in o ma ics
Re iew
The Ru al Digi al Di ide in he Face o he COVID-19
Pandemic in Eu ope—Recommenda ions om a
Scoping Re iew
Miguel-Ángel Es eban-Na a o 1, Miguel-Ángel Ga cía-Madu ga 2,* , Tama a Mo e-Nadal 1
and An onia-Isabel Nogales-Bocio 1
1Depa men o Jou nalism and Communica ion, Uni e si y o Za agoza, 50009 Za agoza, Spain;
mes eban@uniza .es (M.-Á.E.-N.); mo e@uniza .es (T.M.-N.); anogales@uniza .es (A.-I.N.-B.)
2Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Za agoza, 50018 Za agoza, Spain
*Co espondence: madu ga@uniza .es
Recei ed: 21 Oc obe 2020; Accep ed: 3 Decembe 2020; Published: 5 Decembe 2020


Abs ac :
The COVID-19 pandemic has e ealed he digi al ulne abili y o many ci izens o he u al
wo ld. This a icle iden i ies and analyzes he p oposals made by academic li e a u e o o e come he
digi al di ide in he Eu opean u al wo ld o he i e-yea pe iod 2016–2020. A scoping e iew has
been ca ied ou acco ding o he PRISMA me hodology in he wo dimensions o he digi al di ide:
access and connec i i y, and use and exploi a ion. Online da abases we e used o iden i y scien i ic
a icles om which, a e sc eening, 28 key documen s we e selec ed. The esul s upda e Salemink
sys ema ic e iew o a icles published be ween 1991 and 2014 on digi al and u al de elopmen
in Wes e n coun ies and i also in ends o go beyond by ex ac ing ecommenda ions. A a ie y
o poli ical, social, educa ional, echnical and economic issues has been exposed, wi h a common
emphasis on he empowe men o u al popula ions. The indings p o ide ac ionable e idence
and p oposals o acili a e decision-making in cu en policy in o ma ion o o e come u al digi al
di ide. F om hem, se en ecommenda ions ha could ha e a wide and apid impac o minimize
he e ec s o he COVID-19 pandemic linked o he u al digi al di ide a e syn hesized. Th ee lines o
ac ion in he medium e m a e also p oposed: he e alua ion o na ional and egional public policies;
he conside a ion o digi al inclusion as a po en ial ins umen o educe u al depopula ion; and he
aining in ad anced digi al skills o imp o e he social communica ion p ocesses, conside ed key o
p omo e empowe men and en ep eneu ship.
Keywo ds:
u al communi ies; digi al di ide; digi al inclusion; scoping e iew; COVID-19
pandemic; Eu ope
1. In oduc ion
1.1. Con ex : The Digi al T ans o ma ion o Socie y and he COVID-19
The Eu opean Council s a ed in he Lisbon S a egy (23 and 24 Ma ch 2000) ha In o ma ion and
Communica ion Technologies (ICT) we e he basis o a compe i i e, dynamic, and knowledge-based
economy. This documen , also known as he Lisbon Agenda, was he u ning poin o he ad ancemen
o he in o ma ion socie y and he bi h o e-go e nmen policies in he Eu opean Union. This p ojec
o in o ma ion socie y was ounded on he c ea ion, dis ibu ion, use, and euse o in o ma ion h ough
ICT, p omo ing wide access o knowledge, opening up new ways and oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in
social li e, g owing in a sus ainable way wi h mo e and be e jobs, and c ea ing he condi ions o
g ea e p ospe i y and social cohesion [1].
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54; doi:10.3390/in o ma ics7040054 www.mdpi.com/jou nal/in o ma ics
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 2 o 18
Fi een yea s la e , he EU Digi al Single Ma ke S a egy launched The eGo e nmen Ac ion Plan
2016–2020, wi h h ee policy p io i ies: upg ading he public adminis a ion wi h ICT, using key digi al
enable s; achie ing in e ope able digi al public se ices o allow c oss-bo de mobili y, simpli ying
he access o ma ke s, inc easing con idence and s imula ing compe i ion; and acili a ing easy digi al
in e ac ion be ween adminis a ions and ci izens and businesses [
2
]. This ac ion plan es ablishes he
ollowing unde lying p inciples: digi al ision by de aul , “once only” p inciple, inclusi eness and
accessibili y, openness and anspa ency, c oss-bo de le el by de aul , in e ope abili y by de aul and
us wo hiness and secu i y [
3
]. The coun ies o he Eu opean Union ha e designed, based on his
ac ion plan and i s an eceden s, hei own na ional and egional e-go e nmen plans, being a di e en
s ages o implemen a ion.
