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The ole o es ablished immig an s
wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an
in eg a ion in Is ael
El papel de los inmig an es es ablecidos en
la ins i ucionalización de la in eg ación en
Is ael
Amandine Desille1
1 MSCA Pos doc o al ellow
Ins i u o de Geog a ia e O denamen o Te i o ial, Uni e sidade de Lisboa
Po ugal
Recibido: 31/01/2019 Acep ado: 02/06/2019
Co espondence: Amandine Desille. Rua Edmée Ma ques, Lisboa, Po ugal. E-mail:
[email protected]
© Re is a In e nacional de Es udios Mig a o ios. CEMyRI. UAL (España)
Amandine Desille
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Abs ac
To which ex en does he pa icipa ion o ‘co-e hnics’ in immig an in eg a ion policy
implemen a ion enable a mo e accommoda ing app oach owa ds newcome s? Whe eas
immig an in eg a ion policymaking has usually been en isaged h ough a hos /s ange
p ism, Is ael municipal depa men s o “Aliyah and abso p ion” ( ha is o Jewish
immig a ion, and he in eg a ion o new Jewish immig an s) p o ides an in e es ing
case: he las decades, hey ha e p ima ily ec ui ed es ablished i s -gene a ion
immig an s o ca e o he newes Jewish immig an s se ling in hei ci ies. This a icle
o e s some new insigh s ega ding he pa icipa ion o hese es ablished immig an s in
he implemen a ion o Is ael immig an in eg a ion policies. On he one hand, hese
municipal se ice wo ke s, and o he local ac o s wo king owa ds immig an
in eg a ion, ha e pe mi ed a mo e plu alis app oach o socio-cul u al in eg a ion; on
he o he hand, he a he pa ial di e si y o hese es ablished immig an s –mos ly
Wes e n Russian-speaking immig an s–, has limi ed he po en ial o an al e na i e, less
‘e hno-cen ed’ app oach o immig an se lemen o de elop.
Keywo ds: immig an in eg a ion, Is ael, local go e nmen s, policy implemen a ion,
s ee -le el bu eauc a s
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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Resumen
¿En qué medida la pa icipación de "co-e nicos" en la implemen ación de una polí ica
de in eg ación de inmig an es pe mi e un en oque más complacien e hacia los ecién
llegados? Mien as que la o mulación de polí icas de in eg ación gene almen e se ha
p e is o a a és del p isma de an i ión/huésped, los depa amen os municipales de
Is ael po "la Aliyah y el abso ción" (o, en o as palab as, la inmig ación judía y la
in eg ación de nue os inmig an es judíos) o ecen un caso in e esan e: en las úl imas
décadas, eclu a on p incipalmen e inmig an es de p ime a gene ación pa a a ende a
los nue os inmig an es judíos que se es ablecie on en sus ciudades. Es e a ículo o ece
algunas ideas nue as sob e la pa icipación de es os inmig an es es ablecidos en la
implemen ación de las polí icas de in eg ación de Is ael. Po un lado, es os abajado es
de se icio municipal, y o os ac o es locales que abajan pa a la in eg ación de los
inmig an es, han pe mi ido un en oque más plu alis a a ni el sociocul u al; po o o lado,
la di e sidad más bien pa cial de es os inmig an es es ablecidos, en su mayo ía
inmig an es uso-hablan es, ha limi ado el po encial de un en oque al e na i o, pa a que
se desa olle un asen amien o menos "e nocén ico" de los inmig an es.
Palab as Cla e: in eg ación, Is ael, gobie nos locales, implemen ación de polí icas
públicas, abajado es del se icio público
Amandine Desille
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1. In oduc ion
Despi e di icul y in e ms o ieldwo k, mo e esea ch is also needed on policy implemen a ion
p ac ices. Compa isons o hese will enable us o elucida e and unde s and impo an di e ences
be ween policies as w i en and policies as p ac ised as well as o iden i y and explain ends o
con e gence in his ega d. Finally, while compa a i e esea ch on in eg a ion p ocesses has
been done in No h Ame ica and Eu ope, mos compa a i e esea ch on in eg a ion policies has
been limi ed o Eu ope (Ga cés-Masca eñas & Penninx 2015, p. 27).
In he in oduc o y chap e o he olume In eg a ion p ocesses and policies in
Eu ope, Blanca Ga cés-Masca eñas and Rinus Penninx (2015) sugges ha he p ocess
o immig an s “becoming a pa o socie y” is go e ned by a mul i ude o ac o s, loca ed
a mul iple le els. To unde s and his go e nance o immig an in eg a ion, one should
look a policies ames (wha should be done and o whom) as much as policy
measu es. This pape add esses he la e : based on he analysis o policy measu es aken
by ou municipali ies in Is ael, i examines he disc e iona y ole o public se ice
wo ke s when implemen ing immig an in eg a ion policies. In he Eu opean and
Ame ican con ex s, immig an in eg a ion is s ill e y much o a na ional ma e .
