The Indelible Markers of Twentieth-Century Spanish Antifeminism

Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1) June 2020, e008 eISSN 2253-797X doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism Te esa Ma ía O ega López1 and Nú ia Félez Cas añé2 1Uni e sidad de G anada e-mail: mo ega@ug .es ORCID iD: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0002-4486-9715 2Uni e sidad de G anada ORCID iD: h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5515-6588 Submi ed: 20 July 2019. Accep ed: 29 Oc obe 2019 ABSTRACT: In wen ie h-cen u y Spain, he conse a i e poli ical ideology main ained a gende discou se and an ideal o eminini y ha emained b oadly unchanged. The democ a ic egimes es ablished in he coun y, i s a e he eign o Al onso XIII and hen a e he F anco dic a o ship, did no hing o subs an ially agmen he coun y’s conse a ism wi h ega d o i s p oponen s’ iew o he unc ion and ole ha women should ul il in socie y. In an a emp o ace he indelible ma ke s o Spanish an i eminism, his a icle examines h ee o con- se a ism’s key ideas ela ed o gende : a di e en ia ed conside a ion o male and emale na u es; a ejec ion o eminism; and a concep ion o he amily as he p e e ed locus o he de elopmen o he so-called na u al unc ions o women. KEYWORDS: Gende ; Discou se; Conse a ism; Women; An i eminism. Ci a ion / Cómo ci a es e a ículo: O ega López, Te esa Ma ía and Félez Cas añé, Nú ia (2020) “The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism” Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal, 9 (1): e008. h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/ chdj.2020.008 RESUMEN: Los ma cado es indelebles del an i eminismo español del siglo XX.-En la España del siglo XX, la ideo- logía polí ica conse ado a man u o un discu so de géne o y un ideal de eminidad que pe maneció p ác icamen e sin cambios. Los egímenes democ á icos es ablecidos en el país, p ime o as el einado de Al onso XIII y más a de as la dic adu a anquis a, no hicie on nada pa a agmen a de mane a sus ancial el conse adu ismo del país con espec o a la isión de sus p oponen es sob e la unción y el papel que las muje es deben cumpli en la sociedad. En un in en o po as ea los ma cado es indelebles del an i eminismo español, es e a ículo examina es de las ideas cla e del conse adu ismo elacionadas con el géne o: una conside ación di e enciada de la na u aleza masculina y emenina; un echazo del eminismo; y una concepción de la amilia como el luga p e e ido pa a el desa ollo de las llamadas unciones na u ales de las muje es. PALABRAS CLAVE: Géne o; Discu so; Conse adu ismo; Muje ; An i eminismo. Copy igh : © 2020 CSIC. This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion 4.0 In e na ional (CC BY 4.0) License. 2 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 woman should be as cha ac e ized by Pemán, based on Ca holic ideas abou gende and amily combined wi h mode n scien i ic hinking abou he exis ence o wo di - e en na u es – one emale and he o he male – we e kep ali e by he conse a i e pa y du ing he democ a- cy.6 This analysis does no add ess he pa y ha led he ansi ion o democ acy, he Union o he Democ a ic Cen e (Unión de Cen o Democ á ico o UCD), despi e he ac ha many o i s leade s also came om he F an- co poli ical eli e. Unlike he F anco eli es included in his s udy, he UCD con ained mo e p og essi e sec o s ha wo ked o equali y be ween women and men, wi h some limi a ions, om he Gene al Subcommi ee on Women’s A ai s. A e he UCD disbanded in 1983, he s a o he Subcommi ee ei he le poli ics o con inued o wo k in o he pa ies, including he Spanish Socialis Wo ke s’ Pa y (Pa ido Socialis a Ob e o Español o PSOE). Thus, p essu e o ob ain ci izenship igh s o women came om he social-democ a ic sec o s, no om he conse a i e g oups in he pa y (Félez, 2018). This a icle examines he ideal o eminini y con- s uc ed and imposed by a conse a ism ha – al hough i a ied somewha as he wen ie h cen u y p og essed – sha ed some ideological pilla s inspi ed by he same p in- ciples o almos one hund ed yea s. This conse a ism was cha ac e ized by ce ain indelible ma ke s seen in an empha ic public/p i a e di ision, he de ence o he he e- o-pa ia chal amily as he no ma i e model, he alliance wi h he Ca holic Chu ch and es ablished powe s, an ob- session wi h a misunde s ood and sca cely un ouched me i oc acy, and he disman ling o o opposi ion o pa - icula social policies, all o which equen ly o ced women o e ea o hei posi ion as, undamen ally, e- p oduce s and ‘queens o he home’. THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND SOURCES I has been obse ed ha ‘ he mos solidly es ablished […] o all collec i e illusions’ is he ‘di- ision o he wo ld’. G ounded bo h in biological and economic di e - ences, he p inciples o di- ision ‘con ibu e o he e y e- ali y o he social o de by ealizing hemsel es in bodies’ (Bou dieu, 2007, 232). In ligh o his asse ion, ‘women’ and ‘men’ a e ‘ca ego ies con inually being o ged, con- es ed, ewo ked and ea i med’ (Da ido and Hall, 1994 p, 10), as a gued by schola s o eminini y and masculini y. Equally impo an in his con ex is he ac ha language is a gene a i e ool ha media es and cons i u es eali y, a h- e han being a anspa en mi o o i (Bolu e , 1998 p. 14). Th ough language, he ideals o eminini y and mas- culini y a e elabo a ed, de e mining expe ience, in luenc- ing beha iou and s uc u ing expec a ions. Fo many au- ho s, language is no jus a way o ep esen eali y, bu ac s as a sys em o meaning, ac i ely in e ening in he p oduc ion o he meanings a ibu ed o he eal wo ld, us- ing meanings o o ganize and make sense o p ac ice (Ca- b e a, 2006 p, 235). Joan Sco a gues some hing