Simul aneously, he Eu opean Union has aken decisi e ac ions o es ablish an open in e ne ,
wi hou which he in o ma ion socie y would be a allacy. This open in e ne means he ecogni ion o
he “abili y o end-use s o access and dis ibu e in o ma ion o un applica ions and se ices o hei
choice”, whene e hey comply wi h legal obliga ions and do no jeopa dize he secu i y and in eg i y
o he ne wo k; and ha p o ide s o in e ne access “shall no block, slow down, al e , es ic , in e e e
wi h, deg ade o disc imina e” speci ic con en , applica ions o se ices [
4
]. The aise o use and p o i
o in o ma ion, espec ul o in ellec ual p ope y igh s, o c ea e new knowledge, es ablish new social
in e ac ions and minimize social ba ie s, would no be possible wi hou a legal ame based on hese
p inciples. The c ea ion o a hype -connec ed Eu opean socie y h ough applica ions, ne wo ks and
social media in a sa e, open, c ea i e, and eliable echnological en i onmen is nowadays a p io i y
objec i e o he gene al policy and inno a ion p og ams o he Eu opean Union [5].
The yea 2020 will go down in his o y o he g ea boos ha he in o ma ion socie y, e-go e nmen
and social hype -connec i i y had in Eu ope due o he social dis ancing measu es o he popula ion,
and e en con inemen , adop ed by he majo i y o he na ional go e nmen s. Telewo king has g own
exponen ially h oughou he se ice sec o . The digi iza ion o he economy and elec onic comme ce
has made signi ican p og ess. Public se ices ha e closed o es ic ed physical access o o ices and
ha e es ablished ha many p ocesses and o mali ies can be ca ied ou exclusi ely digi ally. Ci izens
ha e been o ced o in e ac h ough ICT o access essen ial se ices such as educa ion and heal hca e.
Social media has become o many people he main means o access o in o ma ion, he majo channel
o communica ion and e en in some cases he only way o social in e ac ion. E e y hing indica es ha
hese ans o ma ions ha e come o s ay. This accele a ion o he digi iza ion o human ela ionships,
which began mo e han h ee decades ago, is he cen al ac o o social change oday, a he han he
ac i sel o he ac ion o an exogenous elemen , such as he heal h c isis caused by COVID-19.
The expansion o he in o ma ion socie y depends on some hing mo e han jus he conjunc u al
p esence o an accele a ing ca alys . Fi s and o emos , ci izens a e equi ed o ha e access o ICTs,
be compe en in hei use, and be able o bene i om i . Howe e , he COVID-19 pandemic has
highligh ed he digi al ulne abili y o many ci izens in hese h ee dimensions: connec i i y, use and
exploi a ion; and i has also e ealed he se ious consequences o ha ulne abili y: he pandemic
has caused a si ua ion in which he access o he in e ne seems o ha e become necessa y e en o
su i al, especially i i is ela ed o heal h issues [
6
]. In a si ua ion wi h s ic measu es o social and
physical dis ancing, he access o new digi al se ices, p o ided o da e h ough ace- o- ace o by
phone, equi es o he applican o be connec ed o he in e ne and o know how o in e ac wi h ICT.
Consequen ly, hose on he w ong side o he digi al di ide a e comple ely le ou o hese
se ices, ha ing a g ea e isk o social exclusion. As s a ed by he Wo ld Summi on he In o ma ion
Socie y [7], only when all he people and communi ies can c ea e, consul , use and sha e in o ma ion
and knowledge hey ha e he necessa y equi emen s o p omo ing sus ainable de elopmen and
imp o ing hei quali y o li e. Mo e ecen ly, he h ee ypes o social exclusion he digi al di ide can
cause ha e been syn hesized: poli ical, in he exe cise o ci il and human igh s; pa icipa ion in social
ac i i ies, being dep i ed o in o ma ion and e ec i e communica ion wi h o he ci izens; and economic,
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 3 o 18
as access o be e educa ion is educed and he e o e p o essional aining is downg aded and he isk
o unemploymen and low income inc eases [8].
Al hough he e is a long adi ion o deba e on he digi al di ide, he e is now enewed in e es ,
ele ance, and u gency o in es iga e his issue. In o ma ion Science and Communica ion S udies,
as places o in e disciplina y mee ings ha analyzes e e y hing ela ed o he de elopmen o
in o ma ion and communica i e p ocesses in he socie y and in a special way he ela ionships be ween
social and communica i e changes, canno emain obli ious o he p oblems ha gene a e he gap and
i s digi al ulne abili y.
1.2. Backg ound: Digi al Di ide and Digi al Inclusion
Digi al di ide is cu en ly unde s ood as he di e ence be ween indi iduals, companies, egions,
and coun ies in he access and use o ICT [
9
]. I consis s o a di e ence o app oach o echnological
ools and se ices such as mobile elephony, compu e s and he in e ne ha gene a es an inequali y
o oppo uni ies o sa is y needs and imp o e li ing condi ions, which is in ole able in a democ a ic
socie y. This concep has been popula since 1995 when i was used in he Falling h ough he Ne
epo o he U.S. Depa men o Comme ce o exp ess unequal access o eme ging ICT be ween and
wi hin coun ies [10].
