Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1)
June 2020, e008
eISSN 2253-797X
doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008
The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y
Spanish An i eminism
Te esa Ma ía O ega López1 and Nú ia Félez Cas añé2
1Uni e sidad de G anada
e-mail: mo ega@ug .es
ORCID iD: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4486-9715
2Uni e sidad de G anada
ORCID iD: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5515-6588
Submi ed: 20 July 2019. Accep ed: 29 Oc obe 2019
ABSTRACT: In wen ie h-cen u y Spain, he conse a i e poli ical ideology main ained a gende discou se and
an ideal o eminini y ha emained b oadly unchanged. The democ a ic egimes es ablished in he coun y, i s
a e he eign o Al onso XIII and hen a e he F anco dic a o ship, did no hing o subs an ially agmen he
coun y’s conse a ism wi h ega d o i s p oponen s’ iew o he unc ion and ole ha women should ul il in
socie y. In an a emp o ace he indelible ma ke s o Spanish an i eminism, his a icle examines h ee o con-
se a ism’s key ideas ela ed o gende : a di e en ia ed conside a ion o male and emale na u es; a ejec ion o
eminism; and a concep ion o he amily as he p e e ed locus o he de elopmen o he so-called na u al
unc ions o women.
KEYWORDS: Gende ; Discou se; Conse a ism; Women; An i eminism.
Ci a ion / Cómo ci a es e a ículo: O ega López, Te esa Ma ía and Félez Cas añé, Nú ia (2020) “The Indelible Ma ke s
o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism” Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal, 9 (1): e008. h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/
chdj.2020.008
RESUMEN: Los ma cado es indelebles del an i eminismo español del siglo XX.-En la España del siglo XX, la ideo-
logía polí ica conse ado a man u o un discu so de géne o y un ideal de eminidad que pe maneció p ác icamen e
sin cambios. Los egímenes democ á icos es ablecidos en el país, p ime o as el einado de Al onso XIII y más a de
as la dic adu a anquis a, no hicie on nada pa a agmen a de mane a sus ancial el conse adu ismo del país con
espec o a la isión de sus p oponen es sob e la unción y el papel que las muje es deben cumpli en la sociedad. En
un in en o po as ea los ma cado es indelebles del an i eminismo español, es e a ículo examina es de las ideas
cla e del conse adu ismo elacionadas con el géne o: una conside ación di e enciada de la na u aleza masculina y
emenina; un echazo del eminismo; y una concepción de la amilia como el luga p e e ido pa a el desa ollo de las
llamadas unciones na u ales de las muje es.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Géne o; Discu so; Conse adu ismo; Muje ; An i eminismo.
Copy igh : © 2020 CSIC. This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
4.0 In e na ional (CC BY 4.0) License.
2 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé
Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008
woman should be as cha ac e ized by Pemán, based on
Ca holic ideas abou gende and amily combined wi h
mode n scien i ic hinking abou he exis ence o wo di -
e en na u es – one emale and he o he male – we e
kep ali e by he conse a i e pa y du ing he democ a-
cy.6
This analysis does no add ess he pa y ha led he
ansi ion o democ acy, he Union o he Democ a ic
Cen e (Unión de Cen o Democ á ico o UCD), despi e
he ac ha many o i s leade s also came om he F an-
co poli ical eli e. Unlike he F anco eli es included in his
s udy, he UCD con ained mo e p og essi e sec o s ha
wo ked o equali y be ween women and men, wi h some
limi a ions, om he Gene al Subcommi ee on Women’s
A ai s. A e he UCD disbanded in 1983, he s a o he
Subcommi ee ei he le poli ics o con inued o wo k in
o he pa ies, including he Spanish Socialis Wo ke s’
Pa y (Pa ido Socialis a Ob e o Español o PSOE).
Thus, p essu e o ob ain ci izenship igh s o women
came om he social-democ a ic sec o s, no om he
conse a i e g oups in he pa y (Félez, 2018).
This a icle examines he ideal o eminini y con-
s uc ed and imposed by a conse a ism ha – al hough i
a ied somewha as he wen ie h cen u y p og essed –
sha ed some ideological pilla s inspi ed by he same p in-
ciples o almos one hund ed yea s. This conse a ism
was cha ac e ized by ce ain indelible ma ke s seen in an
empha ic public/p i a e di ision, he de ence o he he e-
o-pa ia chal amily as he no ma i e model, he alliance
wi h he Ca holic Chu ch and es ablished powe s, an ob-
session wi h a misunde s ood and sca cely un ouched
me i oc acy, and he disman ling o o opposi ion o pa -
icula social policies, all o which equen ly o ced
women o e ea o hei posi ion as, undamen ally, e-
p oduce s and ‘queens o he home’.
THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
AND SOURCES
I has been obse ed ha ‘ he mos solidly es ablished
[…] o all collec i e illusions’ is he ‘di- ision o he
wo ld’. G ounded bo h in biological and economic di e -
ences, he p inciples o di- ision ‘con ibu e o he e y e-
ali y o he social o de by ealizing hemsel es in bodies’
(Bou dieu, 2007, 232). In ligh o his asse ion, ‘women’
and ‘men’ a e ‘ca ego ies con inually being o ged, con-
es ed, ewo ked and ea i med’ (Da ido and Hall, 1994
p, 10), as a gued by schola s o eminini y and masculini y.
