which had bo h CCLC mili an s and Po o
inhabi an s o ese he poli ical unc ion o his space in ela ion o he con ex ha su ounded i .
Po o Flu iale is now in he cen e o a e y busy neighbou hood, some hing ha happened in he
yea s ollowing he squa ing, hus pu ing Po o Flu iale in a delica e si ua ion o high isibili y and,
he e o e, agili y wi h espec o possible e ic ion.
In he speci ic case o Po o Flu iale, he ac i e pa icipa ion o he squa e s did no only occu
h ough assembly p ocesses bu also, as discussed abo e, h ough he opening o he space o he
ou side wo ld, which en ailed he o ganisa ion o many public ac i i ies and e en s ha do no
no mally ake place in a pu ely esiden ial squa . These ac i i ies ha e he e o e exposed squa e s o
many new s imuli o poli ical pa icipa ion, e en in play ul ac i i ies. In his speci ic squa managed by
CCLC, he e o e, he inhabi an s a e cons an ly exposed o he pa icipa ion o ac i i ies also hanks o
he con o ma ion o he in e nal communal space ha o en hos s mee ings o a is ic/cul u al cycles
wi h a poli icised e e such as ilm sessions o a exhibi ions, he e o e e en people less engaged in
poli ical issues can cul i a e poli ical in ol emen because hey a e di ec ly in ouch wi h he social and
poli ical s uggle o CCLC (Caciagli, 2022).
In addi ion o poli ical pa icipa ion, his squa ing also indi ec ly s imula es cul u al in eg a ion
wi h o he li es yles as i is ex emely mul icul u al squa ing; his exchange akes place bo h in
assembly momen s bu also in common e e yday p ac ices, such as seeing amilies o di e en
na ionali ies and eligions cooking oge he in he communal ki chen o he Sala da è and hen ha ing
lunch oge he , “In he squa ing, e e yone comes wi h hei own baggage and, beyond he ma e ial
baggage, hey also b ing hei own cul u al baggage” (In e iew R6).
The s eng h o his space lies in he ac ha om he c uel y o he gen i ica ion p ocesses, he
mili an s and squa e s we e he main easons why he inhabi an s o Po o FLu iale decided o make
his building a space o de elop he social and poli ical li e o he neighbou hood, p ecisely in ha
neighbou hood whe e he e is a s ong lack o public squa es and spaces. “Fo us, his p ocess also
ep esen s p o ec ion because we ealised ha i we manage o ha e good ela ions wi h ou
neighbou s and pu down deepe oo s in he a ea, i will be mo e di icul o he ins i u ions o s a
an e ic ion p ocess” (In e iew R5). Mo eo e , being Po o Flu iale in he hea o his specula ion

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p ocess o e s an oppo uni y o CCLC o en e in o he hea o he neolibe al model and hinde i
h ough he p oposal o al e na i e o ms o sociali y.
Po o Flu iale, he e o e, exempli ies how insu ec ional u ban egene a ion (De Ca li & F ediani,
2016) can be a mul iplie o u ban wo lds and a ba ie agains he o aci y o he u ban eal es a e
egime. In his sense, he s uggle o Po o Flu iale’s igh o emain in he ci y agains he h ea o
e ic ion has, acco ding o a s udy by Ma ghe i a G azioli (2021), a iple signi icance:
- The de ence o he ci y’s public and social spaces.
- The econcep ualiza ion o u ban egene a ion and housing policies in he di ec ion o
economic, en i onmen al and social sus ainabili y.
- The ede ini ion o he ci y’s geog aphies and esou ces on he basis o hei use alue a he
han hei nominal exchange alue, hus eeing he deba e on u ban spaces om he ap o
hei owne ship, en anchisemen and managemen (G azioli, 2021).