The digi al di ide had wo dimensions in i s s udies abou he subjec , one ela ed o whom has
access o echnology and ano he ha emphasizes inequali y in he skills o use echnology among
hose who ha e access, as Riggins and Dewan [
11
] i s s a ed in hei pionee ing s udy, now classic,
on esea ch ends in his ma e . La e esea che s, such as De’ e al. [
6
], decompose he use dimension
in o wo: echnical skills, on he one hand, and high-le el use in complex si ua ions such as educa ion
and comme ce, on he o he . In con as , he concep o digi al inclusion eme ged e e ing o he
objec i e and he p ocess o implemen ing measu es by a go e nmen o a public o p i a e en i y
o b ing he knowledge and use o ICT close o hose who do no al eady ha e i [
12
]. The e is a
consensus ha he deba e on digi al inclusion is no only abou people being connec ed, bu i should
also ocus on he deg ee and models o use o ITC [
13
] and he condi ioning ac o s [
14
]. Hence, ac ions
o b idge he digi al di ide mus be di ec ed owa ds di e se aspec s, depending on he di e ences
a ising om he a ailable esou ces o access ICT o om geog aphic, demog aphic, educa ional,
socioeconomic and cul u al dispa i ies ha condi ion he abili y and skills o use hese echnologies.
The un o eseen and sudden phenomenon o he COVID-19 pandemic has highligh ed in all
i s awness he eali y whe e he digi al di ide no only has a social na u e bu also a e i o ial
di e ence ha o e laps as a second laye o each o hese speci ic s a ing si ua ions in a ans e sal
and decisi e way. This is he digi al e i o ial di ide, which occu s no only be ween coun ies
bu also wi hin hem, be ween u ban and u al a eas, and in pa icula be ween unpopula ed o
low-popula ion e i o ies compa ed o he es . Depending on he place o esidence, access o he
in e ne will be a ailable o no and ha access will be o highe o lowe quali y, ega dless o he
demog aphic and socioeconomic p o ile o he indi idual o use g oup. The pa adox o his e i o ial
di e ence is ha u al communi ies need mo e and be e digi al connec i i y o compensa e o hei
emo eness, bu he ac we ace is ha hese communi ies a e gene ally less and wo se connec ed
by echnologies and, he e o e, hei inhabi an s and hei companies a e less digi ally included.
Fo example, u al b oadband co e age is lowe han na ional co e age in all he s a es o he Eu opean
Union wi hou excep ion, and jus o e a hal o u al households (52.3%) had access o nex -gene a ion
high-speed se ices in 2018 [15].
In sho , he digi al di ide in connec i i y and use is g ea e among he u al popula ion, which also
has by means o hei age a g ea e exposu e o he isks and consequences o COVID-19, c ea ing an
impo an pocke o ma ginaliza ion and social exclusion. Olde adul s in u al a eas a e among he
mos likely o be le ou o any c ea i e and echnologically based adap a ion o mee social and o he
needs du ing his c isis. Addi ionally, as people s ay home o slow he sp ead o COVID-19, inequali ies
in he loneliness o u al senio s a e exace ba ed, especially among hose who do no ha e oppo uni ies
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 4 o 18
o connec i ually [
16
]. In e ne access can be seen as a public good ha is equi ed o p o ide he
popula ion wi h o he public se ices, such as heal h, educa ion, social se ices, and e-go e nmen .
As Philip e al. desc ibed [
17
], he digi al di ide has become a ace o well-es ablished exclusion
in u al communi ies and, in a as -changing economy, emo e mic o-businesses a e a isk o being
le behind.
The digi al di ide no only inc eases he isks o social exclusion du ing he pandemic in he
u al a eas, bu also p e en s aking ad an age o oppo uni ies de i ed om he social change ha
is occu ing. Fo example, elewo k has g own signi ican ly in he Eu opean Union, eaching an
a e age o 39% in Ap il o all coun ies. Al hough i is o eseeable ha a e he COVID-19 c isis
his pe cen age will be educed, i is also e y likely ha i will main ain highe a es in all coun ies,
age g oups, gende and popula ion si es han be o e he c isis. Howe e , elewo k may lead o wha a
echnical epo by he Eu opean Commission has cha ac e ized in May 2020 as a new digi al di ide,
ounded on he ype o se lemen condi ions: only 29% o wo ke s li ing in he u al wo ld ha e
accessed elewo k compa ed o 44% o hose li ing in la ge ci ies and 35% in he subu bs du ing
he pandemic. Simul aneously, i is expec ed ha in he long e m he demand o accommoda ion,
o ice space and ca e ing and heal h se ices in me opoli an a eas may shi o small ci ies and u al
a eas [18].
Telewo king can help balance he cu en di e ences in g ow h and de elopmen be ween he
u al and u ban wo lds. Connec i i y and inc eased use o echnology a e also i al o small businesses
in he u al en i onmen , basically ag icul u al and li es ock acili ies and p ocessing companies,
o ans o m hei p oduc s, o o e come he limi a ions o hei loca ion and o ace he challenges
in in eg a ing in o e-comme ce ne wo ks. Howe e , hese and o he oppo uni ies will be los i he
connec i i y o he u al wo ld is no imp o ed.