simila , INTRODUCTION Twen ie h-cen u y Spain wi nessed a numbe o di - e en poli ical sys ems: a cons i u ional mona chy whe e he king ac i ely in e ened in poli ical a ai s; a epub- lic; he wo dic a o ships o Miguel P imo de Ri e a and F ancisco F anco; and a pa liamen a y mona chy. The coun y was also he se ing o g ea ad ances ega ding equali y. Women won he igh o o e, di o ce laws we e passed, in o ma ion abou bi h con ol and use o con a- cep i es was made widely a ailable and abo ion was de- c iminalized. A a ie y o ac o s, om he Ca holic Chu ch o openly an i eminis women’s associa ions, he Sección Femenina – he women’s b anch o he Falange poli ical mo emen – and conse a i e poli ical pa ies hemsel es opposed hese ad ances.1 The ex eme cul u al ans o ma ion ha was aking place in Wes e n socie ies also ga e ise o a g owing ‘gende unce ain y’.2 In Spain du ing he i s hi d o he wen ie h cen u y, he ‘an i eminis eac ion’ came swi - ly, only aba ing sligh ly in some espec s du ing he pe i- od o poli ical ansi ion a e he F anco dic a o ship.3 The di e en conse a i e poli ical g oups main ained an o ganicis concep ion o socie y wi h he amily loca ed a he co e as he undamen al uni , an unwa e ing de ence o he wo dis inc male and emale iden i ies and na u es, and a esounding ejec ion o eminism as a pe nicious, e olu iona y ideology ha could only lead o social dis- o de and chaos. Despi e he ac ha an i eminism in his cul u e had many nuances, hese h ee main ideas unde - pinned he conse a i e ideology wi h ega d o gende . The s a ing poin o his s udy is he hypo hesis ha wha happened in Spain mi o ed wha B i ish jou nalis Nicholas F ase obse ed in I aly. The e, he old ascis ac i is s o he Mussolini e a we e ous ed om powe by a new gene a ion ha os ensibly adop ed bo h he o ms and he p ac ices o a democ acy (F ase , 2001). In Spain, al hough he ounda ions we e enewed and eju ena ed du ing he coun y’s ansi ion o democ acy a e F an- co’s dea h in an a emp o p omo e a mode nizing image in acco dance wi h he new imes and demands o a changing socie y, he ideas o conse a ism emained p ac ically unal e ed, and al hough his was no ue o he base, i did apply o he leade s. This p esen a ion o an i eminism examines he poin s o con inui y h ough some key igu es in he con igu a- ion and econ igu a ion o conse a ism, pa icula ly a undamen al conse a i e igu e du ing he las qua e o he wen ie h cen u y: Manuel F aga I iba ne. F aga was a minis e du ing he dic a o ship, a ounding a he o he Spanish Cons i u ion o 1978, leade o he pa y ha de- cla ed i sel he sociological hei o F anco, he People’s Alliance (Alianza Popula o AP), and a ollowe o he conse a ism ha eme ged in ea ly wen ie h-cen u y Spain om he pens o hinke s and poli icians, including José Ma ía Pemán,4 ano he signi ican igu e in his s udy. An admi e and g ea iend o Pemán, F aga would ind in him a amewo k o his ideas, including wi h e- ga d o gende .5 The igu e and ep esen a ion o wha a The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism • 3 Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 conside ing language a sys em ‘ h ough which meaning is cons uc ed and cul u al p ac ices o ganized and by which, acco dingly, people ep esen and unde s and hei wo ld, including who hey a e and how hey ela e o o he s’ (Sco , 1998 p. 34). Mo eo e , poli ical cul u es a e a conglome a e o alues, no ms, ep esen a ions and languages ha con- s uc collec i e iden i ies, which in u n a e sus ained by a pa icula g oup memo y and p oduce ce ain ac i is o sociable p ac ices (Cena o and Illion, 2014 p. 16). Once again echoing Sco , poli ical discou se is a cons uc ed ne wo k o meanings ha con ains a pa icula way o un- de s anding he wo ld and socie y. This a icle is speci i- cally in e es ed in an ideal o eminini y ha shaped a conse a i e emale iden i y ha , while no necessa ily in e io ized as a whole and/o wi hou c i icism om women, se ed as a co pus o e e ence. Wi hou denying emale agency, he cons uc ion o iden i ies depends on he ep esen a ions c ea ed h ough language, socializa- ion p ocesses and he op ions a ailable in a gi en socie y and a a gi en ime. In his espec , conse a ism – like he le – p o ided Spanish women wi h a new collec i e ci ic iden i y (Ramos, 2010). On he basis o he assump ions ega ding he social and cul u al cons uc ion o gende models b ie ly ou - lined abo e, his a icle in es iga es he o mula ions c a ed by an i-libe al, conse a i e and ul amon ane po- li ical g oups o women. This is done h ough an analysis o he emale ideal and he ideas abou socie y a icula ed by hese g oups du ing he ea ly and la e wen ie h cen u- y. These pe iods – he Second Republic and he ansi- ion o democ acy – we e imes o p o ound, c i ical ans o ma ions o Spanish women in he p og ammes, discou se, legisla ion and e o s o he opposi ion o he go e nmen . The sou ces o he s udy include o iginal ex s, speeches and a ious publica ions by he leading p opo- nen s o ideological posi ions as seemingly di e en as Mau ism, he Pa io ic Union (UP), he Spanish Con ed- e a ion o Au onomous Righ s o CEDA, Spanish Res o- a ion (RE), T adi ionalis Communion and he Spanish Falange du ing he ea ly wen ie h cen u y, and People’s Alliance du ing he ansi ion o democ acy.7 As a whole, all o hese sou ces po ay women as ha ing a uni a y iden i y based bo h on Ca holic social hinking and he o - ganicis heo y o socie y and he di e ence be ween he sexes (Moya, 1984 p. 58), a concep also upheld by he F anco egime. The s a ing poin o he en i e mul i ace ed Spanish igh wing was he con ic ion ha women and men had speci ic unc ions and quali ies ha we e complemen a y and, consequen ly, unequal. This