MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND
ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC
Pa ones de conco dancia de los nomb es nās y ʕālam en el á abe de
Damasco
Ca men BERLINCHES RAMOS
[email p o ec ed]
Uni e sidad de Za agoza
Abs ac : This pape examines he ag eemen pa e ns wi h he con olle s nās and ʕālam
in Damascus A abic, a ques ion no ye ho oughly s udied. The collec i e na u e o hese
nouns allows wo kinds o ag eemen : s ic ag eemen in he plu al and de lec ed ag ee-
men in he eminine singula . The analysis ocuses on he a ia ion be ween s ic and de-
lec ed ag eemen , especially as ega ds seman ic and p agma ic ac o s, and also he mo -
phological s uc u e o he a ge s. The s udy is synch onic and based on da a collec ed in
he capi al o Sy ia, Damascus. I is di ided in o wo main sec ions: he i s analyzes a -
ge - ela ed ac o s, including a ge ype, wo d o de , and dis ance; he second ocuses on
con olle - ela ed ac o s, including quan i ica ion, quali ica ion, e lexibili y, speci ici y,
and de ini eness. In ecen yea s nume ous s udies on ag eemen ha e been conduc ed and
hey indica e pa allels among di e en a ie ies o A abic, bu such s udies mainly add ess
non-human con olle s. The esul s o he p esen s udy show a p e alence o s ic ag ee-
men wi h he nouns nās and ʕālam. Ta ge ype is a key ac o in de e mining he kind o
ag eemen , wi h dis ance be ween con olle and a ge also being impo an . In line wi h
p e ious s udies, a ia ion in ag eemen is closely connec ed o he con olle ’s deg ee o
indi idualiza ion o collec i i y as pe cei ed by he speake , who ul ima ely chooses which
kind o ag eemen o use.
Resumen: Es e a ículo examina los pa ones de conco dancia de los nomb es nās y ʕālam
en á abe de Damasco, una cues ión aún no es udiada en p o undidad. El sen ido colec i o
de ambos é minos con olado es pe mi e la conco dancia en emenino singula o en mas-
culino plu al, po lo que se analiza es a a iación a endiendo a ac o es semán icos y
p agmá icos, así como a la es uc u a mo ológica de los é minos con olados. La pe spec-
i a del es udio es sinc ónica y es á basada en un co pus de ex os ecogidos en Damasco.
Se di ide en dos pa es: (1) Fac o es elacionados con el é mino con olado ( ipología;
posición en la o ación; dis ancia con espec o al é mino con olado ). (2) Fac o es elacio-
nados con el é mino con olado (cuan i icación; cuali icación; e lexi idad; especi ica-
ción; de e minación). Asimismo, los es udios sob e la conco dancia, pa icula men e p olí-
icos en los úl imos años, han pe mi ido aza pa alelismos con o as a iedades á abes.
Los esul ados mues an una mayo ecuencia de conco dancia en plu al. Además, la ipo-
logía del é mino con olado es un ac o ele an e en la conco dancia, así como una cie a
dis ancia en e con olado y con olado. Po úl imo, y de acue do con es udios an e io es,
la a iación en la conco dancia es á es echamen e elacionada con el g ado de indi iduali-
dad o colec i idad del con olado pe cibido po el hablan e quién, en úl ima ins ancia eli-
ge el ipo de conco dancia.
Key wo ds: A abic dialec ology. Ag eemen . Nās and ʕālam. Damascus A abic.
CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS
MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
4
Palab as cla e: Dialec ología á abe. Conco dancia. Nās y ʕālam. Á abe de Damasco.
Recibido: 10/04/2020 Acep ado: 10/07/2020
1. INTRODUCTION
1
The e m ag eemen commonly e e s o some sys ema ic co a iance be ween
a seman ic o o mal p ope y o one elemen and a o mal p ope y o ano he
2
.