Equally impo an in his con ex is he ac ha language is
a gene a i e ool ha media es and cons i u es eali y, a h-
e han being a anspa en mi o o i (Bolu e , 1998
p. 14). Th ough language, he ideals o eminini y and mas-
culini y a e elabo a ed, de e mining expe ience, in luenc-
ing beha iou and s uc u ing expec a ions. Fo many au-
ho s, language is no jus a way o ep esen eali y, bu
ac s as a sys em o meaning, ac i ely in e ening in he
p oduc ion o he meanings a ibu ed o he eal wo ld, us-
ing meanings o o ganize and make sense o p ac ice (Ca-
b e a, 2006 p, 235). Joan Sco a gues some hing simila ,
INTRODUCTION
Twen ie h-cen u y Spain wi nessed a numbe o di -
e en poli ical sys ems: a cons i u ional mona chy whe e
he king ac i ely in e ened in poli ical a ai s; a epub-
lic; he wo dic a o ships o Miguel P imo de Ri e a and
F ancisco F anco; and a pa liamen a y mona chy. The
coun y was also he se ing o g ea ad ances ega ding
equali y. Women won he igh o o e, di o ce laws we e
passed, in o ma ion abou bi h con ol and use o con a-
cep i es was made widely a ailable and abo ion was de-
c iminalized. A a ie y o ac o s, om he Ca holic
Chu ch o openly an i eminis women’s associa ions, he
Sección Femenina – he women’s b anch o he Falange
poli ical mo emen – and conse a i e poli ical pa ies
hemsel es opposed hese ad ances.1
The ex eme cul u al ans o ma ion ha was aking
place in Wes e n socie ies also ga e ise o a g owing
‘gende unce ain y’.2 In Spain du ing he i s hi d o he
wen ie h cen u y, he ‘an i eminis eac ion’ came swi -
ly, only aba ing sligh ly in some espec s du ing he pe i-
od o poli ical ansi ion a e he F anco dic a o ship.3
The di e en conse a i e poli ical g oups main ained an
o ganicis concep ion o socie y wi h he amily loca ed a
he co e as he undamen al uni , an unwa e ing de ence
o he wo dis inc male and emale iden i ies and na u es,
and a esounding ejec ion o eminism as a pe nicious,
e olu iona y ideology ha could only lead o social dis-
o de and chaos. Despi e he ac ha an i eminism in his
cul u e had many nuances, hese h ee main ideas unde -
pinned he conse a i e ideology wi h ega d o gende .
The s a ing poin o his s udy is he hypo hesis ha
wha happened in Spain mi o ed wha B i ish jou nalis
Nicholas F ase obse ed in I aly. The e, he old ascis
ac i is s o he Mussolini e a we e ous ed om powe by
a new gene a ion ha os ensibly adop ed bo h he o ms
and he p ac ices o a democ acy (F ase , 2001). In Spain,
al hough he ounda ions we e enewed and eju ena ed
du ing he coun y’s ansi ion o democ acy a e F an-
co’s dea h in an a emp o p omo e a mode nizing image
in acco dance wi h he new imes and demands o a
changing socie y, he ideas o conse a ism emained
p ac ically unal e ed, and al hough his was no ue o
he base, i did apply o he leade s.
This p esen a ion o an i eminism examines he poin s
o con inui y h ough some key igu es in he con igu a-
ion and econ igu a ion o conse a ism, pa icula ly a
undamen al conse a i e igu e du ing he las qua e o
he wen ie h cen u y: Manuel F aga I iba ne. F aga was
a minis e du ing he dic a o ship, a ounding a he o he
Spanish Cons i u ion o 1978, leade o he pa y ha de-
cla ed i sel he sociological hei o F anco, he People’s
Alliance (Alianza Popula o AP), and a ollowe o he
conse a ism ha eme ged in ea ly wen ie h-cen u y
Spain om he pens o hinke s and poli icians, including
José Ma ía Pemán,4 ano he signi ican igu e in his
s udy. An admi e and g ea iend o Pemán, F aga would
ind in him a amewo k o his ideas, including wi h e-
ga d o gende .5 The igu e and ep esen a ion o wha a
The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism • 3
Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008
conside ing language a sys em ‘ h ough which meaning is
cons uc ed and cul u al p ac ices o ganized and by which,
acco dingly, people ep esen and unde s and hei wo ld,
including who hey a e and how hey ela e o o he s’
(Sco , 1998 p. 34).
Mo eo e , poli ical cul u es a e a conglome a e o
alues, no ms, ep esen a ions and languages ha con-
s uc collec i e iden i ies, which in u n a e sus ained by
a pa icula g oup memo y and p oduce ce ain ac i is o
sociable p ac ices (Cena o and Illion, 2014 p. 16). Once
again echoing Sco , poli ical discou se is a cons uc ed
ne wo k o meanings ha con ains a pa icula way o un-
de s anding he wo ld and socie y. This a icle is speci i-
cally in e es ed in an ideal o eminini y ha shaped a
conse a i e emale iden i y ha , while no necessa ily
in e io ized as a whole and/o wi hou c i icism om
women, se ed as a co pus o e e ence. Wi hou denying
emale agency, he cons uc ion o iden i ies depends on
he ep esen a ions c ea ed h ough language, socializa-
ion p ocesses and he op ions a ailable in a gi en socie y
and a a gi en ime. In his espec , conse a ism – like
he le – p o ided Spanish women wi h a new collec i e
ci ic iden i y (Ramos, 2010).
On he basis o he assump ions ega ding he social
and cul u al cons uc ion o gende models b ie ly ou -
lined abo e, his a icle in es iga es he o mula ions
c a ed by an i-libe al, conse a i e and ul amon ane po-
li ical g oups o women. This is done h ough an analysis
o he emale ideal and he ideas abou socie y a icula ed
by hese g oups du ing he ea ly and la e wen ie h cen u-
y. These pe iods – he Second Republic and he ansi-
ion o democ acy – we e imes o p o ound, c i ical
ans o ma ions o Spanish women in he p og ammes,
discou se, legisla ion and e o s o he opposi ion o he
go e nmen .
The sou ces o he s udy include o iginal ex s,
speeches and a ious publica ions by he leading p opo-
nen s o ideological posi ions as seemingly di e en as
Mau ism, he Pa io ic Union (UP), he Spanish Con ed-
e a ion o Au onomous Righ s o CEDA, Spanish Res o-
a ion (RE), T adi ionalis Communion and he Spanish
Falange du ing he ea ly wen ie h cen u y, and People’s
Alliance du ing he ansi ion o democ acy.7 As a whole,
all o hese sou ces po ay women as ha ing a uni a y
iden i y based bo h on Ca holic social hinking and he o -
ganicis heo y o socie y and he di e ence be ween he
sexes (Moya, 1984 p. 58), a concep also upheld by he
F anco egime.
The s a ing poin o he en i e mul i ace ed Spanish
igh wing was he con ic ion ha women and men had
speci ic unc ions and quali ies ha we e complemen a y
and, consequen ly, unequal. This o mula ion was oo ed
in a s ong an i eminis sen imen ha pe sis ed, wi hou
comp omise, h oughou he wen ie h cen u y, hanks in
la ge pa o he long F anco dic a o ship (A ce, 2005).