o mula ion was oo ed in a s ong an i eminis sen imen ha pe sis ed, wi hou comp omise, h oughou he wen ie h cen u y, hanks in la ge pa o he long F anco dic a o ship (A ce, 2005). Due o he combina ion o he social and poli ical change spa ked in Spain by he ou b eak o he Ci il Wa and he poli ical and ideological in e es s o he new F anco e- gime, a g ea deal o his discou se and he an i eminis , conse a i e and and ocen ic ep esen a ions o ged in he 1920s and 30s we e o p e ail. The F anco dic a o - ship cons uc ed a discou se o Spanish women indeb ed o he Va ican li e a u e p oduced o comba he desi es o emancipa ion and equali y o he su agis mo emen ha was hen p ojec ed, like a long shadow, on o he po- li ical mo emen ha p oclaimed i sel hei o he dic a- o ship, he AP. Them eclaimed he emale ideal ha was c a ed a he beginning o he cen u y, imposed by he F anco egime and ansmi ed by he Sección Femenina,8 be o e g adually being modi ied in he spi i o he social demands and he new pos -1977 democ a ic eali y in Spain. The di e en na u es o women and men Fo wen ie h-cen u y Spanish conse a ism, gende was based on he belie in wo di e en na u es: one e- male and he o he male. This idea was es ablished as an absolu e u h and became he co ne s one o conse a- i e hinking wi h ega d o socie y and gende . I also se ed as a basis o he cons uc ion o a model o social o ganiza ion ha gua an eed disc imina ion agains wom- en and hei subo dina ion. The inspi a ion o his hink- ing was, among o he sou ces, he pos ula es o Ca holic social doc ine, in which inequali y be ween women and men was i mly g ounded, a leas un il he Second Va i- can Council me in he i s hal o he 1960s. The encyc- lical issued by Leo XIII, Quod Apos olici Mune is in 1878, asse ed ha ‘ he inequali y o igh s and o powe p oceeds om he e y Au ho o na u e […] so also has he appoin ed ha he e should be a ious o de s in ci il socie y, di e ing in digni y, igh s and powe ’ (Nogue , 1923 pp. 290-306). Th oughou he cen u y, his poli ical cul u e equa ed women and men wi h di e en o gans o a social body in which each na u e was called upon o ul il i s own, di - e en unc ion. One example is Víc o P ade a, who combined he Ca holic, adi ionalis poli ical inhe i ance wi h he mode n o ganicis concep ion o socie y. His ide- as, which we e simila o hose o some p es igious Eu o- pean in ellec uals like he K ausis Hein ich Ah ens, we e o i ied by some o his own expe iences. P ade a a gued ha socie y ‘by i s e y na u e belongs o he wo ld o he o ganic’. Indeed, his au ho ound he guiding p inciple o social li e in he o ganism: ‘ he o ganic wo ld pos u- la es a ied o gans and di e en unc ions’. Consequen - ly, ‘a uni e sal aspi a ion o equal igh s be ween men and women among ci izens […] would esul in social dissolu ion’ (P ade a, 1932). Some 45 yea s la e , in he mids o he ansi ion o democ acy, Manuel F aga would con inue o insis on his o ganicis idea o socie y, in which each sex is called upon o ul il i s ‘na u al’ ole. Science became a sou ce o inspi a ion o he con- s uc ion o di e ences be ween he gende s. The hesis o emale in e io i y based on ph enology, ana omy and physiology, and popula ized by he wo ks o F anz Jo- seph Gall, He be Spence , Theodo on Bischo and Ka l Möbius, was eplaced by he hesis o he di e ence 4 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 be ween he sexes (A es i, 1998). These new scien i ic explana ions eached Spain quickly and we e apidly ac- cep ed by he mo e conse a i e poli ical sec o s. The ideas mos o en epea ed in Spanish in ellec ual ci cles came om he wo k o Robby Kossman, which was in- spi ed by e olu ionis heo y, and Geo g Simmel’s expla- na ions ega ding he di e ences be ween he sexes (Be- iain, 2000). Simmel a gued ha emaleness could be de ined as a gende and could easily elude any de ini ion as an indi idual. This hinking was echoed in Spain by José O ega y Gasse , who asse ed ha ‘woman is mo e o a gende han an indi idual’ (O ega y Gasse , 1947 p. 433, ci ed in Cas illo, 2003). This a gumen qui e closely mi o ed hose held by he Ca alan Eugeni D’O s and he Andalusian José Ma ía Pemán. The cen al idea in Pemán’s wo k was he di e ence and hie a chy be ween he sexes, and i was his au ho who bes po ayed he image o emini y main ained by conse a ism. His book, De doce cualidades de la muje (On he Twel e Quali ies o Women), included many o he imp essions al eady p in ed in he weekly publica ion Ellas (She, (1932-1935), which he bo h ounded and di- ec ed. He asse ed ha , as laid ou in Genesis, he unc- ion o women was o be companions o hei husbands and nu u e s o hei child en, which is why God had no gi en hem ‘ eason’. The unc ion o men was c ea i e ac i i y and wo k, o which he equi ed a ional analysis (Pemán, 1947).9 Li e a u e and p opaganda also ep oduced he old cli- chés abou woman as he ‘e e nal mino ’ and he in e io in ellec ual capaci y.10 Fo example, in an 1894 speech, Doc o Fe nando Cala a eño discussed he in e io i y o ‘ he woman’ who ‘can ne e be mo e han a woman, wi h he nai e y, like ha o an olde child, he exagge a ed ne ous sys em, he ex emely i id imagina ion, he limi ed hinking, he inna e coque y’(Cala a eño, 1894, ci ed in Balla ín, 2001 p. 79). Philosophe and pedagogue U bano González Se ano, in u n, based his a gumen s on biological de e minism in o de o comba any hin o egali a ianism in he educa ion o women: ‘nei he educa- ion no any philosophical p inciple can change he physi- ological na u e o he sex […] woman is woman; she is i s and o emos he inca na ion o lo e’.11 Du ing he F anco dic a o ship, hese openly an i emi- nis ideas we e ansmi ed ac oss Spain h ough he Sec- ción Femenina, he