Ga cés-Masca eñas and Penninx a gue ha :
In ela ion o he concep o in eg a ion, he majo poin o c i icism is he ac ha i con inues o
assume—as did he old concep ion o assimila ion— ha immig an s mus con o m o he no ms
and alues o he dominan majo i y in o de o be accep ed. This assump ion ele a es a
pa icula cul u al model, in he USA ha o middle-class, whi e P o es an s o B i ish ances y,
and in many Eu opean coun ies ha o a collec i ely claimed na ional language, cul u e, and
adi ion; a model ha exp esses he no ma i e s anda d owa ds which immig an s should aspi e
and by which hei dese ingness o membe ship should con inuously be assessed (2015, p. 12).
Claims made by social heo is s o go beyond me hodological na ionalism (Glick
Schille & Salaza , 2013) esona e s ongly la ely, and sup ana ional and subna ional
le els a e mo e and mo e aken in o accoun ( o name a ew, Glick Schille & Çağla ,
2009; Jø gensen, 2012; Penninx e al., 2004; Va sanyi, 2008; Walke & Lei ne , 2011).
Bu in he Is aeli con ex , he e hno-na ional ideology unde lying i s immig a ion policy
seems so in lexible ha ew ha e looked in o o he scales o policymaking and policy
implemen a ion (a he excep ion o : Aue bach, 2011; Tz adia, 2005; Tz adia & Yacobi,
2007). Ne e heless, and since he i s yea s o s a ehood, Is ael immig an in eg a ion
policy, called ‘abso p ion’, has been backed by a subs an ial numbe o s ee -le el
bu eauc a s in a ious ins i u ions, including ci y-le el ins i u ions. I sugges looking
in o hei p ac ices in o de o g asp changes in how in eg a ion is concei ed.
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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Secondly, immig an in eg a ion policy has been e y much o a majo i y ma e .
Immig an s, usually ep esen ing a small numbe , and occupying a ela i e
disad an ageous posi ion in mos socie ies (demons a ed by opp ession, social
dep i a ion and disc imina ion), see he p ocess o hei in eg a ion decided upon by
membe s o he dominan hos socie y. This hos /s ange se o ela ions has been an
assump ion in immig a ion policy s udies (Alexande , 2003; Penninx e al., 2004). The
Is aeli case p o ides an ambiguous case. E ec i ely, he e a e (a leas ) h ee di e en
ypes o majo i y/mino i y ela ions: Jewish Is aeli s. Pales inian; Eu opean Jew s.
Eas e ne Jew; and old- ime s. newcome . In ha con ex , being a Russian Jewish
immig an o being an E hiopian Jewish old- ime a e bo h ‘mino i y’ iden i ies.
None heless, wi hin hos /s ange ela ions, when i comes o implemen a ion, one can
see an inc eased pa icipa ion o co-e hnics in public se ice. As Ga cés-Masca eñas
and Penninx a gue, “nei he should we o e look how hese policy measu es a e
implemen ed in p ac ice o o wha ex en and how s ee -le el bu eauc a s,
p ac i ione s, and p o essionals adap hem o hei own goals and possibly limi ed
esou ces” (2015, p. 22). In he case o Is ael, many o hese s ee -le el bu eauc a s,
p ac i ione s, and p o essionals occupying posi ions whe e hey se e immig an s on a
daily basis, a e hemsel es es ablished immig an s who ac as media o s be ween he
hos socie y and hei pee s. Du ing he se e al yea s o his esea ch, I ha e me wi h
many o hem, and I a gue ha hey canno be igno ed when s udying he making o
immig an in eg a ion policies.
Wha is le o unde s and, is i hey a e me e agen s o he S a e, ep oducing
he assimila ionis policy o med a he cen al adminis a ion le el, o on he con a y,
do hey in oduce disc e ion ha migh bend policies? Mo e p ecisely, does he
pa icipa ion o co-e hnics in policy implemen a ion enable a mo e accommoda ing
app oach?
2. The case s udy: Is ael de elopmen owns
2.1 1950s: he o ma ion o Is ael abso p ion policy
In he a e ma h o he 1948 wa , while mo e han 700,000 Pales inians ake he
oads o exile, he new S a e o Is ael ecei es a simila amoun o new Jewish
immig an s. In 1960, mo e han a million and a hal Jews o he Diaspo a ha e

Amandine Desille
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con e ged o Is ael. Wi h he double objec i e o hos ing hese new immig an s, while
gaining so e eign y o e he dispu ed land, he S a e quickly plans he es ablishmen o
hi y so-called de elopmen owns1
Thei in eg a ion in o he Is aeli socie y is p o ided by a se o p inciples and
ac i i ies unde he concep o ‘abso p ion’. The S a e’s abso p ion policy was designed
oge he wi h unc ionalis sociologis Shmuel Noah Eisens ad . Fo Eisens ad ,
es ablished (Ashkenazi) immig an s om he second Aliyah (a Heb ew e m meaning
ascen and e e ing o Jewish immig a ion o Is ael) and hi d Aliyah ep esen he co e
Eu opean Jewish cul u e. Immig an s om he Middle Eas , A ica o Asia a e
pe iphe al o his co e cul u e, and mus be assimila ed in o de o become mode n Jews
(Ram, 1995). This model he e o e i s wha an Ame s oo (1978, epublished in
2010) will la e call a mino i y/majo i y “con inua ion”, whe e “ he mino i y ul ils
ce ain unc ions o he majo i y, as when he mino i y is exploi ed”. S a e agen s
engage in a p ocess o socialisa ion o new come s.