Among hese wo elemen s, he con olle de e mines he ag eemen (say he
subjec noun ph ase) and he a ge is he elemen whose o m is de e mined by
ag eemen
3
. In A abic, he ag eemen o he a ge wi h i s con olle may be o
wo ypes: s ic , i some ca ego y ha is o e ly inhe en ly p esen in he
con olle (subjec o head-noun) and copied in he a ge ( e b, noun-modi ie ),
and de lec ed, i a plu al con olle is associa ed wi h a eminine singula a ge
4
.
Belnap’s s udy on Cai ene A abic
5
demons a ed ha a ia ion wi h human
con olle s is a mo e ex ensi e in his in e iews han he li e a u e would
gene ally lead one o suspec
6
. Al hough human nouns end o a o plu al
ag eemen , he case o nās and ʕālam, bo h meaning ―people‖, mus be
conside ed apa , because being he mos gene ic e ms used o e e o human
beings, hey ha e an implici collec i e sense
7
and he e o e bo h kinds o
1
. Damascus A abic phoneme in en o y: 1. Consonan s. 1.1. Occlusi e: ʔ la yngeal, oiceless; b bi-
labial, oiced; ḅ bilabial, ela ized, oiced; den al, oiceless; d den al, oiced; ṭ den al, ela ized,
oiceless; ḍ den al, ela ized, oiced; k pos pala al, oiceless; q u ula , oiceless; g pos pala al, oice-
less. 1.2. F ica i e: labioden al, oiceless; labioden al, oiced; x ela , oiceless; ġ ela , oiced; h
la yngeal, oiceless; ḥ pha yngeal, oiceless; ʕ pha yngeal, oiced. 1.3. Sibilan : s al eola , oiceless;
z al eola , oiced; ṣ al eola , ela ized, oiceless; ẓ al eola , ela ized, oiced; š p epala al, oiceless;
ž p epala al, oiced. 1.4. Nasal: m bilabial, oiced; n den al, oiced. 1.5. La e al: l al eola , oiced; ḷ
al eola , ela ized, oiced. 1.6. T ill: al eola , oiced. 2. Semi owels: w bilabial, oiced; y pala al,
oiced. 3. Vowels. 3.1. Sho owels: a on , low; e on , mid; ə cen al, mid; i on , high; o back,
mid; u back, high. 3.2. Long owels: ā on , low; ē on , mid; ī on , high; ō back, mid; ū back, high.
2
. S eele. ―Wo d o de ‖, p. 610.
3
. Co be . Ag eemen , p. 4.
4
. Fe guson. ―G amma ical ag eemen ‖, p. 9.
5
. Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen .
6
. Simila ly, conce ning Damascus A abic, Amb os (Damascus A abic, p. 86) poin ed ou ha ―e en
highly sophis ica ed ules (which ha e no been es ablished so a ) would ail o co e all ins ances o
ag eemen wi h plu al subjec s as occu ing in eco ded ex s‖.
7
. C . Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen , pp. 173-175, e e ing o nās in Cai ene A abic. In Mode n
S anda d A abic (MSA) nās is de ined as one o he wo plu als o ʔinsān, he o he being ʔunās,
―people‖ (Co ien e & Fe ando. Dicciona io A anzado, p. 34; Weh . A abisches Wö e buch, p. 48;
W igh , A g amma , p. 233). I is, howe e , ma ked as collec i e in Weh (A Dic iona y, p. 30).
Rega ding ʕālam, Co ien e & Fe ando (Dicciona io A anzado, p. 799) ake i o mean me ely
―wo ld, uni e se‖, whe eas Weh (A abisches Wö e buch, p. 871) ela es i gene ally o ―people
(Wel bewohne , Menschen)‖ when i akes he plu al ʕalamūn. Ba hélemy’s dic iona y (Dic ionnai e
a abe- ançais), which ocused on Le an ine, and pa icula ly Aleppine, A abic, places he e m nās
unde wo oo s: √ʔns ―man wi h he gene al meaning o be human (homme dans le sense géné al, ê e
humain)‖ (p. 17); and √nws ―men, people (hommes, gens)‖ (p. 855). In bo h cases nās is a plu al. By
con as , ʕālam appea s de ined by he a icle (lʕālam), meaning ― he wo ld, he people (le monde, les
AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC
MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
5
ag eemen a e possible. Besides, ecen s udies ha e demons a ed ha he deg ee
o indi idua ion o collec i i y pe cei ed by he speake is c ucial o de e mining
he kind o ag eemen , hus linking ag eemen pa e ns mo e o seman ic and
p agma ic ac o s han o mo phology.