women’s b anch o he Falange poli i- cal mo emen , and he Pa ona o de P o ección a la Muje , a public ounda ion es ablished o ensu e mo al o de , as a con ol mechanism.12 Mo eo e , despi e he ‘ enewing’ doc ine o he Second Va ican Council, he Chu ch helped by insis ing on he concep ha domes ic- i y was a woman’s mission. These ideas we e main ained by he AP. The pa y accep ed equali y – unde s ood as legal equali y be ween women and men – bu he dual- na u e model su i ed. Al hough i was o ced o make concessions o women, allowing hem access o educa- ion (saying ha i would bene i hei child en, who would be aised in a mo e cul u ed home) and o employ- men (when necessa y o he amily inances), and ag ee- ing o in eg a e women in o i s anks (a p opaganda mo e ha ga e i a mode nizing image), he pa y ne e aban- doned i s ideological pilla s ela ed o gende (Félez, 2018). Du ing he ansi ion o democ acy, some changes had o be made in esponse o demands o equali y om Spanish women. I was a gued ha he decision o wo k ou side he home was as laudable as s aying home as he ‘pilla o amily li e’ (AP, 1977 p. 10). Fo ha eason, ‘women’s wo k a home’ needed o be ‘duly ecognized’ (Rod íguez, 1977 p. 59). Fo women who we e o ced o wo k ou side he home, he AP p oposed a ‘speci ic wo k plan wi h a educed schedule’ (CD, 1979 p. 10) o espond o he obliga ions o ma ied women. ‘P agma ic policies’ we e equi ed o mee he speci ic needs o women, based on hei ‘womanly na u e’ (AP, 1981 p. 641). Recogni ion o ‘women’s wo k’ was demanded, bu he e was no ques- ion ha his wo k was o be done by women, despi e he ideas held by membe s o he women’s mo emen . As a e lec ion o his new s ance, one enowned membe o he AP, Pila Díaz-Plaja, a e ed ha women a e a ce ain age who had al eady aised hei child en could collabo a e wi h hei husbands ‘in hei compa- nies, hei wo k o wha e e ’. In no way, howe e , would his ac i i y en ail he abandoning ‘he amily du ies and home’ (Gi áldez, 1978). Thus, wi hou he bu den on women inhe en in ep oduc ion, Spanish women we e posi ioned as me e collabo a o s in public li e. Women and an i-women, eminism and an i eminism One o he mos impo an mani es a ions and e lec- ions o mode ni y was he g owing ole o women in so- cie y (Thébaud, 2000). Women’s su age and he possi- bili y o pa icipa ing in poli ical ac i i y a i ed i s wi h he Second Republic in he 1930s and hen again wi h he es ablishmen o he pa liamen a y mona chy in he las hi d o he wen ie h cen u y. Whe he ad an ageous o no , he eali y was, as José Ma ía Pemán said upon he p oclama ion o he Republic, ha ‘ he o e has won women’ (Pemán, 1932 p, 6). This was enough o o ce conse a i es no only o econs uc hei p oposed ideal o eminini y, bu also o cons uc a discou se capable o in luencing women o o e o conse a i e pa ies, since hey now ep esen ed mo e han hal o he elec o a e. In ligh o his, he igh was obliged o abandon hei dis- cussions abou whe he women lea ing he home would ‘bas a dize hei eminini y’ (Lis, 1932 p. 2). The only e- male depu y om he AP in he i s wo pa liamen a y e ms insis ed ha igh s o women emained o be won, bu wi hou his ‘unde mining hei eminini y’ (Mon eja- no, 1977). The pa y pla o m p omised o igh o he ‘cu en needs o Spanish women’, bu ‘based on hei e- male na u e and wi hou ejec ing hei adi ional and spi i ual alues’ (Alianza Popula , 1982 p. 87-88). Two models o ‘woman’ we e es ablished. The i s was he ‘good’ Ma y and he second he ‘odious’ E e, who had come o elimina e adi ional gende oles and wi h ha , e mina e Wes e n socie y as i was known. The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism • 5 Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 Women began o a ouse con adic o y eelings o su p ise and con usion, due o hei p esence in spaces once e- se ed o men and hei adop ion o unexpec ed a i- udes, a esul o he social changes in oduced ha p o- duced wha came o be called ‘gende unce ain y’.13 To alle ia e his and p ese e he adi ional social s uc u e, he wo models o ‘woman’ we e gi en con en . The e was he ‘ ue Spanish woman’, an ideal o adi ional and pa ia chal womanhood, illus a ed by his o ical Spanish women conside ed illus ious, who we e escued and e- cons uc ed (O ega, 2010a). These women we e p esen - ed as au hen ic, adi ional examples o he essen ial al- ues o ‘e e nal Spain’ (Pemán, 1932). The igu es e oked included Sain Te esa o A ila, Queen Isabella I and Joan- na I o Cas ile. O he less well-known ‘g ea and glo ious women’ we e also exal ed because o hei many i ues and me cies wi h he lowly, hei Ch is ian emaleness, hei spi i uali y, hei cul u ed wisdom, hei humili y in g ea ness, hei empe ance in powe , hei modes y and aus e i y, and hei de e mina ion in he ace o ad e si y and he enemies o he Ca holic eligion. All o hese he - oines o he a he land had o ged an immo al and inde- s uc ible Spanish emale ype.14 The jou nal Ellas. Semana io de las muje es españo- las (She: A Weekly o Spanish Women) con ained a sec- ion ha linked he women o yes e yea o hose o he momen by ex olling igu es wi h he same desi able ea- u es in he eyes o Pemán and he jou nal edi o s. The hei s o his spi i included Juana Salas, Pila Ca eaga, Blanca de los Ríos and Me cedes Quin anilla, all no able ep esen a i es o he mos impo an Ca holic women’s associa ions a he ime. Like hei p edecesso s, hey we e dis inguished by hei lucid in elligence, hei noble Ch is ian i ues, hei oles as sel less daugh e s, wi es and mo he s and, inally, hei e o s o pass down sound Spanish adi ions and cus oms (Luzza i, 1932 p, 1). This end o exal ing ‘ ue Spanish women’ was la e con in- ued by he hei o conse a ism. Manuel F aga no only commemo a ed hese