PORTO FLUVIALE AND THE PARTICIPATION IN THE CALL FOR PROPOSALS OF
THE PROGRAMME FOR QUALITY LIVING (PINQuA)
Pa icipa ion in he PINQuA call h ough he in e ac ion o di e en ac o s
Po o Flu iale squa was one o he housing squa s sla ed o a sel - eco e y p ojec , acco ding o wha
was egional esolu ion no. 110 o 2016, bu as no ed abo e (see Chap e s 5 and 6,) his esolu ion had
p oblems being implemen ed. Wi h he a i al o he pandemic, new p ojec s we e launched wi h he
aim o ebuilding Eu ope h ough he ‘Plan o he Reco e y o Eu ope’, an EUR 1.8 illion s imulus
package designed as an oppo uni y o ‘eme ge s onge om he pandemic’. Included in he package
is he ‘Nex Gene a ionEU’ plan, a EUR 750 billion plan o loans and g an s o membe S a es. The i s
bene icia y coun y was I aly, which was alloca ed EUR 191.5 billion. Nex Gene a ionUE came a he
end o a i e-yea pe iod in which a se ies o a emp s we e made o implemen na ional u ban
egene a ion policies. Among hem, he a o emen ioned PINQuA p og amme was launched in 2020 by
[Minis y o In as uc u e and Sus ainable Mobili y] ([Minis o delle In as u u e e dei T aspo i];
he ea e [MIT]) Paola de Micheli.
PINQuA, as s a ed on he page o he MIT, aims o build new public housing, educing housing
di icul ies, ede eloping deg aded a eas and ocusing on sus ainabili y and g een inno a ion (MIT,
2022). I is a new managemen o Social Housing, exploi ing inclusi e models and ools o ensu e social
wel a e and u ban decency.
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Wi h he dec ee signed by MIT Minis e En ico Gio annini on 7 Oc obe 2021, EUR 2.8 billion om
he RRP and abou EUR 20 million om 2019 and 2020 esidues a e alloca ed o implemen PINQuA.
The p ojec s ha will bene i om he unding we e selec ed by he High Commission o he
implemen a ion o he p og amme, aking in o accoun , o he i s ime explici ly, he Nex
Gene a ion EU p inciple o ‘no causing signi ican damage o he en i onmen ’ (MIT, 2022) and on he
basis o social, cul u al, economic, inancial and echnological impac indica o s.
Po o Flu iale squa , hanks o an unp eceden ed collabo a ion be ween ins i u ions and MRH,
decided o pa icipa e in his call o bids h ough a mul i-headed p ojec . The ime o pa icipa e in
his call o bids was e y igh , and in o de o be able o submi Po o Flu iale p ojec in ime, a g oup
o s uden s and a chi ec s wo ked in ensi ely o enew an exis ing p ojec on Po o Flu iale de eloped
wi hin an a chi ec u e cou se a Roma T e o adap i o he equi emen s o he call o bids. In
addi ion, he a ious Po o Flu iale wo kshops had o be ans o med in o associa ions in o de o all
wi hin he speci ica ions o he call and hus ha e hese bo om-up expe iences ecognised and
included in he inal p ojec (Ca e i, 2023).
O all he p ojec s p esen ed a PINQuA, ha o Po o Flu iale is he only expe ience o a squa
and his mean ha in addi ion o all he inhabi an s i was also necessa y o ge he ac i is s who a e
pa o CCLC o ag ee by s a ing an in ense nego ia ion, hus ac i a ing a close collabo a ion be ween
ac o s who no mally only in e ac h ough con lic , i.e. b inging oge he ac i is s and ins i u ions.
“The e was a g ea willingness on he pa o he squa e s o ead ha pa h ha we had al eady been
p oposing o o e en yea s” (In e iew R9). I mus be said, howe e , ha i was no he MRH ha
decided which p ojec s o send o he call o ende s and ha i his p ojec could be de eloped oday,
i is because he CdR decided which p ojec s o submi and he MRH was only consul ed when i was
decided ha Po o Flu iale could all wi hin he speci ica ions o he call. The idea o submi ing a
p ojec o Po o Flu iale o his call came o he hen Councillo o u ban planning o Rome, Luca
Mon uo i:
“My i s idea was o u n his squa in o a coope a i e and hen es o e he building h ough he
call o bids, bu a e se e al clandes ine mee ings wi h P o esso Ca e i (Roma T e), hen wi h he
Minis y o De ence (owne o he building) and hen wi h he Lazio egion (because he call o bids
had o be app o ed by he egion), and inally wi h he mayo (I mus say I didn’ expec he o lis en
o me), in sho , in he end when he call o bids came ou I managed o ge e e yone o ag ee. So, I
had a le e om he Minis e o De ence, who was in ag eemen , a le e om he [Minis y o Cul u al
Ac i i ies and Tou ism] ([Minis e o dei Beni e delle A i i à Cul u ali e del Tu ismo]; he ea e [MIBACT])
in ag eemen , and he wo d o he mayo . A ha poin , and only a ha poin , did P o esso Ca e i
p esen himsel o he squa e s he al eady knew, p oposing a pa h o co-design” (In e iew R9).