Due o he combina ion o he social and poli ical change
spa ked in Spain by he ou b eak o he Ci il Wa and he
poli ical and ideological in e es s o he new F anco e-
gime, a g ea deal o his discou se and he an i eminis ,
conse a i e and and ocen ic ep esen a ions o ged in
he 1920s and 30s we e o p e ail. The F anco dic a o -
ship cons uc ed a discou se o Spanish women indeb ed
o he Va ican li e a u e p oduced o comba he desi es
o emancipa ion and equali y o he su agis mo emen
ha was hen p ojec ed, like a long shadow, on o he po-
li ical mo emen ha p oclaimed i sel hei o he dic a-
o ship, he AP. Them eclaimed he emale ideal ha was
c a ed a he beginning o he cen u y, imposed by he
F anco egime and ansmi ed by he Sección Femenina,8
be o e g adually being modi ied in he spi i o he social
demands and he new pos -1977 democ a ic eali y in
Spain.
The di e en na u es o women and men
Fo wen ie h-cen u y Spanish conse a ism, gende
was based on he belie in wo di e en na u es: one e-
male and he o he male. This idea was es ablished as an
absolu e u h and became he co ne s one o conse a-
i e hinking wi h ega d o socie y and gende . I also
se ed as a basis o he cons uc ion o a model o social
o ganiza ion ha gua an eed disc imina ion agains wom-
en and hei subo dina ion. The inspi a ion o his hink-
ing was, among o he sou ces, he pos ula es o Ca holic
social doc ine, in which inequali y be ween women and
men was i mly g ounded, a leas un il he Second Va i-
can Council me in he i s hal o he 1960s. The encyc-
lical issued by Leo XIII, Quod Apos olici Mune is in
1878, asse ed ha ‘ he inequali y o igh s and o powe
p oceeds om he e y Au ho o na u e […] so also has
he appoin ed ha he e should be a ious o de s in ci il
socie y, di e ing in digni y, igh s and powe ’ (Nogue ,
1923 pp. 290-306).
Th oughou he cen u y, his poli ical cul u e equa ed
women and men wi h di e en o gans o a social body in
which each na u e was called upon o ul il i s own, di -
e en unc ion. One example is Víc o P ade a, who
combined he Ca holic, adi ionalis poli ical inhe i ance
wi h he mode n o ganicis concep ion o socie y. His ide-
as, which we e simila o hose o some p es igious Eu o-
pean in ellec uals like he K ausis Hein ich Ah ens, we e
o i ied by some o his own expe iences. P ade a a gued
ha socie y ‘by i s e y na u e belongs o he wo ld o he
o ganic’. Indeed, his au ho ound he guiding p inciple
o social li e in he o ganism: ‘ he o ganic wo ld pos u-
la es a ied o gans and di e en unc ions’. Consequen -
ly, ‘a uni e sal aspi a ion o equal igh s be ween men
and women among ci izens […] would esul in social
dissolu ion’ (P ade a, 1932). Some 45 yea s la e , in he
mids o he ansi ion o democ acy, Manuel F aga would
con inue o insis on his o ganicis idea o socie y, in
which each sex is called upon o ul il i s ‘na u al’ ole.
Science became a sou ce o inspi a ion o he con-
s uc ion o di e ences be ween he gende s. The hesis
o emale in e io i y based on ph enology, ana omy and
physiology, and popula ized by he wo ks o F anz Jo-
seph Gall, He be Spence , Theodo on Bischo and
Ka l Möbius, was eplaced by he hesis o he di e ence
4 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé
Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008
be ween he sexes (A es i, 1998). These new scien i ic
explana ions eached Spain quickly and we e apidly ac-
cep ed by he mo e conse a i e poli ical sec o s. The
ideas mos o en epea ed in Spanish in ellec ual ci cles
came om he wo k o Robby Kossman, which was in-
spi ed by e olu ionis heo y, and Geo g Simmel’s expla-
na ions ega ding he di e ences be ween he sexes (Be-
iain, 2000). Simmel a gued ha emaleness could be
de ined as a gende and could easily elude any de ini ion
as an indi idual. This hinking was echoed in Spain by
José O ega y Gasse , who asse ed ha ‘woman is mo e
o a gende han an indi idual’ (O ega y Gasse , 1947 p.
433, ci ed in Cas illo, 2003). This a gumen qui e closely
mi o ed hose held by he Ca alan Eugeni D’O s and he
Andalusian José Ma ía Pemán.
The cen al idea in Pemán’s wo k was he di e ence
and hie a chy be ween he sexes, and i was his au ho
who bes po ayed he image o emini y main ained by
conse a ism. His book, De doce cualidades de la muje
(On he Twel e Quali ies o Women), included many o
he imp essions al eady p in ed in he weekly publica ion
Ellas (She, (1932-1935), which he bo h ounded and di-
ec ed. He asse ed ha , as laid ou in Genesis, he unc-
ion o women was o be companions o hei husbands
and nu u e s o hei child en, which is why God had no
gi en hem ‘ eason’. The unc ion o men was c ea i e
ac i i y and wo k, o which he equi ed a ional analysis
(Pemán, 1947).9
Li e a u e and p opaganda also ep oduced he old cli-
chés abou woman as he ‘e e nal mino ’ and he in e io
in ellec ual capaci y.10 Fo example, in an 1894 speech,
Doc o Fe nando Cala a eño discussed he in e io i y o
‘ he woman’ who ‘can ne e be mo e han a woman, wi h
he nai e y, like ha o an olde child, he exagge a ed
ne ous sys em, he ex emely i id imagina ion, he
limi ed hinking, he inna e coque y’(Cala a eño, 1894,
ci ed in Balla ín, 2001 p. 79). Philosophe and pedagogue
U bano González Se ano, in u n, based his a gumen s
on biological de e minism in o de o comba any hin o
egali a ianism in he educa ion o women: ‘nei he educa-
ion no any philosophical p inciple can change he physi-
ological na u e o he sex […] woman is woman; she is
i s and o emos he inca na ion o lo e’.11
Du ing he F anco dic a o ship, hese openly an i emi-
nis ideas we e ansmi ed ac oss Spain h ough he Sec-
ción Femenina, he women’s b anch o he Falange poli i-
cal mo emen , and he Pa ona o de P o ección a la
Muje , a public ounda ion es ablished o ensu e mo al
o de , as a con ol mechanism.12 Mo eo e , despi e he
‘ enewing’ doc ine o he Second Va ican Council, he
Chu ch helped by insis ing on he concep ha domes ic-
i y was a woman’s mission. These ideas we e main ained
by he AP. The pa y accep ed equali y – unde s ood as
legal equali y be ween women and men – bu he dual-
na u e model su i ed. Al hough i was o ced o make
concessions o women, allowing hem access o educa-
ion (saying ha i would bene i hei child en, who
would be aised in a mo e cul u ed home) and o employ-
men (when necessa y o he amily inances), and ag ee-
ing o in eg a e women in o i s anks (a p opaganda mo e
ha ga e i a mode nizing image), he pa y ne e aban-
doned i s ideological pilla s ela ed o gende (Félez,
2018).