women, like Pila Ca eaga, who he desc ibed as an exempla y, highly aluable and in elligen woman,15 bu he also heaped p aise upon o he women ha he conside ed as dis inguished as hei p edecesso s. These included he Coun ess o Campo-Alange, a woman who, in F aga’s wo ds, was a ‘w i e o he u h abou women’ (F aga, 1980 p. 56). He also men ioned Concep- ción A enal16 as a no able au ho who knew how o ake he pos ula es o Ca holic social doc ine and pu hem in o p ac ice (F aga, 2006 p. 254). Howe e , while he idea o a ‘Spanish eminini y’ con inued du ing he poli ical ansi ion, men ions o ‘ ue Spanish women’ disappea ed om he o icial discou se, a leas as hey we e spoken o in he ea ly wen ie h cen- u y. Gi en he challenges in ol ed in es ablishing he democ acy and shaping a new emale democ a ic ci izen- ship – unde s ood no only as an expansion o igh s and eedoms, bu also as a b oadening o spaces o women’s pa icipa ion and ac ion (Radcli , 2002 pp. 77-78) – housewi es we e placed in ha posi ion ins ead. Fo AP, hey became he new e e ence poin o eminini y, and he pa y sang hei p aises a he same ime ha i called o mo e ecogni ion o hei wo k, since hey we e ‘ he mos impo an social o ce in Spain’ o he igh . The AP us ed hem o ‘main ain he spi i o he a he land and o de in ou Spain and e u n common sense o ou people’ (AP Mad id, 1978 p. 4). The idea o egene a ing he Spanish a he land h ough ue Spanish women – housewi es his ime – li ed on.17 The image o he ‘an i-woman’ o ‘an i-Spanish wom- en’ cons uc ed in he yea s p io o he Ci il Wa also li ed on.18 These an i-women we e ep esen ed by e- males who had decided o pa icipa e in ci cles ha had been exclusi ely male o ha poin . Some, who adop ed he o ms o manne s o mode ni y and we e known as ga çonnes, we e a ac ed o and suppo ed eminism. The an i-women, hen, became he nega i e e sion o ‘ ue Spanish women’. They we e iddled wi h ho ible de ec s and symbolized ulga i y, sexual de ia ion, man- nishness, he esy and e olu ion, and belonged o sub e - si e, poli icized g oups.19 They we e also c edulous and naï e women, incapable o dis inguishing be ween good and e il (Ce nuda, 1932 p. 3), bu also cold, calcula ing and lewd (Pé ez, 1932a p. 9). Fa om disappea ing, his image was e y much p esen du ing he ansi ion pe i- od. The second eminis wa e, ep esen ed by he wom- en’s libe a ion mo emen , was su p ising because o i s adicalism. The mo emen analysed he pa ia chal sys- em om all possible angles and – unlike he i s eminis wa e, which ocused on conque ing he public space and expanding ci izenship igh s o women – made he sexu- al e olu ion he benchma k o he e a. The esponse was no long in coming. AP wa ned o he need o design a speci ic, p agma ic and ealis ic poli- cy ha would espond o he equi emen s o ‘Spanish women’, based on p o ec ing he emale na u e om be- ing bas a dized. F aga was conce ned abou he new ga - çonnes o he 1970s. As he himsel s a ed, ‘ he cu en end o gi ls wea ing “unisex” ouse s, ha ing sho hai and using e bal iolence wi h each o he ha is app o- p ia e o young men is no a s ep o wa d’. In his opin- ion, he emancipa ion o women was ‘a hing, and a e y good one’, bu he eminism and ‘ana chy’ ha came wi h i was a comple ely di e en ma e (F aga, 1976 p. 95). S a emen s like his e ealed he con inuing pe sis- ence o he duali y ha had been cons uc ed in he 1930s be ween ‘ eal’ Spanish women and enemies o he a he - land, bu also be ween Ca holic/humanis eminism and le is eminism. The associa ion made by F aga abou eminism and ana chy seemed o echo he pas , when eminism was p esen ed as an ally o communism and an an i-Spain ha would end up des oying he amily by sepa a ing women om domes ic wo k and ca e aking, leading hem o public li e and p oduc ion. Du ing he Second Republic, emancipa ion was conside ed a sa anic desi e, sp ead by socialis s, ana chis s, eemasons and K ausis s wi h a single objec i e: o deg ade he ‘ ue woman’ and des oy Ch is ian ci iliza ion20 o seek ‘so- cial dissolu ion’ a any cos (P ade a, 1932). Like F aga would do la e , depu y Diego Ma ía C ehue y del Amo 6 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 accused eminism o leading ‘in i s ca dinal p inciples o ana chy’ (C ehue , n.d., 46). In he dying days o he F anco e a, Manuel F aga a gued ha he eminism o ha ime, which he called neo- eminism, was e en wo se han he eminism ha eme ged as pa o he su agis mo emen , since he ea lie mo emen ‘ espec ed adi- ional e hical alues’, while he la e mo emen ‘sough o des oy hem, and i ha one was e o mis , his one was deeply e olu iona y’ (F aga, 1975 p. 39). The pa y membe s o he AP a gued in in e iews ha eminism was associa ed wi h nega i e conno a ions and unwo hy o Spanish women. Ca men F aga, he daugh e o he pa y leade , was blun in his espec : ‘I am no a eminis , a hippy o a p o es o ’ (Jiménez, 1977). An onia Qui oga, he head o he AP’s women and amily sec ion du ing he ea ly yea s, de ended some eminis ideas, bu again wi h he p o iso ha his ba le no keep women om main aining ‘ hei ue eminine na u e and hei ole wi hin he amily’. Mo eo e , in he de ence o conse a i e o adi ional eminini y agains ‘ adical’ eminism, i was ecommended ha women’s libe a ion be mode a ed when he woman ‘does no ha e poli ical o ca ee aspi a ions o wish o a li e ou side he home; nei- he should she be o ced o go ou , i she is com o able wi h he cu en s a us’ (A adillas, 1977). Ca men Llo ca, who had been p esiden o he Mad id A henaeum, unam- biguously linked he women’s mo emen o iolence in he p esen a ion o he women’s associa ion: ‘Feminis mo emen s may ha e a di e en cou se, and also ha e a di e en s a egy. Ou s a egy is non- iolence’ (Nie o, 1977). Simila