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This in e iew exce p shows all he ac o s who we e in ol ed in he pa icipa ion p ocess o his
call; he CdR had in ended o p opose mixed housing uni s, i.e. ‘Council Housing’ and ‘Social housing’,
a p oposal ha was ejec ed by he MRH, which in he end en isaged he comple e p ese a ion o
ha communi y al eady in ha con ex h ough he alloca ion o ERP Social Housing.
Fo he d a ing o he p oposal made, as discussed, by he hen Councillo Mon uo i and p o esso
o a chi ec u e a Roma T e, an in e disciplina y academic consul ancy in ol ing Roma T e, Sapienza
Uni e si y o Rome and [F ee In e na ional Uni e si y o Social S udies] ([Libe a Uni e si à
In e nazionale degli S udi Sociali]; he ea e [Luiss]) was p oposed. Fo se e al yea s, in ac , o ms o
collabo a ion and esea ch had been ini ia ed by he inhabi an s wi h he nea by Depa men o
A chi ec u e o Roma T e, which, on he occasion o his call o p oposals, ini ia ed wi h he
communi y a p ocess o pa icipa ion and co-design o he en i e p oposal, which was hen deepened
in e ms o social managemen by he Luiss Uni e si y (Ca e i, 2023).
The Depa men o A chi ec u e o Roma T e has he e o e been building a ela ionship o mu ual
us wi h Po o Flu iale communi y o se e al yea s. “Many s uden s ha e come he e du ing he las
h ee yea s o p oduce p ojec s and disse a ions and ha e ul ima ely p oduced many easible p ojec s
o his space” (In e iew R5). I is h ough his consolida ed ela ionship ha i was possible o d aw
up he building and social eco e y p oposal, in e e y single aspec , sha ed wi h Po o Flu iale
communi y. The uni e si y’s p esence in he Os iense a ea, he e o e, played, as his case
demons a es, a p oac i e unc ion in being a place whe e a public design model could make use o
he high-le el academic expe ise ha he uni e si y could gua an ee.
Mon uo i’s idea was, he e o e, no o up oo an in e es ing expe ience ha had a isen on i s own
like ha o Po o Flu iale.
“i such an in e es ing seedling is bo n ha has se led in he neighbou hood ha does no
p oduce di ec con lic and whe e hones ly no planne would be able o ep oduce hese same o ms
and cohabi a ions, ins ead o clea ing ou , le us y o see i we can make his seedling change i s
in e nal ules and i s a i ude owa ds he ci y and hus begin o modi y i sel while main aining i s
ounding cha ac e is ics” (In e iew R9).
This poin ep esen ed one o he mos impo an issues o bo h squa e s and CCLC mili an s,
i.e., his p ojec was no o de i alise he c i ical oice ha cha ac e ises squa p ac ices. The e o e, a
way had o be ound o no simply assimila e his squa o he same dominan u ban model bu s ill
main ain he au onomous sel -o ganisa ion ha hey ha e p ac ised o e he 20 yea s o squa ing.
A e he elease o he PINQuA Call o P oposals and h oughou he d a ing o he P oposal,
he ollowing co-design ac i i ies we e o ganised: mee ings wi h ep esen a i es o he inhabi an s
and he b oade MRH; ins i u ional mee ings wi h he CdR and he VIII Dis ic ; isi s wi h Roma T e
and Luiss wo king g oups, he CdR and he Supe in endency; p esen a ions o he p ojec ’s p og ess
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o he inhabi an s; ocus g oups on pa icula issues such as he sel -census and he building o he
associa ions o social unc ions on he g ound loo . Th oughou he ini ial p ocess, con inuous
in o mal mee ings ook place o ine- une he p ojec s a egies, and a he end o Janua y, he
communi y made he Sala da è spaces a ailable o u n hem in o a Pa icipa o y Co-design Wo kshop.
He e, eache s and s uden s wo ked side by side wi h he inhabi an s, sha ing doub s and making
p oposals ha subs an ially modi ied he p ojec o he syn hesis esul . Finally, on 23 Feb ua y 2021,
he en i e p ojec was p esen ed o he Plena y Assembly o Po o Flu iale in he p esence o P o .