Du ing he ansi ion o democ acy, some changes had
o be made in esponse o demands o equali y om
Spanish women. I was a gued ha he decision o wo k
ou side he home was as laudable as s aying home as he
‘pilla o amily li e’ (AP, 1977 p. 10). Fo ha eason,
‘women’s wo k a home’ needed o be ‘duly ecognized’
(Rod íguez, 1977 p. 59). Fo women who we e o ced o
wo k ou side he home, he AP p oposed a ‘speci ic wo k
plan wi h a educed schedule’ (CD, 1979 p. 10) o espond
o he obliga ions o ma ied women. ‘P agma ic policies’
we e equi ed o mee he speci ic needs o women, based
on hei ‘womanly na u e’ (AP, 1981 p. 641). Recogni ion
o ‘women’s wo k’ was demanded, bu he e was no ques-
ion ha his wo k was o be done by women, despi e he
ideas held by membe s o he women’s mo emen .
As a e lec ion o his new s ance, one enowned
membe o he AP, Pila Díaz-Plaja, a e ed ha women
a e a ce ain age who had al eady aised hei child en
could collabo a e wi h hei husbands ‘in hei compa-
nies, hei wo k o wha e e ’. In no way, howe e , would
his ac i i y en ail he abandoning ‘he amily du ies and
home’ (Gi áldez, 1978). Thus, wi hou he bu den on
women inhe en in ep oduc ion, Spanish women we e
posi ioned as me e collabo a o s in public li e.
Women and an i-women, eminism and an i eminism
One o he mos impo an mani es a ions and e lec-
ions o mode ni y was he g owing ole o women in so-
cie y (Thébaud, 2000). Women’s su age and he possi-
bili y o pa icipa ing in poli ical ac i i y a i ed i s wi h
he Second Republic in he 1930s and hen again wi h he
es ablishmen o he pa liamen a y mona chy in he las
hi d o he wen ie h cen u y. Whe he ad an ageous o
no , he eali y was, as José Ma ía Pemán said upon he
p oclama ion o he Republic, ha ‘ he o e has won
women’ (Pemán, 1932 p, 6). This was enough o o ce
conse a i es no only o econs uc hei p oposed ideal
o eminini y, bu also o cons uc a discou se capable o
in luencing women o o e o conse a i e pa ies, since
hey now ep esen ed mo e han hal o he elec o a e. In
ligh o his, he igh was obliged o abandon hei dis-
cussions abou whe he women lea ing he home would
‘bas a dize hei eminini y’ (Lis, 1932 p. 2). The only e-
male depu y om he AP in he i s wo pa liamen a y
e ms insis ed ha igh s o women emained o be won,
bu wi hou his ‘unde mining hei eminini y’ (Mon eja-
no, 1977). The pa y pla o m p omised o igh o he
‘cu en needs o Spanish women’, bu ‘based on hei e-
male na u e and wi hou ejec ing hei adi ional and
spi i ual alues’ (Alianza Popula , 1982 p. 87-88).
Two models o ‘woman’ we e es ablished. The i s
was he ‘good’ Ma y and he second he ‘odious’ E e,
who had come o elimina e adi ional gende oles and
wi h ha , e mina e Wes e n socie y as i was known.
The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism • 5
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Women began o a ouse con adic o y eelings o su p ise
and con usion, due o hei p esence in spaces once e-
se ed o men and hei adop ion o unexpec ed a i-
udes, a esul o he social changes in oduced ha p o-
duced wha came o be called ‘gende unce ain y’.13 To
alle ia e his and p ese e he adi ional social s uc u e,
he wo models o ‘woman’ we e gi en con en . The e
was he ‘ ue Spanish woman’, an ideal o adi ional and
pa ia chal womanhood, illus a ed by his o ical Spanish
women conside ed illus ious, who we e escued and e-
cons uc ed (O ega, 2010a). These women we e p esen -
ed as au hen ic, adi ional examples o he essen ial al-
ues o ‘e e nal Spain’ (Pemán, 1932). The igu es e oked
included Sain Te esa o A ila, Queen Isabella I and Joan-
na I o Cas ile. O he less well-known ‘g ea and glo ious
women’ we e also exal ed because o hei many i ues
and me cies wi h he lowly, hei Ch is ian emaleness,
hei spi i uali y, hei cul u ed wisdom, hei humili y in
g ea ness, hei empe ance in powe , hei modes y and
aus e i y, and hei de e mina ion in he ace o ad e si y
and he enemies o he Ca holic eligion. All o hese he -
oines o he a he land had o ged an immo al and inde-
s uc ible Spanish emale ype.14
The jou nal Ellas. Semana io de las muje es españo-
las (She: A Weekly o Spanish Women) con ained a sec-
ion ha linked he women o yes e yea o hose o he
momen by ex olling igu es wi h he same desi able ea-
u es in he eyes o Pemán and he jou nal edi o s. The
hei s o his spi i included Juana Salas, Pila Ca eaga,
Blanca de los Ríos and Me cedes Quin anilla, all no able
ep esen a i es o he mos impo an Ca holic women’s
associa ions a he ime. Like hei p edecesso s, hey
we e dis inguished by hei lucid in elligence, hei noble
Ch is ian i ues, hei oles as sel less daugh e s, wi es
and mo he s and, inally, hei e o s o pass down sound
Spanish adi ions and cus oms (Luzza i, 1932 p, 1). This
end o exal ing ‘ ue Spanish women’ was la e con in-
ued by he hei o conse a ism. Manuel F aga no only
commemo a ed hese women, like Pila Ca eaga, who he
desc ibed as an exempla y, highly aluable and in elligen
woman,15 bu he also heaped p aise upon o he women
ha he conside ed as dis inguished as hei p edecesso s.