(o new owns) close o he bo de s. F om he
1950s, a majo i y o Jews om No h A ica, he Middle Eas and Asia a e eloca ed o
hese de elopmen owns. The enginee ing o his socio-spa ial seg ega ion (Jamous,
1982; Khazzoom, 2005; Shama & I is, 1977; Yi achel, 2000; Yi achel & Tz adia,
2004) is s ill isible oday, and cu en esiden s o de elopmen owns a e p ima ily he
o sp ing o hese immig an s.
2.2 1970s: i s up u e
De elopmen owns, i hey ha e p o ided a as housing solu ion o he
hund ed housands immig an s, quickly become no only geog aphical pe iphe ies, bu
also socio-cul u al, economic and poli ical pe iphe ies. In as uc u e is poo , access o
he cen e di icul , employmen is sca ce and mos ly low-skilled, and educa ion and
heal h se ices neglec ed. Howe e , he esen men o he pe iphe ies is i s hea d in
less emo e ci ies. Impo e ished neighbou hoods in Hai a (Wadi Salib’s esiden s e ol
in 1959), and la e on in Je usalem (Mus a a’s esiden s mo emen s in 1971, o ganised
by he Is aeli “Black Pan he s”) a e he oice o a new c ys alizing Miz ahi (Heb ew
e m o Eas e ne ) iden i y (Che i , 2000; Tz adia, 2007). Wi h he i s wa e o So ie
immig a ion in he 1970s, de elopmen owns’ esiden s e ol oo, and egula ly
1 De elopmen owns (Aya o Pi uah in Heb ew) we e es ablished ollowing he Sha on Plan (1950). The
e minology adop ed was in line wi h mode niza ion heo y, which conside ed Jewish immig an s om
A ican and Asian coun ies, he u u e esiden s o de elopmen owns, as “ adi ional”. Nowadays, he
lexicon has some imes change, and shi ed owa ds pe iphe al ci ies. Howe e , I use he e m
‘de elopmen owns’ o highligh he his o ical ajec o y o hese ci ies.
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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exp ess hei ange owa ds he es ablishmen , he lack o dis ibu i e jus ice and he
be e condi ions ha Wes e n immig an s ge when a i ing in he coun y (Tz adia &
Yi achel, 2004).
The 1973 Kippu wa , he economic c isis ha hi s he coun y in he 1980s and
hese social mo emen s eed in he c isis o legi imacy expe ienced by he labou Mapai
pa y. In 1977, a e 29 yea s o labou dominance, igh -wing Likud leade Menachem
Begin is elec ed. Likud is in luenced by Reaganean and Tha che ian poli ics. I he
changes a e no immedia e, om 1985 on, Is ael adop s a mo e neolibe al app oach,
cha ac e ised by a ee-ma ke economy, he wi hd awal o he S a e and in gene al, he
p aise o p i a e and indi idual in e es s a he expense o he collec i is planned
economy o he 1950s and 1960s (Kay, 2012).
Fo de elopmen owns, hese changes ha e se e al e ec s. Wi h he ac ha
cen al adminis a ion looses g ip, he elec ion o local mayo s ( om 1978) enables a
mo e i ing ep esen a ion. New elec ed leade s belong o he communi ies hey
adminis e . Howe e , hese new leade s ace a pa adoxical issue. They a e apped
be ween he wi hd awing cen al adminis a ion and he educ ion o public ans e s,
and an injunc ion o make local economic de elopmen policies wi hou a p ope
p oduc i e base. Mo eo e , decen alisa ion is accompanied wi h spo adic
ecen alisa ion measu es. One example is ela ed o immig a ion. In ac , i Likud
ideology leads o a shi owa ds a ‘di ec abso p ion’, whe e new immig an s a e gi en
an allowance and a e ee o se le whe e hey see i , and esponsible o hei
inco po a ion in he labou ma ke , in imes o la ge immig a ion, he S a e akes o e
once mo e.
2.3 1990s: second up u e
A he end o 1980s, he all o he USSR esul s in one o he la ges
immig a ion o Is ael: he incoming o 850,000 pos -So ie Jews om 1989 o 1995.