A ch. Luca Mon uo i and he di ec o s o Roma Capi ale, D . Amedeo Ciacche i (P esiden o he VIII
Dis ic o Roma Capi ale) and he membe s o he CdR, CCLC spokespe sons, eache s and s uden s o
Roma T e and Luiss wo king g oup (Ca e i, 2023).
Thanks o he in e en ion o he Depa men o A chi ec u e o Roma T e, a mo e in eg a ed
app oach o he p ojec s has been acili a ed, one ha is a en i e o eme ging u ban p ocesses,
making i possible o alo ise knowledge and e i o ial app oaches sedimen ed and ma u ed h ough
long wo k in he ield (Gains o h, 2022). The hen mayo Vi ginia Raggi also commen ed on he
p ojec , highligh ing he ac ha in his case, s uc u ed and non-eme gency solu ions we e p oposed
o ackle housing discom o , enhancing social in eg a ion p ocesses also h ough inno a i e solu ions
(Raggi, 2021).
Ano he impo an ac o in his p ojec was Rome’s Dis ic VIII, which had he ole o binding he
ela ionship be ween Po o Flu iale and he CdR e en mo e and also ying o unde s and wha
declina ion and wha e i o ial landing his p ojec could ha e o he neighbou hood, “we declined
an in e locu ion wi h he e i o ial ac o s ou side o ha place o e i y wha had o be he
p e equisi es o doing his p ojec . Dis ic VIII, in his sense, pe o med his unc ion o uni ing
pa ne ships by de ining wha he p io i y unc ions we e o he neighbou hood and wha he
unc ions ha had o be pa o ha s uc u e could he e o e be” (In e iew R7), i.e., wha e i o ial
impac s ha p ojec had o ha e, no only o he squa ’s esiden s o he esiden ial unc ion o he
space bu o he social and u ban unc ion on he e i o y in which i was al eady inse ed.
This p ojec is, he e o e, he esul o a ui ul in e ac ion be ween di e en ac o s who ha e
designed i s easibili y h ough a long phase o co-designing, which has seen he communi y cu en ly
li ing in he building as well as he MRH, he CdR, and in pa icula , he Depa men o U ban Planning,
Dis ic VIII, he Uni e si ies o Roma T e, Luiss and La Sapienza, wi h he suppo o he Lazio Region,
he Ai Fo ce, MIBACT and many ci y and neighbou hood associa ions ha ha e signed he p ojec ha
I will analyse in he nex sec ion.
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p e iously abandoned spaces ha will be ans o med in o new u ban public spaces accessible o he
en i e ci y communi y.
The e o e, I a gue ha he ecogni ion o he au onomous p ac ices p oduced by he Roman MRH
is no only a ma e , as s a ed by he ins i u ional sphe e, o esol ing a social p oblem ela ing o he
legali y o illegali y o he ac o p ac ising squa ing, bu i is abo e all a ma e o ecognising ha
he e a e o he ac o s capable o designing spaces and social se ices o he ci y ha do no depend
solely and exclusi ely on ins i u ions. The e o e, i can ein o ce he ac o s' sense o place and
oo edness as hey can ep oduce hemsel es gene a i ely (Gains o h, 2022) and no exclusi is o
wo se ex ac i is . The ui ul ela ionship be ween ins i u ions and MRH ha cha ac e ised his
p ojec , I main ain, has opened up uly inno a i e pe spec i es in he I alian pano ama conce ning
public spaces and he ci y’s housing policies.
As a as public spaces a e conce ned, he ci y o Rome alone has coun less squa s and spaces
managed au onomously by he MRH, simila o Po o Flu iale, o med by e i o ial p ojec s a en i e
o he social impac ha hese spaces ha e in he e i o ies in which hey a e inse ed, social p ojec s
he e o e al eady unde way wi h espec o which an au a o illegali y eigns and which a e o en only
a acked as idle s o oublemake s by he media. These expe iences hus can become al e na i e
p ojec s os e ed om below o collec i e use wi hin he social policies p oposed by he CdR. In
addi ion, his new co-design p oposal opens up he possibili y o wo king p ecisely wi h eali ies ha
ha e been ope a ing in he e i o ies o yea s wi h ied and es ed p ojec s. Remo ing he noose
a ound he neck o illegali y om hese spaces would, i s o all, mean gua an eeing he con inui y o
he social se ices o he ci y ha we e o med o make up o he inac i i y o he ins i u ions in
ce ain neighbou hoods o he ci y.