These included he Coun ess o Campo-Alange, a woman
who, in F aga’s wo ds, was a ‘w i e o he u h abou
women’ (F aga, 1980 p. 56). He also men ioned Concep-
ción A enal16 as a no able au ho who knew how o ake
he pos ula es o Ca holic social doc ine and pu hem
in o p ac ice (F aga, 2006 p. 254).
Howe e , while he idea o a ‘Spanish eminini y’
con inued du ing he poli ical ansi ion, men ions o ‘ ue
Spanish women’ disappea ed om he o icial discou se,
a leas as hey we e spoken o in he ea ly wen ie h cen-
u y. Gi en he challenges in ol ed in es ablishing he
democ acy and shaping a new emale democ a ic ci izen-
ship – unde s ood no only as an expansion o igh s and
eedoms, bu also as a b oadening o spaces o women’s
pa icipa ion and ac ion (Radcli , 2002 pp. 77-78) –
housewi es we e placed in ha posi ion ins ead. Fo AP,
hey became he new e e ence poin o eminini y, and
he pa y sang hei p aises a he same ime ha i called
o mo e ecogni ion o hei wo k, since hey we e ‘ he
mos impo an social o ce in Spain’ o he igh . The
AP us ed hem o ‘main ain he spi i o he a he land
and o de in ou Spain and e u n common sense o ou
people’ (AP Mad id, 1978 p. 4). The idea o egene a ing
he Spanish a he land h ough ue Spanish women –
housewi es his ime – li ed on.17
The image o he ‘an i-woman’ o ‘an i-Spanish wom-
en’ cons uc ed in he yea s p io o he Ci il Wa also
li ed on.18 These an i-women we e ep esen ed by e-
males who had decided o pa icipa e in ci cles ha had
been exclusi ely male o ha poin . Some, who adop ed
he o ms o manne s o mode ni y and we e known as
ga çonnes, we e a ac ed o and suppo ed eminism.
The an i-women, hen, became he nega i e e sion o
‘ ue Spanish women’. They we e iddled wi h ho ible
de ec s and symbolized ulga i y, sexual de ia ion, man-
nishness, he esy and e olu ion, and belonged o sub e -
si e, poli icized g oups.19 They we e also c edulous and
naï e women, incapable o dis inguishing be ween good
and e il (Ce nuda, 1932 p. 3), bu also cold, calcula ing
and lewd (Pé ez, 1932a p. 9). Fa om disappea ing, his
image was e y much p esen du ing he ansi ion pe i-
od. The second eminis wa e, ep esen ed by he wom-
en’s libe a ion mo emen , was su p ising because o i s
adicalism. The mo emen analysed he pa ia chal sys-
em om all possible angles and – unlike he i s eminis
wa e, which ocused on conque ing he public space and
expanding ci izenship igh s o women – made he sexu-
al e olu ion he benchma k o he e a.
The esponse was no long in coming. AP wa ned o
he need o design a speci ic, p agma ic and ealis ic poli-
cy ha would espond o he equi emen s o ‘Spanish
women’, based on p o ec ing he emale na u e om be-
ing bas a dized. F aga was conce ned abou he new ga -
çonnes o he 1970s. As he himsel s a ed, ‘ he cu en
end o gi ls wea ing “unisex” ouse s, ha ing sho hai
and using e bal iolence wi h each o he ha is app o-
p ia e o young men is no a s ep o wa d’. In his opin-
ion, he emancipa ion o women was ‘a hing, and a e y
good one’, bu he eminism and ‘ana chy’ ha came wi h
i was a comple ely di e en ma e (F aga, 1976 p. 95).
S a emen s like his e ealed he con inuing pe sis-
ence o he duali y ha had been cons uc ed in he 1930s
be ween ‘ eal’ Spanish women and enemies o he a he -
land, bu also be ween Ca holic/humanis eminism and
le is eminism. The associa ion made by F aga abou
eminism and ana chy seemed o echo he pas , when
eminism was p esen ed as an ally o communism and an
an i-Spain ha would end up des oying he amily by
sepa a ing women om domes ic wo k and ca e aking,
leading hem o public li e and p oduc ion. Du ing he
Second Republic, emancipa ion was conside ed a sa anic
desi e, sp ead by socialis s, ana chis s, eemasons and
K ausis s wi h a single objec i e: o deg ade he ‘ ue
woman’ and des oy Ch is ian ci iliza ion20 o seek ‘so-
cial dissolu ion’ a any cos (P ade a, 1932). Like F aga
would do la e , depu y Diego Ma ía C ehue y del Amo

6 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé
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accused eminism o leading ‘in i s ca dinal p inciples o
ana chy’ (C ehue , n.d., 46). In he dying days o he
F anco e a, Manuel F aga a gued ha he eminism o
ha ime, which he called neo- eminism, was e en wo se
han he eminism ha eme ged as pa o he su agis
mo emen , since he ea lie mo emen ‘ espec ed adi-
ional e hical alues’, while he la e mo emen ‘sough
o des oy hem, and i ha one was e o mis , his one
was deeply e olu iona y’ (F aga, 1975 p. 39).
The pa y membe s o he AP a gued in in e iews
ha eminism was associa ed wi h nega i e conno a ions
and unwo hy o Spanish women. Ca men F aga, he
daugh e o he pa y leade , was blun in his espec : ‘I
am no a eminis , a hippy o a p o es o ’ (Jiménez, 1977).