Along hose yea s, ano he g oup makes i s way o Is ael: E hiopian Jews, whom, i
hey a e much less in numbe s, p omp a new acialised issue o he Is aeli socie y
(An eby-Yemini, 2004; Elias & Kemp, 2010). Despi e he adop ion o a ‘di ec
abso p ion’ policy, he cen al adminis a ion o mula es a new na ional plan o speed up
building and indus ial de elopmen . The ‘popula ion-dispe sion’ policy o he 1950s is
abandoned, and a new pa adigm – he me opoli an app oach – sanc ions de elopmen
owns as public housing ha ens, while he ou main ci ies (Je usalem, Tel A i , Hai a
Amandine Desille
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and Bee She a) and hei immedia e subu bs ely on he p i a e housing ma ke
(G adus & Lipshi z, 1996). This housing policy la gely in luences he se lemen o new
come s. Al hough hey enable a demog aphic bu s in de elopmen owns su e ing
om ou -mig a ion (Be homiè e, 2002), on he long- un, i accen ua es he e i o ial
inequali ies o he coun y.
On he socio-cul u al plan, he incoming o a million new immig an s in a mo e
neolibe al con ex has a g ea impac . Immig an s om he Fo me So ie Union,
h ough g ass oo s and na ional poli ical ac ions, manage o weaken he assimila ionis
ideology and in oduce a mo e plu alis app oach (Yacobi & Tz adia, 2009; Yonah,
2005). Social sciences ake an in e es in he cul u al changes ope a ed (Ge shenson &
Hudson, 2008; Golden, 2001; Le ne , 2015; Remennick, 2002). An in e es ing
con ibu ion is linked o he g owing igu e o he ‘media o ’ (He zog, 1999; Sha aby,
2013; S o pe -Pe ez, 1998): es ablished Russian-speaking o Amha ic-speaking (among
o he languages) immig an s who in e media e be ween he hos socie y and he new
come s. This is p ecisely wha in e es ed his esea ch: in a con ex o escaling o
powe , and o ans o ma ions owa ds some o m o plu alis app oach o in eg a ion,
wha is he ole and e ec o hese es ablished immig an s?
2.4 2010s: new pe spec i es?
Nowadays, esea ch on Is aeli de elopmen owns and hei immig a ion policies
is much sca ce han a e he mass immig a ion o o me USSR immig an s. Ye ,
be ween 2001 and 2015, 27% o new immig an s s ill se le in de elopmen owns upon
hei a i al (CBS, 2016). Mo eo e , su eys show ha an inc easing numbe o hem
ha e es ablished dedica ed municipal uni s in cha ge o immig a ion and abso p ion,
and hi ed municipal agen s in cha ge o de eloping and implemen ing abso p ion
p og ammes (see o ins ance he s udy o de ed by Is ael Union o Local Au ho i ies:
Yehuda Ab amson, 2013).
3. In he o ices o public se ice wo ke s
Wi hin he cu en con ex , I ca ied ou an enqui y in so-called de elopmen
owns. As a ma e o ac , hei his o ical signi icance in he de elopmen and
en o cemen o immig a ion se lemen policies in Is ael u ns hem, in my opinion, in
pa adigma ic cases. Wha is he ac ual aming o immig an in eg a ion policies oday?
To which ex en S a e ideology pene a es local adminis a ions (in pa icula he
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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municipal uni s in cha ge o immig a ion ha Yehuda Ab amson has iden i ied) and
hei public wo ke s’ discou ses and p ac ices? Does Eisens ad ’s unc ionalis model
pe sis oday?
Fou owns we e selec ed o ca y ou he s udy: Ac e, A ad, Ki ya Ga and
Ki ya Shmona, loca ed on he map below.
Figu e 1. Map o he ou ci ies unde sc u iny
Sou ce: elabo a ed by he au ho
The selec ion o cases ha I could compa e ollowed a a he sys ema ic me hod:
Following se e al p oposals by Eu opean schola s on he ac o s ha o en c ea e
Amandine Desille
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Jewish immig an in Is ael is en i led o. The MOIA also has egional o ices which deal
wi h so-called communi y in eg a ion, and o ganise cul u al, social and p o essional
e en s a he dis ic le el. Finally, he las yea s, he MOIA, oge he wi h he Jewish
Agency (JAFI) and municipali ies ha e pu oge he a new p og amme called G oup
Aliyah. The p og amme is unded by he MOIA, and a new posi ion was c ea ed wi hin
municipali ies: he p oyek o .