2. Ru al Digi al Di ide: S a e o he A
The ea ly s a e o he a o Riggins and Dewan on he digi al di ide [
11
] examined he e ec s
o he wo meanings o his concep (gap in access and inequali y in abili y o use) om h ee le els
o analysis: indi idual, o ganiza ional, and global. The heo e ical pe spec i e adop ed, he esea ch
me hodology used, and he key esul s ob ained by he esea ch ca ied ou up o ha da e we e
s udied in each le el. This showed he li le esea ch exis ing in he ield o he digi al di ide om
a e i o ial pe spec i e o ocused on he speci ic p oblems o he u al wo ld, excep o Zhang
and Wol ’s economic easibili y analysis [
19
] on he cos -e ec i e a o dable p oposal o combine
high gain an ennas, dynamically s ee able beam o ming an ennas, and mul ihop ou ing o p o ide
high-speed wi eless in e ne access in u al o emo e a eas. Riggins and Dewan [
11
] also sugges ed
wel e esea ch opics o conduc a mo e in-dep h examina ion o he digi al di ide and how i a ec s
ci izens, manage s and economies, which ha e had b oad echoes in la e li e a u e; bu none o hei
ecommenda ions we e ela ed o he digi al di ide be ween u ban and u al wo lds.
Howe e , due o he social in e es o he ma e , nume ous s udies on he digi al di ide in he
u al wo ld we e unde aken, becoming he subjec h ee yea s ago o a sys ema ic e iew o 157 a icles
published be ween 1991 and 2014 on digi al and u al de elopmen in Wes e n coun ies, mainly
ocused on he aspec s o connec i i y and inclusion [
20
]. Rega ding he i s aspec , i was e iden
ha public policies aimed a he implemen a ion o imp o emen o echnological in as uc u es in
he u al wo ld a e gene ally sensi i e o he needs o hese e i o ies, bu hei achie emen s a e
quickly obsole e by apid echnological de elopmen , as hey a e mo e eac i e han an icipa ing and
no e y sensi i e o ma ke ailu e. Obs acles o he adop ion and use o echnologies a ising om
he exis ence o a lowe a e age le el o educa ion and compu e skills in u al a eas han u ban ones
we e p o en. Gene ic policies in his ield we e concluded o neglec pa icula local needs, as no all
u al communi ies a e he same, so i was p oposed ha u u e esea ches should ocus on speci ic
communi ies, while add essing connec i i y and inclusion issues o suppo mo e pe sonalized public
policies. This idea has been aken up o Aus alia, indica ing ha na ional policies could be e
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 5 o 18
educe digi al inequali y be ween he u ban and u al wo ld by suppo ing and empowe ing local
solu ions [21].
The e is a consensus in he academic li e a u e ha poo u al elecommunica ion in as uc u es
hinde u al de elopmen , inc ease egional g ow h gaps, and ul ima ely a ec he compe i i eness o
na ional economies [
20
]. Howe e , i is also ue ha digi al inequali y is also a e lec ion o p e ious
social inequali ies [
22
], as impo an as you h mig a ion, geog aphical isola ion, and lack o economic
esou ces in he case o u al communi ies. These phenomena can be decisi e, since, e en wi h
b oadband access o he in e ne , many u al communi ies may be unable o exploi he ull po en ial o
his echnology and emain a a disad an age compa ed o ci ies [
23
]. I has also been no ed ha e en
when b oadband eaches a u al communi y, many esiden s do no pa icipa e in he mode n online
socie y due o a lack o capaci y o e en willingness o adap o new echnologies [
24
]. Ha ing access
o digi al connec ions does no imply ha people use hem [
25
]. Due o his, he adop ion o digi al
echnologies in he u al wo ld has been conside ed he esul o he in e ac ion o indi idual ac o s
such as pe sonali y, mo i a ions, o inno a i e capaci y, wi h o he con ex ual ac o s o sociocul u al
na u e [
26
]. F om his backg ound, he need o implemen digi al educa ion p og ams aimed a
media ing agen s who can ac as anima o s o ulne able g oups has also been deduced, a o ing hei
digi al and social inclusion [27].
O he sys ema ic e iews ca ied ou on he digi al di ide be ween companies [
9
] and on he
app oach o he p oblem wi h a social pe spec i e [
12
] ha e no conside ed he u al e i o ial ac o .
Nei he has he sys ema ic e iew o s udies on he second and hi d le els o he digi al di ide
(mas e ing o in e ne sea ch skills and ob aining angible esul s om in e ne use) published by
Schee de e al. [
28
] pay a en ion o he e i o ial o igin gap. The e ec s o he digi al di ide ha e
no been conside ed by he g owing body o li e a u e on he use o social ne wo ks in isk and c isis
communica ion ei he [29].