An onia Qui oga, he head o he AP’s women and amily
sec ion du ing he ea ly yea s, de ended some eminis
ideas, bu again wi h he p o iso ha his ba le no keep
women om main aining ‘ hei ue eminine na u e and
hei ole wi hin he amily’. Mo eo e , in he de ence o
conse a i e o adi ional eminini y agains ‘ adical’
eminism, i was ecommended ha women’s libe a ion
be mode a ed when he woman ‘does no ha e poli ical o
ca ee aspi a ions o wish o a li e ou side he home; nei-
he should she be o ced o go ou , i she is com o able
wi h he cu en s a us’ (A adillas, 1977). Ca men Llo ca,
who had been p esiden o he Mad id A henaeum, unam-
biguously linked he women’s mo emen o iolence in
he p esen a ion o he women’s associa ion: ‘Feminis
mo emen s may ha e a di e en cou se, and also ha e a
di e en s a egy. Ou s a egy is non- iolence’ (Nie o,
1977). Simila ly, hey de ended he di ision be ween
‘good’, ‘humanis ’ o ‘ eal’ eminism eminiscen o he
Ca holic eminism a he beginning o he cen u y, and
‘bad’ o ‘ adical’ eminism ep esen ed by g oups ad o-
ca ing he dec iminaliza ion o abo ion (A adillas, 1977).
To some ex en , hese women could sympa hize wi h
eminism, bu wi hin limi s when i came o ques ions e-
la ed o ‘ emale na u e’.
Conse a ism and he amily
Conse a ism conside ed he pa ia chal amily as he
ideal ins i u ion o quie he disquie and epida ion gene -
a ed by he new imes. The social o de depended on i s
s abili y, solidi y, s uc u e and hie a chized unc ions. I
he di e ence be ween he sexes and adi ional gende
oles ceased o exis , socie y, oo, would dissipa e. This be-
lie con inued in he ansi ion pe iod, since ‘ci iliza ions
die when he amily disin eg a es’ (Anon., 1977 p. 6).
A gumen s o his ype can be ound in he wo k o
F ancisco de Asís Pacheco. This p oli ic publishe and
libe al poli ician om Andalusia was ex emely well in-
o med abou he a en ion being paid by ce ain social
sec o s o he p oblem o women’s equali y. Con inced
ha he amily cons i u ed a social en i y ha p eceded
he indi idual and was a basic pilla o he s a e and alue
sys em o he “bien-pensan bou geoisie, he showed no
hesi a ion in p esen ing he h ea inhe en in any conces-
sion o he equali y o he sexes: ‘we us ha women’s
emancipa ion […] will ne e become his o y. I i does,
i we a e mis aken, i ou p edic ions do no come
ue, hen, “Oh, wha o he amily!” In o de o iumph,
women’s emancipa ion will ha e o pass o e i s dead
body” (Asís, 1881 p. 36).
Be ween ul a-conse a i es and adi ionalis s,
women and he amily we e clea ly pa o he o ganicis
philosophy o socie y and i s eligious ounda ion
(Moya, 1984). This was he belie o Manuel Ga cía
Mo en e, a Ca holic philosophe who de ended he am-
ily and he dicho omy o he sexes a any cos . Fo
Mo en e, he amily was ‘a subs an i e en i y, a dis inc
en i y, independen and supe io o he indi iduals who
comp ise i ’ (Ga cía, 1996 p. 113). The p ima y unc ion
o he woman, as daugh e , was o ‘main ain amily co-
hesion’, while he second was ‘ o main ain amily con i-
nui y h oughou he o ganism’, o , in o he wo ds, o
p ese e adi ion. This could only be done by women,
since ‘ he essen ial p inciple o women is hei wa m
and cons an oca ion. The a he and b o he s a e he
p opellan elemen , hose who b ing he inno a ions; i
you add you emale inno a ions o hose o you a he
and b o he s, he e will be no amily con inui y’ (Ga cía,
1996 p. 114). As a wi e, he woman was o subo dina e
he sel o he husband, and he p ima y and only unc-
ion was mo he hood (Ga cía, 1996 p. 124).
Like he in ellec uals who p eceded him, Manuel F a-
ga saw a se ious h ea o he amily in he scien i ic and
echnological ad ances and cul u al and social changes
aking place in he 1960s and 70s, wi h disas ous conse-
quences. Since i s cons i u ion as a pa y, he AP de ended
he ‘Ch is ian concep ion o he amily and i s pe manen
alues’ (AP, 1977 p. 16). Fo he sel -decla ed hei o so-
ciological F ancoism, he s a e had o p o ec he amily,
inc easing ‘due p o ec ion o his ins i u ion’ (GODSA,
1976, 97-98).
In his ba le o p o ec he adi ional amily, and de-
spi e being in he mino i y in Cong ess, Manuel F aga in-
oduced a bill on he Founda ions o he Family in he
Spanish S a e in he summe o 1980. The bill de ined he
amily as a ‘pe manen ins i u ion o na u al law ha
gua an ees he o de ed pe pe ua ion and in eg al de elop-
men o he human species’, in addi ion o s essing i s
unc ion as he ‘p ima y cell o he social o ganiza ion’
(BOE, 1980 p. 377). This de ini ion o amily only
s eng hened he adi ional, Ch is ian concep ion de end-
ed by he AP o ha poin . Men occupied he highes posi-
ion in he hie a chy and, he e o e, equali y in he amily
con inued o be un ecognized. In ac , he elec o al p opa-
ganda appealed la gely o he man as he head o he am-
ily: ‘Family a he , i you wan secu i y o you and you s,
Ac now! AP’ (AP, 1977).
The conques o igh s by women in pos -indus ial
socie ies and hei en y in o he labou o ce was, acco d-
ing o F aga, a palpable eali y ha had allowed hem o
concei e o li e in gene al in a e y di e en way. This
ci cums ance, howe e , had i s coun e poin . All he po-
li ical, social, cul u al and echnological inno a ion ep e-
sen ed by he 1960s and 70s had led o he c ea ion o
The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism • 7
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‘new p oblems o amily uni y and au ho i y inside he
amily’ (F aga, 1959 p. 22). This pa e nal au ho i y was in
clea decline in he eyes o he AP leade and was due o
he cons an accep ance o egali a ian ideals (Folsom,
1934). The change in he amily con igu a ion and he
new legal mechanisms ex ending ac oss Eu ope we e also
esponsible o ‘ he p oblems o women […since…] he
oo cause is he explosion o he adi ional amily’ (F a-
ga, 1959 p. 22). Speci ically, he ‘p og ess o di o ce
[…], he ecogni ion o being unma ied as a no mal s a e
o li e and abe a ions ela ed o sexual ma e s’ had inau-
gu a ed a pe iod o he ‘sys ema ic des uc ion o he am-
ily’ (F aga, 1959 p. 9). Du ing he ansi ion, di o ce was
a hobbyho se o he poli ical igh , al hough he AP end-
ed up accep ing i when he deba e o e legalizing abo -
ion en e ed he ay.