The p oyek o is concei ed as a long- e m in e locu o o he new immig an s,
om he momen he decides o mo e o Is ael o he yea s ha ollow i s se lemen in
he ci y. He suppo s him in ob aining he a ious en i lemen s p o ided by he law, bu
he also p o ides him wi h ips ega ding schooling, employmen , housing, bank, phone
se ices… e c. P oyeko im also o ganise socio-cul u al ac i i ies and wo kshops a he
ci y le el. The p oyek o is hi ed h ough he municipali y, and belongs o he municipal
depa men o immig a ion and abso p ion. Volun a ily se by he local go e nmen s,
he es ablishmen o hese municipal depa men s o uni s (depending on hei
hie a chical loca ion) is no p o ided by he municipal law. Howe e , hey ha e become
well-sp ead in local go e nmen s in Is ael (Yehuda Ab amson, 2013). On op o hese
speci ic depa men s, municipali ies ha e la gely engaged in hi ing an immig an s a .
The wel a e depa men , and i s communi y wo k uni , in each municipali y does so,
and has p o ed o ha e signi ican weigh when i comes o immig an se lemen .
Hence, he wel a e depa men supe ises a ange o neighbou hood o ganisa ions
which pu pose is clea ly iden i ied wi h immig a ion. Mishol ( he ac onym o Me kaz
leIsh al u leOlim, Cen e o he In eg a ion o Immig an s) in Ac e, he Cen e o
Media ion and Dialogue in he Communi y in Ac e and A ad, o he Abso p ion Uni
o E hiopian immig an s, called Mokad Kli a, in Ki ya Ga , a e all supe ised by
wel a e. Budge comes la gely om he Minis y o Wel a e, bu wo ke s a e municipal
agen s.
Ou side o he municipali y, hough o en closely coope a ing, he You h Cen e,
supe ised by he Minis y o he De elopmen o he Galilee and Nege also hi es an
‘immig an coo dina o ’ (a leas in Ac e, A ad and Ki ya Ga ) whose a ge audience is
younge immig an s who need o join he mili a y o ces, he uni e si y o ind a i s
job on he labou ma ke . The ne wo k o Ma nass, Cen es o Cul u al, You h and
Spo , supe ised by he Minis y o Educa ion, also engages in ac i i ies a ge ing
immig an s (ei he because o he spoken language du ing ac i i ies, o he na u e o he
ac i i ies hemsel es).

The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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Religious g oups, pa icula ly he Ga in To ani3 in Ac e, and he one in Ki ya
Shmona, ha e been key ac o s o he se lemen o Indian Bnei Menashe4 immig an s
he las yea s, and coope a e wi h he NGO Sha e Is ael5
Finally, Ki ya Ga and A ad bo h hos an ‘abso p ion cen e’, supe ised by he
MOIA and he Jewish Agency, whe e new immig an s om E hiopia se le o he i s
wo yea s ollowing hei immig a ion. Ki ya Ga only p o ides long- e m se lemen
solu ions o esiden s o he abso p ion cen e, whe eas hose in A ad usually mo e ou
o he ci y once hei igh s expi e.
.
Wi h such a di e si y o ac o s, ‘abso p ion’ akes a ious meanings. F om a
bu eauc a ic poin o iew, adop ed mos ly by he MOIA, abso p ion policies mean
dis ibu ing en i led igh s o immig an s: he ‘abso p ion baske ’, ouche s o
e aining, and subsidies o Heb ew classes o ins ance. Municipali ies emphasise
mo e he need o suppo se lemen , language acquisi ion and labou inclusion a an
indi idual o amilial le el. Addi ionally, hey coope a e wi h o he ac o s o acili a e
wha I would call ‘socio- eligious assimila ion’: including a ange o ac i i ies om
con e sion o O hodox Judaism ( a ge ing mo e speci ically Indian o E hiopian
immig an s) o less coe ci e classes on Is aeli cul u e. Pa adoxically, he same ac o s
may also pu in place mechanisms in o de o eplica e one’s cul u al wo ld. This is
pa icula ly ue o Russian-speaking immig an s, whe e ‘abso p ion’ budge ac ually
goes in o cul u al p og ammes in Russian, excluding Is aeli esiden s. Finally, beyond
abso p ion, se e al o hose ac o s a e in ol ed in ou eaching o po en ial candida es o
immig a ion: hey ma ke he ci y so ha Jews o he diaspo a elec hei place as i s
esidency.
5.2 The S a e speaks mos ly Russian
In he a ious o ices I ha e isi ed du ing ieldwo k, public se ice wo ke s a e,
in hei majo i y, Russian-speake s. Figu es ha e a la ge ole in his ep esen a ion:
Russian-speake s ha e o med a g ea pa o he immig an popula ion o Is ael, e en
3 Ga in is he Heb ew e m o nucleus. I e e s o eligious communi ies such as he Ga in To ani,
which, subsequen o hei mission o alle ia e po e y and encou age communi y economic and social
de elopmen in dis essed owns, also engage in immig a ion issues.
4 Bnei Menashe e e s o a g oup who claims i s p ac ice o Judaism, mainly es ablished in he Manipu
and Mizo am s a es o no he n India. Howe e , in o de o immig a e o Is ael, hey mus unde go
con e sion o o hodox Judaism.