3. Resea ch P oblem: Ending he Gap o he Ru al Digi al Di ide
The desc ibed accele a ion o he p ocess o digi iza ion o socie y, oge he wi h he possible
esu gence o he COVID-19 pandemic o he likelihood o o he c isis si ua ions equi ing es ic ing
mobili y, coincidence in common spaces and physical con ac be ween pe sons, will equi e om
ci izens a uni e sal, in ensi e, con inuous and, e en exclusi e, use o ICT. A he same ime, public
au ho i ies a e obliged o design policies, make decisions, and implemen u gen and quickly e ec i e
measu es ha minimize digi al gaps o any kind, including hose o e i o ial o igin, especially in he
u al a eas. I such wo k is no ca ied ou , he e will be an inequali y o ci izens and e i o ies in hei
pa icipa ion in he in o ma ion and knowledge socie y.
Eps ein e al. [
30
] sugges ed ha he digi al di ide esea ch no only co e s a a ie y o ideas abou
he na u e o he p oblem i sel , bu also deals wi h he manne in which i should be esol ed, being
he mos esponsible elemen o doing so. The s udy on spa ial dimensions o his di ide and hei
solu ion is needed gi en he inc easing impo ance o b oadband o he de elopmen o disad an aged
u al communi ies [
31
]. As Mack e al. ecen ly concluded [
32
], he digi al di ide emains a opic
o global esea ch inqui y and a ocal conce n o policymake s, pa icula ly wi h ega d o u al
a eas. The e o e, helping o de e mine which analyses we e ca ied ou abou u al digi al di ide and
which policies, decisions and measu es based on scien i ic s udies ha e been p oposed, wi h pa icula
a en ion o hose o p omp implemen a ion in iew o he cu en pandemic, has become a esea ch
p oblem o ob ious scien i ic and social ele ance.
The pandemic has gi en ise o abundan scien i ic li e a u e, ocused, among o he s, on opics
as a ied as he a ailabili y o in as uc u e o gene a e economic g ow h and social oppo uni ies
wi hou comp omising en i onmen al p o ec ion [
33
] o he in e connec ions be ween COVID-19,
he ood sys em and he ci cula economy [
34
]. The e a e also case s udies on The Ru al Digi al Di ide,
wi h empowe men as he heo e ical lens and ocused on non-Eu opean eali ies [
8
]. The aim o ou
esea ch is o p o ide an o e iew o he ecommenda ions made by he academic li e a u e in he

In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 6 o 18
i e-yea pe iod 2016–20 o o e come he digi al di ide in he Eu opean u al wo ld by ca ying ou a
scoping e iew.
F om he selec ed documen s, h ee esea ch ques ions will be elucida ed:
•
RQ1: In which a eas has he academic li e a u e p oposed o ac o o e come he u al digi al
di ide in Eu ope?
•
RQ2: Wha ecommenda ions based on social esea ch me hods and echniques ha e
been p oposed?
•
RQ3: Can ecommenda ions o b oad and apid impac , which may be applicable o he cu en
si ua ion, be dis inguished?
The de ined empo al scope is ag eed o collec only s udies ca ied ou a e he apid deploymen
o 4G mobile phone echnology, which a e i s in oduc ion in majo ci ies du ing 2012 and 2013
had al eady eached mo e han 90% o he e i o y in mos Eu opean Union coun ies by he end o
2016 [
35
]. The 20 imes highe ansmission speed o 4G echnology han 3G and i s lowe la ency in
da a ansmission, led o he gene aliza ion o he sma phone and he con e sion o solu ions based on
he wi ing o depopula ed e i o ies in echnically obsole e and economically ine icien . Focusing on
publica ions ha ma ch 4G echnology has g ea e social ele ance, as i will allow o pu he ocus on
inding sui able ecommenda ions o he p esen momen . Likewise, om a pe spec i e o scien i ic
ele ance, he scoping e iew will allow o check i he esea ch on he digi al di ide in he u al wo ld
has e ol ed owa ds he s udy o pa icula si ua ions p oposed by Salemink e al. [20].
4. Ma e ials and Me hods
Sys ema ic e iews o syn hesize exis ing knowledge in a discipline o on a subjec a e e y
adequa e o acili a e decision-making, so hey a e inc easingly used [
36
]. Scoping e iew is a
ype o sys ema ic e iew ha is e ealed as a use ul me hodology o p o iding ac ionable and
ele an e idence e icien ly when ime o cos ac o s a e impo an [
37
]. Scoping e iews espec
he key p inciples o sys ema ic e iews, including he clea s a emen o he objec i es o he e iew,
he p e-de ini ion o eligibili y c i e ia, he assessmen o he alidi y o esul s and he sys ema ic
p esen a ion o esul s [
38
], wi h he excep ion ha p ocesses a e accele a ed and op imized. In si ua ions
whe e u gen decisions a e equi ed, go e nmen s, s akeholde s in he heal h sys em, in e na ional
o ganiza ions and ci il socie y eques apid e iews [
39
]. Addi ionally, he scoping e iew ques ions
a e use ul o b ing oge he e idence om he e ogeneous sou ces and knowledge a eas [
40
]. Fo hese
easons, he publica ion o his kind o epo has become commonplace in a wide a ie y o a eas in
ecen yea s [
41
]. Fo example, Communica ion S udies has pa icipa ed in his ac ual esea ch end,
wi h 70 e isions on communica ion issues since 2015 un il June 2020, acco ding o he Scopus da abase.