Conse a ism con inued o hold posi ions qui e simi-
la o hose o he ea ly wen ie h cen u y ega ding he
amily, only gi ing in on di o ce a he end o he cen u-
y.21 The pa ia chal amily con inued o be p omo ed,
wi h a nucleus comp ising a he e osexual ma iage.
Meanwhile, women, conside ed he pilla o he amily
h oughou he cen u y, ocused on housewo k, nu u ing
and aising child en and, gene ally speaking, ep oduc-
ion. The discou se on domes ici y con inued o be ound
in he ideology o conse a ism, as did he de ence o a
double na u e o biological condi ioning ac o s ha made
women mo e sui able o his ype o wo k.
CONCLUSIONS
The wen ie h cen u y wi nessed p o ound ans o -
ma ions. The isible mode niza ion expe ienced in he
wo ld be o e and a e Wo ld Wa II p oduced con lic ing
emo ions. No-one could be indi e en o a wo ld in con-
s an change. The mode niza ion o daily li e and changes
in cus oms, as es and socie y we e, on he one hand, a -
ac i e and seduc i e, bu hey also elici ed a i m nega-
i e eac ion. The decomposi ion o old alues in he ace
o he ising equali y o he sexes was exp essed by many
women and men in a o m ha was adical, u gen , in-
ensely de oga o y and exclusiona y (Hobsbawm, 1995
p. 63). The as onishmen and ascina ion wi h ‘mode ni-
y’ was a icula ed in hese people in he o m o discon-
en , insecu i y, ea and anxie y, a imes p oducing c i i-
cal, oubled wo ld iews abou bo h socie y and he
imes. The inabili y o unde s and he meaning o he
ans o ma ions aking place and he mis us and epida-
ion abou he ad ances ha accompanied eminism we e
pe cei ed by he conse a i e sec o s o socie y as an i -
e e sible agedy as well as a h ea .
The deep- oo ed concep ion o eminini y began o be
called in o ques ion as social changes b ough women
in o a eas and spaces once exclusi ely ese ed o men.
Ques ions began o a ise abou wha i mean o be a
woman in he new imes and ci cums ances, and ques-
ions we e e en asked abou how a hey could go, how
close o equali y wi hou o e eaching, s aying in o mas-
culism and se e ely upse ing he social sc ip s he e o o e
assigned o he wo sexes. When women won he igh o
o e and hei s a us as ull- ledged ci izens was ecog-
nized, i exace ba ed he male anxie y o he 1930s, as
well as du ing he ea ly yea s o he new democ acy a e
he F anco dic a o ship. The idea o a clash be ween
women and men as a symbol o social con adic ions
would e u n ime and again h oughou he wen ie h
cen u y, especially when i seemed ha women we e be-
coming inc easingly p esen in adi ionally male social
spaces. All o his, along wi h he discon inua ion o he
classic emo ional depic ion o he sensi i e, de enceless
‘angel o he home’ o ‘ oman ic he oine’, we e expe i-
enced wi h a mani es sense o bewilde men as women
ook on unexpec ed a i udes and oles ha had ne e
been seen be o e. Resis ance o women being g an ed ull
ci izenship in democ a ic mode ni y came swi ly.
Consequen ly, he ‘ eminis con o e sy’ was hea ed
and cons an ly upda ed h oughou he cen u y. I a ac -
ed he a en ion o he conse a i e poli ical spec um,
which did no hesi a e o e u n o he p incipal axes o a
classic, adi ional, Ca holic social school o hough ha
was un a ou able o women and hei demands, all in an
exe cise aimed a coun e ing women’s g ie ances ela ed
o hei social backwa dness and p esen ing hem as
ansg essi e, dis up i e, bold and de ian . In essence,
hey used a gumen s om medicine and he nascen so-
cial sciences om biologicis o cul u al posi ions ha
saw he in e io na u e and unequal social unc ion o
women wi h espec o men as ully es ablished. The po-
li ical pla o ms o he Spanish igh in he wen ie h cen-
u y, hen, had h ee co e ideas: he double na u e o
women and men; a ejec ion o eminism; and he amily
as he ideal place o he women o engage in hei ‘na u-
al’ unc ions. E en as hey had o adap o de elopmen s
like he passage o women’s su age, Va ican II and he
es ablishmen o he pa liamen a y mona chy, he main
posi ions we e s eadily held o almos an en i e cen u y.
These indelible ma ke s o an i eminism did no , how-
e e , hinde esis ance and deba e inside he conse a i e
pa ies ha o med o e ime, which equi ed a ede ini ion
o he con en s ha cha ac e ized eminini y wi hin he
Ca holic concep ion. The agency o he ‘women o con-
se a ism’ was undamen al in his espec . This pape does
no explo e his idea – he eason being ha he opic e-
qui es a much mo e ex ensi e s udy– bu many women did
no accep being passi e ecep o s o he discou se o he
male membe s in hei pa y a any ime, despi e wha ap-
pea s on he p e ious pages o his a icle. As a back as
he mos decisi e yea s o he in e wa pe iod, Spanish
women wi h links o Ca holic Ac ion wielded pe i ions ha
could well be endo sed by he eminis mo emen oday.
They ad oca ed o imp o emen s in he p o essional ain-
ing o Spanish women, demanded jobs ou side o he
home, be e sala ies and wo king condi ions, access o all
educa ional le els, legisla i e and social e o ms and so
o h (Blasco, 2003), jus as hei coun e pa s did o y
yea s la e du ing he ansi ion pe iod.
Despi e he an i eminis cha ac e o he gene al p in-
ciples unde lying he o icial discou se o he People’s Al-
8 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé
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liance, some o i s membe s de ended mo e p og essi e
ideas han hei colleagues, wi hin limi s. Indeed, some
decla ed hemsel es o be eminis s. An onia Qui oga,
called o legal equali y, equal pay and oppo uni y, equal
access o educa ion and cul u e and women’s poli ical
pa icipa ion om wha she called ‘ ue eminism’. All o
hese women, including some who came o he pa y la -
e , like Luisa Fe nanda Rudi (Fe e and Palma, 1996),
had he same hing in common. While some decla ed
hemsel es emales bu no eminis s, o he s said ha
hey we e ‘quie ’ o ‘humanis ’ eminis s, and o he s di-
ec ly suppo ed he Ca holic eminism embodied by he
p inciples de eloped by Concepción A enal. All o hem,
howe e , suppo ed women’s educa ion, equal pay and
equali y be o e he law. Whe he o no hey we e emi-
nis s, he opinions o hese women pa ed he way in he
pa y, which had o s ep back, e o m and accep meas-
u es in hei poli ical discou se ha ul ima ely agmen ed
he uni a y iden i y ha conse a ism had cons uc ed and
p ojec ed on o women o e he cou se o he wen ie h
cen u y.