5 Sha ei Is ael is a small o ganiza ion wo king owa ds, acco ding o hei Websi e
h ps://sha ei.o g/abou -us/ou -goals/, “ac i ely eaching ou o “los Jews” in an e o o acili a e hei
e u n”.
Amandine Desille
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be o e s a ehood. As hal a million immig a ed in he 1970s, and almos a million
be ween 1989 o 2000, Russian-speake s a e wan ed in public se ice. Mo eo e , i we
look a mo e ecen igu es, hey s ill o m he bigges g oup o new immig an s oday.
Uk ainian Jews in pa icula , ollowing he 2014 Uk ainian e olu ion and he annexing
o C imea by Russia, ha e come o Is ael in la ge numbe s. In he ou owns unde
sc u iny, Fo me So ie Union immig an s who se led a e 1996 o m be ween 16 o
40% o he o al ci y popula ion.
The es ablishmen o Russian-speake s in public se ice has ansla ed in o an
e en mo e impo an p eponde ance o hei g oup. In ac , h ough hei ne wo ks, hey
appeal mos ly o Russian-speake s. They p ima ily ou each o Russian-speake s
h ough he Jewish Agency, and once se led, Russian-speake s can in e ac in almos all
public o ices in Russian, bene i om poli ical ep esen a ion, ind jobs wi hin hose
ne wo ks… e c. Mo eo e , public unds eed in o a Russian-speaking cul u al wo ld,
wi h municipal depa men s’ p og ammes o MOIA communi y in eg a ion p og ammes
o ganising socio-cul u al e en s and ac i i ies in Russian. In ha sense, Russian-
speaking s ee -le el bu eauc a s a e he main o ganise s and ga ekeepe s o an
eme ging ‘mul icul u al’ policy –al hough limi ed o hei (i sel much mo e di e se
han wha he ca ego y ‘Russian-speaking’ migh sugges ) g oup.
Pa icipan s o his esea ch ha e explained hei ac i e p esence in public
se ice h ough a sense o dep i a ion: hei massi e a i al in he 1990s was no
accompanied wi h su icien esou ces, and hey had o quickly o ganise a local le els
o ensu e poli ical ep esen a ion, and o p o ide abso p ion ac i i ies h ough g ass oo s
o ganisa ions. This quo e, ex ac ed om an encoun e wi h wo s ee -le el bu eauc a s
in he ci y o Ki ya Ga , is enligh ening:
So we o ganized. We in i ed all he Russian speake s ha lead a leas 10 people behind hem.
And we said: guys, le ’s wo k oge he and we will all bene i om i . […] [The pe son in cha ge
o immig a ion in he municipali y] is no a new immig an om Russia. The guy does no know
ou cul u e, excep h ough us. Some people decide o us. Do like his like his like his. Un il
you unde s and his is no wha co esponds o you popula ion. Maybe i was my success in all
he clubs I managed. I ne e did wi hou asking. I always asked. E en o he g oup he e, he e
a e 200 people. […] They decide. The e is a commi ee. One pe son manages he inance, he
o he o ganizes his. They a e Russians, o ganized. […] In elligen people ha know how o
wo k. In he pas hey we e manage s in big ac o ies. Fo ins ance, Valodia ha was he e, he
was he main a chi ec o he ci y Done sk. Done sk is like Is ael. You unde s and? And he was
he ci y a chi ec . So hey ha e knowledge and capaci y and he will, which is he bes bes bes
(In e iew conduc ed in Ki ya Ga in 2014).
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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Especially in he ci y o Ki ya Ga , whe e he ‘compe ing’ immig an g oup is
composed o E hiopian Jews, in e iewees insis ha hey ha e he capaci y o o ganise,
whe eas E hiopian immig an s bene i om la ge ans e om he cen al
adminis a ion. Pa e nalis ic and assimila ionis app oaches owa ds E hiopian
immig a ion we e common in ha own.
Ano he impo an ema k, linked o he o e whelming ep esen a ion o
Russian-speake s in public wo k, is hei de ensi e a i ude when i comes o eligious
in eg a ion. In ac , wi h a 30% o non-halachically Jews among hem (Lus ick, 1999),
hey ha e been o en labelled as ‘suspicious’ immig an s (Le ne , 2015). Consequen ly,
hey a e ha shly de ending hei legi imacy. In e iews wi h Russian-speaking
immig an s in public wo k usually s a wi h s o ies which es i y o hei Jewishness
and hei belie in he Zionis ideology, as i o spa e any doub s om he beginning o
ou discussion.
A inal commen lies in he s a us o hese s ee -le el bu eauc a s. One can
assume ha public se ice wo ke s dedica ed o immig a ion issues can d aw hei
legi imacy – ha is he accep ance om he au ho i ies and om he public se ice
clien s hemsel es ha hey bea he abili y o deli e in eg a ion se ices – om a leas
wo sou ces: hey we e ained by ecognised educa ional ins i u ions o deli e hese
se ices and o ‘in e cul u al skills’; o hey lea n h ough hei own immig a ion,
he e o e, hey a e hemsel es immig an s. Wo ke s in he wel a e depa men usually
all in o he i s ca ego y: hey a e social wo ke s, communi y wo ke s, psychologis s
and so on. They hold a ele an deg ee and a e obliged o go h ough egula e- aining.