Conce ning housing policies, on he o he hand, e en hough 53 public ERP houses a e o be
alloca ed, he housing p oblem in Rome is much bigge han ha . Likewise, he ins umen ha
inanced i ( he RRP) will no sol e Rome's housing c isis. Bu h ough his p ojec , an oppo uni y may
a ise o change how he ins i u ions deal wi h he housing eme gency, ha is, h ough he
unde s anding ha he housing p oblem in Rome is now s uc u al and ha in o de o deal wi h such
a complex p oblem, i is necessa y o ha e he cou age o u ilise he ene gies and e o s o all hose
eali ies ha ha e been ying o yea s, h ough a eal p oduc ion o al e na i e spaces o neo-libe al
p ac ices, o sol e he housing p oblem in Rome au onomously.

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CHAPTER 8. Conclusions
As men ioned in he in oduc ion and me hodological chap e , his concluding chap e is in ended o
dialogue no only wi h he analy ical chap e s bu also di ec ly wi h he h ee heo e ical b anches on
he p oduc ion o space analysed in he li e a u e e iew chap e , which hen ga e ise o he h ee
main esea ch ques ions. These esea ch ques ions helped o s uc u e bo h he analy ical chap e s o
his hesis and o de ine he wo case s udies, hus cons i u ing he guidelines bo h o da a collec ion
(which enabled me o con igu e in which en i onmen he HRM unde in es iga ion is implemen ed)
and o he ieldwo k, I ca ied ou in he wo sou he n Eu opean capi als o Rome and Lisbon,
ollowing an ac i is e hnog aphic app oach as he cen al me hodology o in es iga ion.
As w i en wi hin he me hodological chap e , I was o ced o eadjus my me hodology in bo h
case s udies due o he es ic ions o Co id 19; his aised c i ical e lec ions on my ole as a esea che
and missed oppo uni ies. Due o he social dis ancing policies dic a ed by he pandemic, I could no
gua an ee my di ec p esence in he ield as planned. The e o e, his condi ion could ha e a ec ed he
o e all unde s anding o my esea ch. Howe e , I also ecognised he impo ance o adap ing o
excep ional ci cums ances and seeking al e na i e solu ions o achie e my esea ch goals.
Fu he mo e, i is impo an o ecognise he limi a ions o his hyb id me hodological app oach. The
lack o di ec obse a ion esul ed in he loss o con ex ual da a and he possibili y o cap u ing
ele an nuances and de ails. The e o e, i is essen ial o conside hese limi a ions in he
in e p e a ion o he esul s and he o e all unde s anding o my esea ch, which placed much mo e
impo ance han an icipa ed a an ea ly s age on he in e iews in bo h case s udies.
The choice o an ac i is e hnog aphic me hodology also b ough wi h i se e al complica ions,
abo e all he one I o en came ac oss was ha o ha ing o spli my igu e wi hou being able o
unde s and, du ing he ieldwo k and da a collec ion, whe he a ha p ecise momen (e en , mee ing
o mobilisa ion) I was a esea che , an ac i is o some kind o new igu e combining hese wo oles
in o an indis inc igu e o e hnog aphe -mili an . Acco ding o Boni e al. (2020), his con adic ion
emains un esol ed o he many esea che s who app oach his me hodology. The issue seems o be
esol ed in he da a analysis phase, whe e he e is a g ea e awa eness o he esea che ’s ole being
played, bu i also opens up o he ques ions. The ques ion ha ga e me he mos headaches a his
s age is he ollowing: How can I ep esen , om a subjec i e analysis, a p ocess ha ook place
collec i ely, in which I pa icipa ed as an ac i e ac o , bu oge he wi h a g oup o o he com ades
also wi h hei poli ical subjec i i y? Again, acco ding o Boni e al., bo h he esea che and he
mili an ha e hei own subjec i e poli ical and academic awa eness and knowledge, jus like o he
mili an s who a e pa o a mo emen (Ibid., 2020). The social mo emen s I ha e analysed in his hesis
uni e all ac i is s h ough dialec ical and non-homogeneous o ms ha ake place wi hin assemblies.