NOTES
1 Th oughou he nine een h cen u y and un il women won he
o e in 1931, many and di e se a gumen s we e pu o wa d o
exclude women om poli ical igh s, om he meaning o si-
lence o he dic a es o cus om, om scien i ic heo ies based on
p ejudice o eelings p ac ically de oid o eason. Abo e all,
howe e , i was he desi e o p ese e sexual o de in di e en
poli ical cul u es, pa icula ly libe alism. See O ega (2010b)
and A es i (2012).
2 This eeling was widesp ead in Eu ope, No h Ame ica and
e en La in Ame ica, as examined in he ollowing s udies: Ba d
(2000); Bush (2007); Howa d and Adams (1997); T a ; Lamo -
eux and P e e ko n (2006) and Eche e ía (2005). Fo he
Ame ican case, see Sch eibe (2008).
3 Al hough an i eminis sen imen s we e always p esen , in an a -
emp o go beyond dicho omous iews ega ding he ela ion-
ship be ween eligion and mode ni y, some schola s ha e
shown how iden i ies did eme ge wi hin o close o some Ca h-
olic associa ions ha pe mi ed a mo emen a icula ed a ound
mode n concep s o sexual di e ence and subjec s ha we e
sel - e lexi e and o some ex en secula ized. Fo he ea ly
wen ie h cen u y, see Blasco (2017). Fo he F anco dic a o -
ship, see Valien e (2016) and de Mo eno (2003).
4 A genealogy o conse a i e hough and i s di e en ends, in-
cluding he conse a ism ha domina ed du ing he ansi ion o
democ acy, can be ound in González (2016).
5 F aga obse ed o Pemán: ‘ he pa ia ch José Ma ía Pemán
honou s us by accompanying us in he p esidency’. This was
no he only occasion on which he ‘pa ia ch’ o conse a ism
was p esen a he mee ings o he People’s Alliance: F aga
(1987) pp. 82 and 258. On he iendship be ween Manuel F a-
ga and José Ma ía Pemán, see F aga (1988).
6 Fo a mo e in-dep h look a ea ly wen ie h-cen u y conse a-
i e hinking and i s concep ion o women, see O ega (2008;
2010 and 2011).
7 The ansi ion-e a Union o he Democ a ic Cen e (UCD) is
no included he e. Despi e con aining some conse a i e sub-
g oups, he women in he pa y and he successi e go e nmen s
we e open o ad ancing he igh s o women, o example, du -
ing he con o e sy su ounding he di o ce law. See Gun he &
Hopkin (2002, pp. 191-232). As shown by Félez (2018), he
leading igu es – bo h women and men – behind he measu es
in a ou o equal igh s be ween women and men, bo h in he
pa y and in he Gene al Subcommi ee on Women’s A ai s,
we e membe s o he social-democ a ic sec o s o he UCD
who la e le poli ics o joined he PSOE.
8 Much has been w i en abou he Falange’s Sección Femenina.
One ecen and no el app oach is ound in he a icle by Cena -
o (2017).
9 See also Scanlon (1976) and Ál a ez (1996) o u he de el-
opmen o he opic.
10 Sánchez has iden i ied he women’s publica ions, bo h p og es-
si e and conse a i e, in Spain in he nine een h and wen ie h
cen u ies. See he a icle (Sánchez, 2009, pp. 217-244, p. 223
and .). On he publica ions w i en o women and hei con-
en s, see he a icle by Rebollo & Núñez (2007), pp. 181-219.
11 This quo a ion om González comes om a book he w o e
wi h Adol o González (1893).
12 See he bibliog aphy on he F anco pe iod and, speci ically, he
Sección Femenina. See P imo de Ri e a (1983); Ma ínez
(2003); Cues a (2003); A ibas, Juan Ca los e al. (2008) and
López (2004).
13 This eeling was widesp ead in Eu ope, No h Ame ica and e en
La in Ame ica, see Bush (2007); Howa d & Adams (1997).
14 This appea s in Anonymous (1932) Ellas. Semana io de las
muje es españolas, 20, p. 4. Also in Numbe 22, p. 2.
15 Some hing ha he epea s in F aga (1980), p. 245 and (1987),
p. 152.
16 Ci ed by An onia Qui oga, he head o he AP’s women and
amily sec ion du ing he ansi ion, as a e e ence poin . See A.
A adillas (1977).
17 The egene a i e na u e o women was discussed, o example,
in A. Goicoechea (1922). See Blasco (2013) and he ci ed
wo ks by O ega.
18 This image was c ea ed by he leade s o he main an i-Republi-
can o ganiza ions in hei p opaganda. The speeches o women
like Pila Ca eaga, Te esa Luzza i, Juana Salas and Rosa U -
aca Pas o a e well known. All o hese women opposed he
equali y discou se o he women’s mo emen . Fo Te esa Luz-
za i and Rosa U aca Pas o , eminis s we e inspi ed by he
le is ideology becoming es ablished and we e, hus, joining
o ces wi h ‘ he epugnan Red Lady’. See Luzza i (1932) and
U aca (1932).
19 These p ejudices began wi h he su age es and con inued o
be in ogue du ing he F anco pe iod and ansi ion. On he
1930s, see Aguado and O ega (2011 pp. 173-206). Fo he
F anco pe iod, see Joly (2008, 95).
20 In he wo ds o he Jesui Julio Ala cón y Meléndez: ‘The emi-
nis mo emen , which does no comply wi h he impulse o
God, bu o Sa an, begins by p o oking laugh e and ends by
p o oking ho o ’. Ala cón (1908, pp. 38-39).
21 See he con o e sy su ounding di o ce in Félez (2018).
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