P oyek o im in u n, belongs o he second ca ego y. Among he 34 in e iewees I
men ioned in he me hodology, an o e whelming majo i y has sha ed wi h me hei
immig a ion expe ience, and how i has a ec ed hei p o essional choice. This shows
he cen ali y o he immig a ion expe ience, om which wo ke s d aw a se o hands-
on, on- he-job skills. They jus i y hei wo k in a sec o ha is no e y well paid by a
ques owa ds ‘sense’, and solida i y. Mo eo e , h ough hei expe ience, hey iden i y
an ideal in eg a ion pa h, se ing hemsel es as models ( om ‘illi e a e’ immig an s o
public se ice wo ke s).
Amandine Desille
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5.3 The S a e, e en o i s e hnona ional membe s, is no colou -blind
This is his las ema k o leads me o his sec ion: wha a e he consequences o
a ec ui men o p ima ily Russian-speaking Wes e n (Ashkenazi) immig an s in public
se ice? I ha e al eady men ioned ha , i hey encou age local mul icul u alism, his is
mos ly o hei pee s. In ac , he ype o accommoda ing a i ude hese public se ice
wo ke s may ha e owa ds o he Russian-speake s – speaking in Russian du ing
encoun e s, acili a ing he o ganisa ion o socio-cul u al ac i i ies in Russian,
ansla ing municipal se ices, and his e en o immig an s who ha e been in Is ael o
he las h ee decades – is no as sp ead when i comes o immig an s om de eloping
coun ies, such as India o E hiopia.
Fo de eloping coun ies’ immig an s (India and E hiopia mos ly), cases o
eligious e-con e sion, socio-cul u al assimila ion and economical s e eo yping a e
many. Rega ding eligion, Indian Bnei Menashe immig an s see hei s ay in Is ael
condi ioned by e-con e sion o O hodox Judaism, whe eas i is no he case o
Wes e n immig an s (e en hough hey migh la e ace issues ega ding ma iage and
bu ial in Is ael). In e ms o socio-cul u al assimila ion, e en i he e a e se ices in
Amha ic and in English a ailable, and cul u al ac i i ies in Amha ic we e common,
s ee -le el bu eauc a s expec hese new immig an s o be able o unde s and Heb ew
wi hin wo yea s a e hei se lemen . A MOIA o ice he e o e insis ed ha a e wo
yea s, she e uses ha a ansla o s ays in he oom (whe eas his same o ice speaks
Russian and p o ides a li e ime se ice in Russian o he ellows).
Bla an pa e nalism can be seen in he in eg a ion ac i i ies de ined o
immig an s who come om India and E hiopia. In Ac e, amilies om he Bnei
Menashe communi y in India ha e se led he pas yea s. The coo dina o o he
eligious g oup Ga in To ani in cha ge o he p ojec e e s o himsel as hei ‘ a he ’,
since he immig an s can u n o him i hey ace a di icul y. Mo eo e , he e is an
ex ac o a con e sa ion wi h a municipal agen :
I helped hem o b ing a bed. A bed ha he go as a dona ion. I I don’ help o b ing i , he needs
o pay 300 NIS o a mo ing company. So I eally helped hem physically, o b ing hings o hei
home. I hey a e no helped he i s yea , i will be e y ha d o hem. Especially in hings hey
don’ know like bu eauc acy, ag eemen s, documen s. They come us and hey ask us hings ha
a e now i ial o us. […] The same Bnei Menashe came om illages whe e hey don’ know
wha is local ax, gas, elec ici y, wa e , en . They did no ha e ha . They old me ha in he
middle o he illage, he e was a pole ha he s a e pu . An elec ical pole. Each one would
climb on he pole and connec his cable and ge elec ici y o his home. I does no ma e i you
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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don’ pay he elec ici y. You need wa e ? Go o he i e . You need gas? You use coal o I don’
know (In e iew conduc ed in Ac e in 2015).
Agen s, based on a he s e eo ypical accoun s o hese ‘ illage, simple people’
wi h li le knowledge o he adminis a i e and p o essional no ms in Is ael, he e o e
spend ime wi h he new immig an s, wi h he belie ha h ough hei wo k, hey assis
in hei socialisa ion. This shows he ex en o which 1950s Eisensh ad ’s
ecommenda ion ha “S a e agencies we e hus ad ised o ela e o ‘abso p ion’ as a
p ocess analogous o ‘adul socializa ion’ […]” and o c ea e pe sonal con ac s o
immig an s, in o de o c ea e iden i ica ion and pa icipa ion (Ram, 1995, p. 40) is s ill
con empo a y o immig an in eg a ion in Is ael.