These e isions a e igo ous and explici in he me hod and, he e o e, sys ema ic, bu hey make
concessions o he b ead h o dep h o he e iew p ocess by limi ing some aspec s. Se e al alid
echniques a e used in o de o achie e his, such as sho ening he s udy ime, ca e ully ocusing
he ques ion, using less sophis ica ed sea ching s a egies, es ic ing he amoun o g ey li e a u e,
o ex ac ing only key a iables [
42
]. Consequen ly, hey in ol e ewe s akeholde s, ewe discussions,
ewe i e a ions, and g ea e use o he p e ious lessons lea ned [
43
]. The p epa a ion o such e iews
is an impo an challenge, due o he di icul y o esponding in he sho e m, wi h scien i ic igo
and wi h a s anda d o anspa ency accep able o e e y hing conce ned, al hough hese di icul ies do
no unde mine hei alidi y [44].
Acco ding o he ecommenda ions o Ha ling e al. [
45
], his esea ch on he u al digi al di ide is
cha ac e ized by he anspa ency o he me hod ollowed and he cla i y o i s pu pose. The e iew was
ca ied ou in acco dance wi h he P e e ed Repo ing I ems o Sys ema ic Re iews and Me a-Analyses
PRISMA p o ocol [
46
]. PRISMA was de eloped by a g oup o expe s who iden i ied he minimum
c i e ia o sys ema ic e iews o high-quali y scien i ic publica ions. A PRISMA checklis is a ailable
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 7 o 18
o inc ease i s anspa ency [
47
], which has been used o acili a e aceabili y o he en i e p ocess
ollowed in gene al and he low o in o ma ion in pa icula .
Once he esea ch opic was de ined, a ou -s age p ocess was ollowed: iden i ica ion o ele an
s udies, selec ion o s udies, mapping o da a, and syn hesis and epo ing o he esul s. The inal
p oduc is a na a i e p esen a ion, wi h minimal s a is ical da a, ha p o ides in o ma ion o con ibu e
o he esea ch, p ac ice and policy, and which, in addi ion o he in insic alue ha his has in i sel ,
can se e as a s a ing poin o u u e esea ches [
48
]. The inclusion and exclusion c i e ia we e
speci ied and documen ed, as desc ibed in Table 1. I was decided o use esea ch pape s published
in academic jou nals o in p oceedings o scien i ic con e ences be ween 2016 and 2020 in English,
F ench o Spanish. Monog aphs and chap e s edi ed in collec i e books we e excluded because hei
di usion and impac ac o a e much mino . The o icial li e a u e, s a us epo s and opinion pieces in
magazines we e no conside ed because ou pu pose was o iden i y and analyze p oposals based on
scien i ic s udies.
Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion c i e ia.
Inclusion C i e ia Exclusion C i e ia
•
Resea ch pape s published in academic jou nals
o in p oceedings o scien i ic con e ences
•Published in he pe iod o 2016–2020
•W i en in English, F ench o Spanish
•Monog aphs
•Chap e s edi ed in collec i e books
•O icial li e a u e, s a us epo s and opinion
pieces in magazines
On 15 June 2020, an exhaus i e sea ch was ca ied ou on he ollowing bibliog aphical e e ence
da abases: Scopus, Web o Science, P oQues , GoogleSchola , InDICEs CSIC and Cai n. To cons uc
he op imal sea ch equa ion, e ms ela ed o he digi al di ide, he u al wo ld, and depopula ion
we e sea ched and combined, bo h in English, Spanish, and F ench, he adequacy o which was es ed
in Scopus wi h he ollowing esul s:
1.
The sea ch “digi al di ide” in o i le, abs ac , and keywo ds esul ed in 6353 documen s. This high
igu e is an indica o o he exis ence o ex ensi e e minological s anda diza ion, so he compound
e m was conside ed adequa e.
2.
Nex , wi hin he esul s, a icles o iginally w i en in Spanish and F ench we e sea ched o
ob ain equi alen e ms ha would allow sea ching da abases in hose languages (InDICEs CSIC,
Cai n and Google Schola ). The esul s we e “b echa digi al” wi h 32 documen s and “ ac u e
numé ique” wi h 19 sea ched documen s.
3.
The e ms selec ed o he scope o analysis o he digi al di ide chosen we e h ee. A e sea ching
wi hin he esul s o he wo d “ u al”, we p oceeded o selec he mos app op ia e e ms
“ u al communi ies” wi h 25,817 esul s in he i le, abs ac , and keywo ds, and “ u al a eas”
wi h 131,729 esul s in he en i e da abase. The speci ic e m “depopula ion” was also added o
a oid possible silences, which yielded 4760 esul s.
4.
The ollowing sea ch equa ion was conside ed alid o exp ess he seman ic con en o he
in o ma ion eques : (TITLE-ABS-KEY (“digi al di ide”)) AND (((TITLE-ABS-KEY (“ u al
a eas”)) OR (TITLE-ABS-KEY (“ u al communi ies”))) OR (TITLE-ABS-KEY (depopula ion))).