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Thus mo emen s do no ep esen a homogeneous communi y o subjec s wi h he exac needs,
isions and knowledge bu each ag eemen s and decisions h ough dialec ical comp omises guided
by he same ideological ision.
These issues ha e led me o hink ha my subjec i e conclusions wi h espec o e hnog aphic-
mili an esea ch on wo u ban mo emen s, as e hnog aphe Da id G aebe (2009) s a es e e ing o
he conclusions o e hnog aphic wo k, a e always a ques ionable unde aking. I ha e analysed a
p ocess ha is s ill ongoing and subjec o daily mu a ions because hey a ise p ecisely om a
subjec i e in e p e a ion o he ac s, emo ions and social and poli ical ela ions o a communi y ha
iden i ies wi h a poli ical p ojec om below.
Howe e , al hough he conclusions o e hnog aphic wo k, as discussed, a e always ques ionable
(ibid., 2009), he analy ical p ocess ha led o hei elabo a ion is no , in my opinion, so I hope hey
can es o e o hose who will ead his hesis how and why hese au onomous spaces we e o med in
he con empo a y ci ies unde s udy and ou line he complexi y o he powe ela ions ha we e
c ea ed be ween he wo p o agonis s o his na a i e, namely he ins i u ions and he social
mo emen s o he housing s uggle.
Fu he mo e, a p ojec such as his can con ibu e o he ongoing e lec ion on modes o c i ical
analysis wi hin academia, ci cula ing adical, an i-capi alis knowledge (G azioli, 2018). Acco ding o
Gillan and Picke ill (2012), his can illus a e how esea che s can connec g ass oo s u ban
mo emen s and esea che s h ough c i ically igo ous bu biased p ojec s.
As al eady men ioned in he p e ious chap e s, one o he main ou pu s I aspi e o achie e wi h
his esea ch is o legi imise, gi e alue and poli ical weigh o he wo k o he HRMs in he wo ci ies
unde s udy, which h ough he e-app op ia ion o he concep o ‘ igh o he ci y’ ha e con ibu ed
o he c ea ion o poli ical p ocesses, spa ial p ac ices and new u ban commons o os e a bo om-up
social ep oduc ion ha includes hose exp op ia ed ci izens wi hin a neolibe al and con lic ual u ban
ab ic such as ha o Lisbon and Rome. Th ough he p oduc ion o au onomous spaces gene a ed by
he wo k o he HRM collec i es, albei wi h di e en p ac ices om he wo cases, hey ha e shown
ha hei daily s uggle goes a beyond he simple s uggle o housing.
Ins ead, in o de o mee he analy ical and heo e ical objec i es o his hesis, I will p esen
below he main conclusions o his wo k, di iding i in o h ee sub- chap e s o answe he h ee
esea ch ques ions se ou in he in oduc o y chap e , ollowing he heo e ical b anches on he
p oduc ion o space examined in he li e a u e e iew chap e : (i) To unde s and he sys emic s uc u e
in which con empo a y HRMs ope a e, I will e lec on he ela ionship ha has exis ed o e he las
50 yea s be ween he concep o de elopmen , housing policies and he p oduc ion o space by
ins i u ions wi hin he wo case s udy ci ies. (ii) To unde s and how HRM s uggle agains neolibe al
spa ial p oduc ion, I will desc ibe how hey (compa ing he wo case s udies), h ough au onomous
259
spa ial p oduc ion, p opose new social and poli ical p ac ices ha con ibu e o he local de elopmen
o he case s udy ci ies. (iii) To unde s and he scope o social ac ions, I will desc ibe he mu ual
in luences be ween hese wo main ac o s (social mo emen s and ins i u ions) o analyse he
con e gences and con lic s gene a ed by he p oduc ion o au onomous space in he case s udy ci ies.
The ollowing answe s o he h ee esea ch ques ions o e u he insigh s in o he p oduc ion
o space by social mo emen s and u ban ins i u ions. In he i s answe , I con i med exis ing heo ies
on he c i ique o neo-libe al u ban de elopmen , p o iding u he elemen s o suppo his
pe spec i e; answe ing his ques ion helped me con ex ualise he objec o s udy and, hus, answe
he o he wo mo e inno a i e esea ch ques ions mo e accu a ely. Rega ding he second answe , I
made a signi ican con ibu ion, especially in he Po uguese con ex , whe e a lack o li e a u e on he
impo ance o space o HRM eme ged. Finally, he hi d ques ion o e s an e en mo e signi ican
con ibu ion, highligh ing he impo ance o dialogue, albei based on con lic , be ween ins i u ions
and mo emen s and how his dialogue can gene a e hyb id u ban go e nance open o
expe imen a ion, which akes in o accoun he claims o ci izens o ganised in mo emen s.