ly, hey de ended he di ision be ween ‘good’, ‘humanis ’ o ‘ eal’ eminism eminiscen o he Ca holic eminism a he beginning o he cen u y, and ‘bad’ o ‘ adical’ eminism ep esen ed by g oups ad o- ca ing he dec iminaliza ion o abo ion (A adillas, 1977). To some ex en , hese women could sympa hize wi h eminism, bu wi hin limi s when i came o ques ions e- la ed o ‘ emale na u e’. Conse a ism and he amily Conse a ism conside ed he pa ia chal amily as he ideal ins i u ion o quie he disquie and epida ion gene - a ed by he new imes. The social o de depended on i s s abili y, solidi y, s uc u e and hie a chized unc ions. I he di e ence be ween he sexes and adi ional gende oles ceased o exis , socie y, oo, would dissipa e. This be- lie con inued in he ansi ion pe iod, since ‘ci iliza ions die when he amily disin eg a es’ (Anon., 1977 p. 6). A gumen s o his ype can be ound in he wo k o F ancisco de Asís Pacheco. This p oli ic publishe and libe al poli ician om Andalusia was ex emely well in- o med abou he a en ion being paid by ce ain social sec o s o he p oblem o women’s equali y. Con inced ha he amily cons i u ed a social en i y ha p eceded he indi idual and was a basic pilla o he s a e and alue sys em o he “bien-pensan bou geoisie, he showed no hesi a ion in p esen ing he h ea inhe en in any conces- sion o he equali y o he sexes: ‘we us ha women’s emancipa ion […] will ne e become his o y. I i does, i we a e mis aken, i ou p edic ions do no come ue, hen, “Oh, wha o he amily!” In o de o iumph, women’s emancipa ion will ha e o pass o e i s dead body” (Asís, 1881 p. 36). Be ween ul a-conse a i es and adi ionalis s, women and he amily we e clea ly pa o he o ganicis philosophy o socie y and i s eligious ounda ion (Moya, 1984). This was he belie o Manuel Ga cía Mo en e, a Ca holic philosophe who de ended he am- ily and he dicho omy o he sexes a any cos . Fo Mo en e, he amily was ‘a subs an i e en i y, a dis inc en i y, independen and supe io o he indi iduals who comp ise i ’ (Ga cía, 1996 p. 113). The p ima y unc ion o he woman, as daugh e , was o ‘main ain amily co- hesion’, while he second was ‘ o main ain amily con i- nui y h oughou he o ganism’, o , in o he wo ds, o p ese e adi ion. This could only be done by women, since ‘ he essen ial p inciple o women is hei wa m and cons an oca ion. The a he and b o he s a e he p opellan elemen , hose who b ing he inno a ions; i you add you emale inno a ions o hose o you a he and b o he s, he e will be no amily con inui y’ (Ga cía, 1996 p. 114). As a wi e, he woman was o subo dina e he sel o he husband, and he p ima y and only unc- ion was mo he hood (Ga cía, 1996 p. 124). Like he in ellec uals who p eceded him, Manuel F a- ga saw a se ious h ea o he amily in he scien i ic and echnological ad ances and cul u al and social changes aking place in he 1960s and 70s, wi h disas ous conse- quences. Since i s cons i u ion as a pa y, he AP de ended he ‘Ch is ian concep ion o he amily and i s pe manen alues’ (AP, 1977 p. 16). Fo he sel -decla ed hei o so- ciological F ancoism, he s a e had o p o ec he amily, inc easing ‘due p o ec ion o his ins i u ion’ (GODSA, 1976, 97-98). In his ba le o p o ec he adi ional amily, and de- spi e being in he mino i y in Cong ess, Manuel F aga in- oduced a bill on he Founda ions o he Family in he Spanish S a e in he summe o 1980. The bill de ined he amily as a ‘pe manen ins i u ion o na u al law ha gua an ees he o de ed pe pe ua ion and in eg al de elop- men o he human species’, in addi ion o s essing i s unc ion as he ‘p ima y cell o he social o ganiza ion’ (BOE, 1980 p. 377). This de ini ion o amily only s eng hened he adi ional, Ch is ian concep ion de end- ed by he AP o ha poin . Men occupied he highes posi- ion in he hie a chy and, he e o e, equali y in he amily con inued o be un ecognized. In ac , he elec o al p opa- ganda appealed la gely o he man as he head o he am- ily: ‘Family a he , i you wan secu i y o you and you s, Ac now! AP’ (AP, 1977). The conques o igh s by women in pos -indus ial socie ies and hei en y in o he labou o ce was, acco d- ing o F aga, a palpable eali y ha had allowed hem o concei e o li e in gene al in a e y di e en way. This ci cums ance, howe e , had i s coun e poin . All he po- li ical, social, cul u al and echnological inno a ion ep e- sen ed by he 1960s and 70s had led o he c ea ion o The Indelible Ma ke s o Twen ie h-Cen u y Spanish An i eminism • 7 Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 ‘new p oblems o amily uni y and au ho i y inside he amily’ (F aga, 1959 p. 22). This pa e nal au ho i y was in clea decline in he eyes o he AP leade and was due o he cons an accep ance o egali a ian ideals (Folsom, 1934). The change in he amily con igu a ion and he new legal mechanisms ex ending ac oss Eu ope we e also esponsible o ‘ he p oblems o women […since…] he oo cause is he explosion o he adi ional amily’ (F a- ga, 1959 p. 22). Speci ically, he ‘p og ess o di o ce […], he ecogni ion o being unma ied as a no mal s a e o li e and abe a ions ela ed o sexual ma e s’ had inau- gu a ed a pe iod o he ‘sys ema ic des uc ion o he am- ily’ (F aga, 1959 p. 9). Du ing he ansi ion, di o ce was a hobbyho se o he poli ical igh , al hough he AP end- ed up accep ing i when he deba e o e legalizing abo - ion en e ed he ay. Conse a ism con inued o hold posi ions qui e simi- la o hose o he ea ly wen ie h cen u y ega ding he amily, only gi ing in on di o ce a he end o he cen u- y.21 The pa ia chal amily con inued o be p omo ed, wi h a nucleus comp ising a he e osexual ma iage. Meanwhile, women, conside ed he pilla o he amily h oughou he cen u y, ocused on housewo k, nu u ing and aising child en and, gene ally