Resul : 479 documen s.
5.
To de elop he de ini i e sea ch equa ion, we included limi e s ha we e app op ia e o
he inclusion c i e ia o ime and ype o publica ion. The exp ession o he equa ion
acco ding o he Scopus in e oga ion language was his: (TITLE-ABS-KEY (“digi al di ide”))
AND (((TITLE-ABS-KEY (“ u al a eas”)) OR (TITLE-ABS- KEY (“ u al communi ies”))) OR
(TITLE-ABS-KEY (depopula ion))) AND (LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR, 2020) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,
2019) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR, 2018) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR, 2017) OR LIMIT-TO (PUBYEAR,
2016)) AND (LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “j”) OR LIMIT-TO (SRCTYPE, “p”)). Resul : 131 documen s.
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 8 o 18
Sea ches wi h he help o his equa ion o i s analogs in F ench and Spanish in he es o he
da abases, app op ia e o he speci ic in e oga ion languages, yielded a o al o 419 e e ences. These
esul s o he sea ches we e expo ed o he EndNo e e e ence manage so wa e: 91 duplica e i ems
we e emo ed, lea ing he sample a 328 e e ences.
An e idence examina ion based on he i le and he abs ac was pe o med o he selec ion o
he s udies. Six y pape s we e excluded because hey did no mee he objec i e o he s udy om
he pe spec i e o he social sciences o because hey we e no based on he use o a quan i a i e,
quali a i e, o mixed esea ch me hod and echniques. Then, an e alua ion o he deg ee o in e es
o he 268 documen s selec ed was ca ied ou , disca ding 117 documen s ocused on expe iences o
p oblems o non-Eu opean coun ies oge he wi h 123 mo e ha eluded he p oposal and in e en ion
ac ions o o e come he digi al di ide. As a inal esul , 28 documen s we e selec ed o he quali a i e
syn hesis. Figu e 1shows he inclusion decision low diag am wi h he s eps o he e iew decision
p ocess (iden i ica ion, selec ion, eligibili y, and inclusion) acco ding o he PRISMA s anda d.
In o ma ics 2020, 7, x 8 o 18
he quali a i e syn hesis. Figu e 1 shows he inclusion decision low diag am wi h he s eps o he
e iew decision p ocess (iden i ica ion, selec ion, eligibili y, and inclusion) acco ding o he PRISMA
s anda d.
Figu e 1. Flowcha o inclusion decisions. Sou ce: The Au ho s om PRISMA s anda d.
5. Recommenda ions Rela ed o Access and Connec i i y
The esul s o he analysis o academic li e a u e abou he u al digi al di ide in Eu ope in he
las i e yea s allow ob aining ele an answe s o he h ee p oposed esea ch ques ions. Fi s , he e
is a comp ehensi e analysis o all dimensions o he digi al di ide, bu he a icles a e specialized in
one o hem: echnical o social. In gene al, he s udies cen e ed on he social dimension a e ocused
mo e on aspec s ela ed o he exploi a ion o he in e ne o p omo e pe sonal and e i o ial
de elopmen , han in he aining on echnical skills in ICT. Seen as a whole, he li e a u e co e s he
main aspec s o he gene al en i onmen o he u al digi al di ide, con igu ing, in a ce ain way, a
PEST analysis: poli ical, economic, social, and echnological. Second, mos o he s udies a e no
limi ed o explaining and analyzing he s a e o a u al communi y o a social g oup, bu also p opose
speci ic in e en ion measu es, which has made i possible o de elop se en ecommenda ions o
he sho e m and new lines o esea ch and social in e en ion in he medium e m, which a e
summa ized in he conclusions sec ion. Finally, despi e he ac ha s udies we e ob iously ca ied
ou wi hou he ho izon o he cu en pandemic si ua ion, mos o hese ecommenda ions and lines
o ac ion can be ca ied ou quickly because hey do no equi e s uc u al changes, bu a he
de e mined and coo dina ed go e nmen ac ions.
5.1. B oadband as an Essen ial Requi emen
Ru al a eas emain a a disad an aged posi ion due o poo connec i i y, a p oblem ha needs
o be add essed by go e nmen s o co ec imbalances, encou age p oac i e a i udes, and limi he
Figu e 1. Flowcha o inclusion decisions. Sou ce: The Au ho s om PRISMA s anda d.