1) WHAT INSTITUTIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES WERE WITHIN THE
CITIES STUDIED, AND WHAT KIND OF HOUSING POLICIES AND URBAN
TRANSFORMATIONS DID THEY PRODUCE?
Answe ing his i s esea ch ques ion will poli ically con ex ualise he wo coun ies unde s udy by
unde s anding simila i ies and di e ences in he ac ions and plans ca ied ou by he wo coun ies
and analysing he e en s ha ha e cha ac e ised hei housing policies and hei subsequen u ban
ans o ma ions. This will be use ul in answe ing he nex wo ques ions as i will help us o unde s and
he poli ical, social and spa ial s uc u e in which he HRM unde s udy is implemen ed. The analy ical
pa o his hesis began wi h he w i ing o Chap e 4, whe e I analysed in bo h coun ies how housing
policies since he 1970s ha e in luenced bo h he u ban ans o ma ions wi hin he wo case s udy
ci ies and a eac ion by ci izens o ganised in mo emen s.
The beginning o he analysis o he Po uguese case in his hesis coincided wi h he e olu ion
ha ended he ascis dic a o ship in 1974. This e en s ongly condi ioned bo h he poli ical and
economic de elopmen o he coun y, which un il hen had been in a p eca ious s a e bo h wi h
espec o he housing condi ions o he Po uguese people (in hose yea s, he e was a s ong g ow h
o in o mal neighbou hoods in majo Po uguese ci ies) and wi h espec o a p ocess o u ban
egene a ion ha in o he Eu opean coun ies (including I aly) had al eady begun hanks o he
subs an ial unds issued by he Ma shall Plan in he pos -wa pe iod.
260
Following he Po uguese Re olu ion and a pe iod o solid pos - e olu iona y popula mo emen s
called PREC, he p omulga ion o he Po uguese Cons i u ion is undoub edly a key piece in
unde s anding he u u e de elopmen o he coun y’s housing policies. Among o he hings, A icle
65 o he Po uguese cons i u ion ecognises he igh o housing as one o he undamen al igh s o
he popula ion (An unes, 2017); al hough i is a p og amma ic igh (Tulumello & Sil a, 2019; Violan e,
2023), his is no p esen in he I alian cons i u ion p omulga ed almos 30 yea s ea lie .
Ano he elemen analysed in his hesis ha has condi ioned he wo coun ies' de elopmen is
hei membe ship in he EU. I aly was one o he ounding coun ies o he EU and has been a membe
since 1958. As o Po ugal, on he o he hand, he 1980s saw no only a consolida ion o he
democ a ic sys em es ablished ela i ely a ew yea s bu also he adop ion o a ma ke economy and
he libe alisa ion o banking compe i ion o apply o EU membe ship, which only ma e ialised on 1
Janua y 1986. This en ailed he a i al o impo an s uc u al unds in he coun y, which, as discussed,
s ill had o sol e a ious in e nal s uc u al p oblems; abo e all, Po ugal's mos e iden housing
p oblem du ing hose yea s was he coun less in o mal neighbou hoods p esen mainly in he la ge
ci ies.
This p oblem o in o mal neighbou hoods, as discussed, also a ec ed he ci y o Rome, which in
he 1960s coun ed innume able in o mal ‘Bo ga e’ in he ci y, whe e he s ong pos -wa economic
eco e y in I aly led he ci y o Rome o ini ia e a ious p og ammes o pu an end o in o mal
cons uc ion as ea ly as he ea ly 1970s, ending wi h mayo Pe oselli in he ea ly 1980s. In Lisbon, i
was necessa y o wai o he PER plan in 1993, which had, among o he hings, a ious di icul ies in
being implemen ed as i ailed o conclude he p ojec ully.