speaking, ep oduc- ion. The discou se on domes ici y con inued o be ound in he ideology o conse a ism, as did he de ence o a double na u e o biological condi ioning ac o s ha made women mo e sui able o his ype o wo k. CONCLUSIONS The wen ie h cen u y wi nessed p o ound ans o - ma ions. The isible mode niza ion expe ienced in he wo ld be o e and a e Wo ld Wa II p oduced con lic ing emo ions. No-one could be indi e en o a wo ld in con- s an change. The mode niza ion o daily li e and changes in cus oms, as es and socie y we e, on he one hand, a - ac i e and seduc i e, bu hey also elici ed a i m nega- i e eac ion. The decomposi ion o old alues in he ace o he ising equali y o he sexes was exp essed by many women and men in a o m ha was adical, u gen , in- ensely de oga o y and exclusiona y (Hobsbawm, 1995 p. 63). The as onishmen and ascina ion wi h ‘mode ni- y’ was a icula ed in hese people in he o m o discon- en , insecu i y, ea and anxie y, a imes p oducing c i i- cal, oubled wo ld iews abou bo h socie y and he imes. The inabili y o unde s and he meaning o he ans o ma ions aking place and he mis us and epida- ion abou he ad ances ha accompanied eminism we e pe cei ed by he conse a i e sec o s o socie y as an i - e e sible agedy as well as a h ea . The deep- oo ed concep ion o eminini y began o be called in o ques ion as social changes b ough women in o a eas and spaces once exclusi ely ese ed o men. Ques ions began o a ise abou wha i mean o be a woman in he new imes and ci cums ances, and ques- ions we e e en asked abou how a hey could go, how close o equali y wi hou o e eaching, s aying in o mas- culism and se e ely upse ing he social sc ip s he e o o e assigned o he wo sexes. When women won he igh o o e and hei s a us as ull- ledged ci izens was ecog- nized, i exace ba ed he male anxie y o he 1930s, as well as du ing he ea ly yea s o he new democ acy a e he F anco dic a o ship. The idea o a clash be ween women and men as a symbol o social con adic ions would e u n ime and again h oughou he wen ie h cen u y, especially when i seemed ha women we e be- coming inc easingly p esen in adi ionally male social spaces. All o his, along wi h he discon inua ion o he classic emo ional depic ion o he sensi i e, de enceless ‘angel o he home’ o ‘ oman ic he oine’, we e expe i- enced wi h a mani es sense o bewilde men as women ook on unexpec ed a i udes and oles ha had ne e been seen be o e. Resis ance o women being g an ed ull ci izenship in democ a ic mode ni y came swi ly. Consequen ly, he ‘ eminis con o e sy’ was hea ed and cons an ly upda ed h oughou he cen u y. I a ac - ed he a en ion o he conse a i e poli ical spec um, which did no hesi a e o e u n o he p incipal axes o a classic, adi ional, Ca holic social school o hough ha was un a ou able o women and hei demands, all in an exe cise aimed a coun e ing women’s g ie ances ela ed o hei social backwa dness and p esen ing hem as ansg essi e, dis up i e, bold and de ian . In essence, hey used a gumen s om medicine and he nascen so- cial sciences om biologicis o cul u al posi ions ha saw he in e io na u e and unequal social unc ion o women wi h espec o men as ully es ablished. The po- li ical pla o ms o he Spanish igh in he wen ie h cen- u y, hen, had h ee co e ideas: he double na u e o women and men; a ejec ion o eminism; and he amily as he ideal place o he women o engage in hei ‘na u- al’ unc ions. E en as hey had o adap o de elopmen s like he passage o women’s su age, Va ican II and he es ablishmen o he pa liamen a y mona chy, he main posi ions we e s eadily held o almos an en i e cen u y. These indelible ma ke s o an i eminism did no , how- e e , hinde esis ance and deba e inside he conse a i e pa ies ha o med o e ime, which equi ed a ede ini ion o he con en s ha cha ac e ized eminini y wi hin he Ca holic concep ion. The agency o he ‘women o con- se a ism’ was undamen al in his espec . This pape does no explo e his idea – he eason being ha he opic e- qui es a much mo e ex ensi e s udy– bu many women did no accep being passi e ecep o s o he discou se o he male membe s in hei pa y a any ime, despi e wha ap- pea s on he p e ious pages o his a icle. As a back as he mos decisi e yea s o he in e wa pe iod, Spanish women wi h links o Ca holic Ac ion wielded pe i ions ha could well be endo sed by he eminis mo emen oday. They ad oca ed o imp o emen s in he p o essional ain- ing o Spanish women, demanded jobs ou side o he home, be e sala ies and wo king condi ions, access o all educa ional le els, legisla i e and social e o ms and so o h (Blasco, 2003), jus as hei coun e pa s did o y yea s la e du ing he ansi ion pe iod. Despi e he an i eminis cha ac e o he gene al p in- ciples unde lying he o icial discou se o he People’s Al- 8 • Te esa Ma ía O ega López and Nú ia Félez Cas añé Cul u e & His o y Digi al Jou nal 9(1), June 2020, e008. eISSN 2253-797X, doi: h ps://doi.o g/10.3989/chdj.2020.008 liance, some o i s membe s de ended mo e p og essi e ideas han hei colleagues, wi hin limi s. Indeed, some decla ed hemsel es o be eminis s. An onia Qui oga, called o legal equali y, equal pay and oppo uni y, equal access o educa ion and cul u e and women’s poli ical pa icipa ion om wha she called ‘ ue eminism’. All o hese women, including some who came o he pa y la - e , like Luisa Fe nanda Rudi (Fe e and Palma, 1996), had he same hing in common. While some decla ed hemsel es emales bu no eminis s, o he s said ha hey we e ‘quie ’ o ‘humanis ’ eminis s, and o he s di- ec ly suppo ed he Ca holic eminism embodied by he p inciples de eloped by Concepción A enal. All o hem, howe e , suppo ed women’s educa ion, equal pay and equali y be o e he law. Whe he o no hey we e emi- nis s, he opinions o hese women pa ed he way in he pa y, which had o s ep back, e o m and accep meas- u es in hei poli ical discou se ha ul ima ely agmen ed he uni a y iden i y ha conse a ism had cons uc ed and p ojec ed on o women o e he cou se o he wen ie h cen u y. NOTES 1 Th oughou he nine een h cen u y and un il women won he o e in 1931, many and di e se a gumen s we e pu o wa d o exclude women om poli ical igh s, om he meaning o si- lence o he dic a es o cus om, om scien i ic heo ies based on p ejudice o eelings p ac ically de oid o eason. Abo e all, howe e , i was he desi e o p ese e sexual o de in di e en poli ical cul u es, pa icula ly libe alism. See O ega (2010b) and A es i (2012). 