5. Recommenda ions Rela ed o Access and Connec i i y
The esul s o he analysis o academic li e a u e abou he u al digi al di ide in Eu ope in he
las i e yea s allow ob aining ele an answe s o he h ee p oposed esea ch ques ions. Fi s , he e is
a comp ehensi e analysis o all dimensions o he digi al di ide, bu he a icles a e specialized in one
o hem: echnical o social. In gene al, he s udies cen e ed on he social dimension a e ocused mo e
on aspec s ela ed o he exploi a ion o he in e ne o p omo e pe sonal and e i o ial de elopmen ,
han in he aining on echnical skills in ICT. Seen as a whole, he li e a u e co e s he main aspec s
o he gene al en i onmen o he u al digi al di ide, con igu ing, in a ce ain way, a PEST analysis:
poli ical, economic, social, and echnological. Second, mos o he s udies a e no limi ed o explaining
and analyzing he s a e o a u al communi y o a social g oup, bu also p opose speci ic in e en ion
measu es, which has made i possible o de elop se en ecommenda ions o he sho e m and
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 9 o 18
new lines o esea ch and social in e en ion in he medium e m, which a e summa ized in he
conclusions sec ion. Finally, despi e he ac ha s udies we e ob iously ca ied ou wi hou he ho izon
o he cu en pandemic si ua ion, mos o hese ecommenda ions and lines o ac ion can be ca ied
ou quickly because hey do no equi e s uc u al changes, bu a he de e mined and coo dina ed
go e nmen ac ions.
5.1. B oadband as an Essen ial Requi emen
Ru al a eas emain a a disad an aged posi ion due o poo connec i i y, a p oblem ha needs o
be add essed by go e nmen s o co ec imbalances, encou age p oac i e a i udes, and limi he b ain
d ain o quali ied people mo ing o u ban a eas, o en ou side he coun y. Wilson and Hopkins [
49
]
highligh he need o ocus on he mos disad an aged a eas o a oid u he inequali ies in he
coun yside and hey p opose o ac egion by egion, a he han on he echnological in as uc u e o
he a ea. Besides, hey emphasize ha in es men in echnology should no be seen as he goal, bu as
he means o achie e many o he imp o emen s ha can “ escue” u al a eas.
B oadband is a key echnology ha no only ensu es connec i i y, bu also has a decisi e impac
on companies’ abili y o inno a e and g ow [
50
]. The absence o b oadband leads small ag i- ood
companies o ake a passi e app oach o g ow h oppo uni ies, pa icula ly posing a se ious ba ie o
di e si ica ion and in e na ionaliza ion. In hei s udy on mic o and small u al en e p ises (Ru al
Public Access Wi-Fi Se ice (PAWS) p ojec ), Philip and Williams [
23
] analyze mic o and small
en e p ises in he ag icul u e, ou ism and a sec o s, concluding ha , in o de o ensu e he u u e o
mic o and small u al en e p ises, he quali y o connec i i y and digi al skills a e undamen al, and so
he o me is necessa y o enable he la e . They also a gue ha small and mic o u al en e p ises
canno be igno ed in echnological de elopmen p og ams, and mo e esea ch should be ca ied ou o
s udy he ela ionship be ween connec i i y and he de elopmen o u al economy.
In con as o he indings desc ibed, he e alua ion wo k o Du i ie e al. [
51
] o he Au e gne
è
s hau d
é
bi p og amme in F ance concludes ha he deploymen o ibe and high speed has no
signi ican ly s imula ed he c ea ion o en e p ises, ha ing a ec ed posi i ely only o he c ea ion
o companies in speci ic sec o s: hos el y; public adminis a ion, educa ion, heal h and social wo k;
and o he ac i i ies in he se ices sec o . While he deploymen o ibe and high speed does no appea
o be su icien on i s own o d i e u al economic de elopmen , i may be a le e o de elopmen when
ce ain condi ions, ela ed o he e i o ial economic con ex and design o digi al policy, a e me [
51
].
F om he opposi e pe spec i e, he exis ence o as e in e ne echnologies can e en inc ease he
u ban– u al digi al di ide, as hey a e mo e expensi e and di icul o ob ain in u al a eas [52].
5.2. The Role o Go e nmen s in Connec i i y
S a e aid measu es o b oadband ha e lou ished in he Eu opean Union, bu knowledge o
he e ec i eness and e iciency o his policy is ex emely sca ce. In ac , he digi al b oadband gap
be ween he Membe S a es o he Union and he less de eloped u al a eas has no been elimina ed [
53
].
Ma eucci [
54
] highligh s a posi i e balance be ween he p os and cons o public in e en ion, as when
looking a he pe o mance o auc ion p ices and he cos accoun ing o public wo ks i seems ha s a e
in e en ion was ca ied ou in a non-dis o ing and ma ke - iendly manne . Besides, in acquisi ions,
despi e being ocused on echnical quali y, he e was also a pa icula ocus on g ea e e iciency,
which b oadly con i ms he adequacy o he Eu opean Union’s p ocu emen law. Ma eucci [
54
] also
poin s ou impo an c i icisms, such as he ac ha he e olu ion o echnology (5G, In e ne o Things,
Indus y 4.0, e c.) equi es as e deploymen h oughou he e i o y o he la es gene a ion ne wo ks,
as a echnological p e equisi e o he launch o se ices.
Go e nmen s ha e also been c i icized o ine icien implemen a ions, lack o cus ome ocus
and poo conside a ion o isk ac o s and po en ial obs acles [
55
]. I has al eady been designa ed,
as Salemink e al. emphasized [
20
], ha policies aimed a imp o ing echnological access in u al a eas
ha e been unde p ized due o hei gene ic na u e and lack o an icipa ion o u u e echnological
In o ma ics 2020,7, 54 16 o 18
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