The mani es di e ence o ea men be ween FSU immig an s and E hiopian
and Bnei Menashe immig an s, eplica ing he Ashkenazi-Miz ahi b each exis ing since
he ea ly yea s o he s a e o Is ael, puzzled me: how come ha esiden s o he same
de elopmen owns whe e li e seg ega ed and s igma ised non-Wes e n Jewish
immig an s would epea simila s uc u es? He e, he concep o ‘ apped communi ies’
coined by O en Yi achel, E ez Tzadia and Chaim Yacobi explain a lo .
Wi hin his s ong e hno-na ional con ex , i goes wi hou saying ha hey a e no
example o accommoda ing policies o non-Jews in he sc u inised owns. A ad hos s a
small communi y o asylum-seeke s om E i ea and Sudan, ne e heless, a he
excep ion o a needs’ mapping ini ia i e ha s a ed a he end o my ieldwo k, he e
we e no sign ha a local policy a ge ing non-Jews will be o med.
6. Discussion and conclusion
Al hough Is ael ‘abso p ion’ policy has been mos ly depic ed as a cen alised
policy – p obably because o he e y ‘e hno-na ional’ de ini ion o ci izenship –,
displacing he ame o analysis o local public se ice has shown he conside able
mo e om a cen ally adminis e ed o a a iega ed mos ly local policy ield. E en
hough he S a e is p esen h ough hese local ac o s, i shows he p oduc ion and
ep oduc ion o immig an in eg a ion policy om below. In pa icula , I a gue ha
public se ice wo ke s ha e had a posi i e ole in posi ioning he municipali y as a
mo e ac i e and cen al ins i u ion.

Amandine Desille
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Mo e speci ically, wi h he es ablishmen o municipal depa men s o
immig a ion and abso p ion, and he ec ui men o p oyeko im, a new ca ego y o
public se ice wo ke s eme ge, aside he wo ke s o he MOIA, and he p o essionals in
wel a e and educa ion depa men s. They compe e o be legi ima e agen s, based on
hei sha e e hnici y, and hei will o help. In ha sense, solida i y and esponsibili y
wi h pee immig an s eplace he deg ees ha hei ellow wo ke s in wel a e o
educa ion depa men s hold. The MOIA o ins ance, becomes mo e o a sou ce o
unding, and p oyek o im bene i om a la ge ma gin o manoeu e and li le
supe ision in doing hei jobs a he municipal le el. Wi h each municipali y ha ing
mo e esponsibili y, dynamics change om one own o he o he .
Is ael immig a ion policy, and i s shi owa ds a mul i-ac o and mul iscala
policy domain, has a ou ed he pa icipa ion o es ablished immig an s in public
se ice posi ions. Es ablished immig an s e-conduc ce ain dimensions o he
abso p ion policy as en isaged by he s a e as ea ly as in he 1950s. The hospi ali y
owa ds o he Jews eplica es ce ain aspec s o he na ional abso p ion ame, such as
pe sonal accompanimen and he ole o media ion – be ween he coun y immig an s
le , and hei new hos socie y.
Howe e , hese public se ice wo ke s ha e mos ly enabled he o ming o a
local ‘in e cul u al’ o ‘di e si y’ policy ( a he han a mul icul u al policy). Indeed, i
emains wi hin a s ong e hno-na ional ideology, ha no only limi s in eg a ion o Jews,
bu e en mo e o Wes e n Jews. Wes e n Jews a e pe cei ed as economically
pe o ming, and pa o he cul u al co e. A he momen , he quasi-monopoly o
Russian-speake s in he adminis a ion limi s hese changes no only o Wes e n
immig an s, bu o Russian-speaking immig an s in pa icula .
Al hough hese indings a e somehow mi iga ed, he p esence o es ablished
immig an s in public se ice emains key o a oid a majo i y/mino i y dynamic when i
comes o immig an in eg a ion policymaking. The easons why local policy measu es
and implemen a ion in Is ael owns a e no necessa ily mo e accommoda ing mus be
highligh ed. Ce ainly, he lack o di e si y among hese immig an s is a i s eason.
E en among Russian-speaking immig an s, i is a e o see non-Jewish immig an s, o
Russian-speake s coming om he Eas e n pa o he o me USSR, such as Geo gia,
Aze baijan o Uzbekis an (e en hough la ge g oups a e p esen in he ci ies I s udied).
Bu mo e impo an ly, he lack o collabo a ion and o ums be ween he a ious ac o s
show he ex en o which Is aeli local go e nmen s do no a ou he o ma ion o a
The ole o es ablished immig an s wi hin ins i u ionalised immig an in eg a ion in Is ael
.
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local democ acy, whe e deba e occu s (Ben-Elia, 2006). The ec ui men o immig an s
in public se ice could be only one o many mechanisms aiming a hei pa icipa ion in
decision-making.
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