Since he 1980s, he housing ma ke in bo h coun ies has enjoyed conside able banking acili ies
o which he middle class, in pa icula , has had access. The poli ical ins i u ions o hose yea s in es ed
conside able public capi al o acili a e amilies’ access o c edi , o s eamline he lis s o access o
public housing, and hus make hem homeowne s. So much so ha e en oday, I aly and Po ugal a e
among he EU coun ies wi h he highes numbe o home-owning households, wi h mo e han 70%
owned. Since hen, he housing policies o he wo coun ies seem o ha e been mainly limi ed o
inancing access o c edi o s imula e home owne ship.
Du ing hese yea s, he neo-libe al economic model was also es ablished, in which he S a e-
p i a e axis was s eng hened in bo h coun ies o a ou he p i a isa ion o public se ices. These
p ojec s o p i a isa ion and he en y o new builde s, especially in a con ex o a ‘ ee’ ma ke ,
undoub edly gua an eed g ea e p o i s o he ich amilies o he ci y who decided o in es in
cons uc ion, leading hem o ha e much g ea e social and ma ke con ol o e he middle and lowe
classes han in p e ious decades. Du ing his pe iod, he e o e, an ambi ious p og amme o neo-libe al
261
e o ms was implemen ed, ini ia ing a libe alisa ion p ocess wi h p i a isa ion as i s main s a egy. This
p ocess pa ed he way o a boom in p i a e in es men in eal es a e and cons uc ion.
The e o e, as amply demons a ed by many s udies on he subjec and epo ed in he analy ical
chap e s o his hesis, bo h he en y in o he EU i s (Alleg a e al., 2020; Ba is on e al., 2018) and,
abo e all, he a i ma ion o he neo-libe al economic model la e ha e c ea ed he condi ions o
con ibu e o he inancializa ion o he now good house in he wo coun ies unde s udy (Tulumello
& Dagkouli-Ky iakoglou, 2021; San os e al., 2014). These p ocesses ha e empowe ed p i a e
companies o become key ac o s in u ban ans o ma ions, d i en by economic in e es s and di ec ly
in luencing u ban planning p ojec s. Consequen ly, social aspec s o public space p oduc ion and he
well-being o inhabi an s ha e been o e shadowed. Neolibe al p ocesses ha e undamen ally
eshaped u ban e i o ies, a ou ing capi al accumula ion and esul ing in u ban policies ha o en
lack social cohe ence o local communi ies, aligning wi h Sage ’s (2011) obse a ions on he spa ial
consequences o neolibe al policies.
S a ing in Chap e 5 o his hesis, I analysed he housing policies and u ban ans o ma ions ha
occu ed in he wo capi als o Lisbon and Rome ollowing he global inancial c isis o 2007/08, a c isis
ha was igge ed p ecisely by he inance-housing nexus, showing he agili y o he sys em o home
owne ship inanced h ough bank c edi . The house in he pos -c isis pe iod (despi e ha ing been he
igge o his one) has con inued o main ain a p incipal ole in he insc ip ion o he logic o
inancializa ion in he economies o he wo coun ies, so much o be conside ed, especially in he
Po uguese case (D ago, 2021), as he ins umen h ough which o build eco e y policies. This has
led many schola s o asse ha he pos -2007 global c isis was, in ac , a c isis o neolibe al
u banisa ion, bo n ou o he in es men s in he p oduc ion o space made by he ci ies o
con empo a y capi alism (Ga cia, 2010; Ha ey, 2012; Seixas e al., 2016; Tulumello e al., 2020). In
hese yea s, he e o e, housing con inued o be he main componen o he ans o ma ion o u ban
economies and he p oduc ion o social li ing spaces in he u ban e i o ies I analysed. This has
happened because housing ep esen s he asse h ough which o measu e he economic g ow h o
coun ies and hus, a he same ime, h ough which o analyse he wo sening o ms o social inequali y
wi h espec o who has access o housing and who does no . In his sense, p i a e ac o s no longe
ac only as economic agen s bu become poli ical ac o s de e mining u ban and social policies in he
ci y.
In Po ugal, o a g ea e ex en , bu a he same ime also in I aly in he pos -c isis pe iod, ideal
condi ions we e gene a ed o a ou he en y o la ge in e na ional in es o s in o he na ional eal
es a e ma ke ; hese we e a ou ed in bo h coun ies by he libe alisa ion and de egula ion o he
inancial ma ke s. In he case o Po ugal, he policies ha acili a ed his p ocess we e he NRAUs o
2006 and especially 2012, esponsible o he s ong libe alisa ion o en s and he o igin o coun less

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