2 This eeling was widesp ead in Eu ope, No h Ame ica and e en La in Ame ica, as examined in he ollowing s udies: Ba d (2000); Bush (2007); Howa d and Adams (1997); T a ; Lamo - eux and P e e ko n (2006) and Eche e ía (2005). Fo he Ame ican case, see Sch eibe (2008). 3 Al hough an i eminis sen imen s we e always p esen , in an a - emp o go beyond dicho omous iews ega ding he ela ion- ship be ween eligion and mode ni y, some schola s ha e shown how iden i ies did eme ge wi hin o close o some Ca h- olic associa ions ha pe mi ed a mo emen a icula ed a ound mode n concep s o sexual di e ence and subjec s ha we e sel - e lexi e and o some ex en secula ized. Fo he ea ly wen ie h cen u y, see Blasco (2017). Fo he F anco dic a o - ship, see Valien e (2016) and de Mo eno (2003). 4 A genealogy o conse a i e hough and i s di e en ends, in- cluding he conse a ism ha domina ed du ing he ansi ion o democ acy, can be ound in González (2016). 5 F aga obse ed o Pemán: ‘ he pa ia ch José Ma ía Pemán honou s us by accompanying us in he p esidency’. This was no he only occasion on which he ‘pa ia ch’ o conse a ism was p esen a he mee ings o he People’s Alliance: F aga (1987) pp. 82 and 258. On he iendship be ween Manuel F a- ga and José Ma ía Pemán, see F aga (1988). 6 Fo a mo e in-dep h look a ea ly wen ie h-cen u y conse a- i e hinking and i s concep ion o women, see O ega (2008; 2010 and 2011). 7 The ansi ion-e a Union o he Democ a ic Cen e (UCD) is no included he e. Despi e con aining some conse a i e sub- g oups, he women in he pa y and he successi e go e nmen s we e open o ad ancing he igh s o women, o example, du - ing he con o e sy su ounding he di o ce law. See Gun he & Hopkin (2002, pp. 191-232). As shown by Félez (2018), he leading igu es – bo h women and men – behind he measu es in a ou o equal igh s be ween women and men, bo h in he pa y and in he Gene al Subcommi ee on Women’s A ai s, we e membe s o he social-democ a ic sec o s o he UCD who la e le poli ics o joined he PSOE. 8 Much has been w i en abou he Falange’s Sección Femenina. One ecen and no el app oach is ound in he a icle by Cena - o (2017). 9 See also Scanlon (1976) and Ál a ez (1996) o u he de el- opmen o he opic. 10 Sánchez has iden i ied he women’s publica ions, bo h p og es- si e and conse a i e, in Spain in he nine een h and wen ie h cen u ies. See he a icle (Sánchez, 2009, pp. 217-244, p. 223 and .). On he publica ions w i en o women and hei con- en s, see he a icle by Rebollo & Núñez (2007), pp. 181-219. 11 This quo a ion om González comes om a book he w o e wi h Adol o González (1893). 12 See he bibliog aphy on he F anco pe iod and, speci ically, he Sección Femenina. See P imo de Ri e a (1983); Ma ínez (2003); Cues a (2003); A ibas, Juan Ca los e al. (2008) and López (2004). 13 This eeling was widesp ead in Eu ope, No h Ame ica and e en La in Ame ica, see Bush (2007); Howa d & Adams (1997). 14 This appea s in Anonymous (1932) Ellas. Semana io de las muje es españolas, 20, p. 4. Also in Numbe 22, p. 2. 15 Some hing ha he epea s in F aga (1980), p. 245 and (1987), p. 152. 16 Ci ed by An onia Qui oga, he head o he AP’s women and amily sec ion du ing he ansi ion, as a e e ence poin . See A. A adillas (1977). 17 The egene a i e na u e o women was discussed, o example, in A. Goicoechea (1922). See Blasco (2013) and he ci ed wo ks by O ega. 18 This image was c ea ed by he leade s o he main an i-Republi- can o ganiza ions in hei p opaganda. The speeches o women like Pila Ca eaga, Te esa Luzza i, Juana Salas and Rosa U - aca Pas o a e well known. All o hese women opposed he equali y discou se o he women’s mo emen . Fo Te esa Luz- za i and Rosa U aca Pas o , eminis s we e inspi ed by he le is ideology becoming es ablished and we e, hus, joining o ces wi h ‘ he epugnan Red Lady’. See Luzza i (1932) and U aca (1932). 19 These p ejudices began wi h he su age es and con inued o be in ogue du ing he F anco pe iod and ansi ion. On he 1930s, see Aguado and O ega (2011 pp. 173-206). Fo he F anco pe iod, see Joly (2008, 95). 20 In he wo ds o he Jesui Julio Ala cón y Meléndez: ‘The emi- nis mo emen , which does no comply wi h he impulse o God, bu o Sa an, begins by p o oking laugh e and ends by p o oking ho o ’. Ala cón (1908, pp. 38-39). 21 See he con o e sy su ounding di o ce in Félez (2018). REFERENCES Aguado, Ana y O ega, Te esa Ma ía (Eds.) Feminismos y an i emi- nismos: cul u as polí icas e iden idades de géne o en la España del siglo XX. Valencia, PUV. Ala cón, Julio (1908) “Un eminismo acep able”. Razón y Fe, pp. 38-39. Alianza Popula (1977a) Qué es Alianza Popula . Mani ies o de Alianza Popula . Mad id: AP. Alianza Popula (1977b) “Po la emancipación de la muje ”. Alian- za Popula : especial elecciones, 10. Alianza Popula (1977c) “Pad e de amilia” Hoja del Lunes, 23 de mayo. Alianza Popula (1981) Lib o Blanco: Soluciones pa a una década II. Mad id: AP. Alianza Popula (1982) Es ho a de soluciones. 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