The majo pu pose o his pape is o in es iga e he ag eemen pa e ns o he
nouns nās and ʕālam in Damascus A abic
8
. I will ocus on he a ia ion be ween
―s ic ag eemen ‖ (plu al — plu al) and ―de lec ed ag eemen ‖ (plu al —
eminine singula ), conside ing mo phological, seman ic, and p agma ic ac o s.
The cases in which each kind o ag eemen ends o occu , and ac o s which may
a o one ag eemen o he o he , will be examined. Resul s a e based on a
s a is ical analysis o he occu ence o nās and ʕālam wi h he ollowing kinds o
a ge s: e bs, anapho ic p onouns, adjec i es, ac i e and passi e pa iciples, and
pe sonal and demons a i e p onouns. This s udy is conduc ed om a synch onic
pe spec i e and based on a co pus o ex s ga he ed in Damascus be ween 2007
and 2008
9
. I consis s o abou eigh hou s o in e iews (o app oxima ely 63,350
wo ds) p oduced by i y in o man s. Many o he ex s desc ibe di e en places
in Damascus, adi ions o he socie y, and pe sonal expe iences o he speake s:
hus he ime used is he p esen . O he ex s, ewe in numbe , na a e gene al o
pe sonal e en s in he pas . The ex s do no con ain any con e sa ions.
Va ia ion in ag eemen has been he subjec o esea ch in di e en A abic
a ie ies, wi h a no iceable inc ease in publica ions du ing he las yea s (see he
lis o e e ences below
10
). Melanie Hani sch
11
has s udied, pa icula ly in
Damascus A abic, he a ia ion in ag eemen o non-human plu al nouns
con olling a ibu i e adjec i es
12
. To he bes o my knowledge, he e is no o he
piece o esea ch ha so a has ocused on he subjec o his s udy, excep o a
ew gene al e e ences a ailable in he main g amma s o Damascus A abic.
Among hem, Cowell
13
showed he exis ence o bo h kinds o ag eemen wi h
plu al and collec i e nouns, and poin ed ou indi iduali y s. collec i i y as a
main ac o in de e mining ag eemen . He ga e se e al examples wi h nās and
gens)‖ (p. 547). Thus nās is mainly ega ded as plu al (o collec i e), while ʕālam is a o mally
(masculine) singula which p ima ily means ―wo ld‖ and may also deno e ―(a g oup o ) people‖.
8
. The main linguis ic pa icula i ies o Damascus A abic a e igo ously exposed in Len in. Damas-
cus A abic. Ne e heless, he mos ele an ea u es appea ing in ou examples will be poin ed ou .
9
. This co pus was ga he ed o a Ph.D s udy abou he language o he you h in Damascus. La e , i
was e ised and published as Be linches. El dialec o.
10
. I am deeply hank ul o Simone Be ega o p o iding me wi h se e al o hese sou ces, o
eading an ea ly d a o his pape , and o his help ul hough s and commen s.
11
. Hani sch. ―Kong uenz a ia ion‖.
12
. Un o una ely, his pape lacks quan i a i e da a.
13
. Cowell. A e e ence g amma , pp. 423-426.
CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS
MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
6
ʕālam, bu un o una ely did no s a e quan i a i e esul s. Amb os
14
b ie ly
e e ed o he a ia ion in ag eemen wi h plu al subjec s, including wo
examples showing bo h kinds o ag eemen wi h nās. Fe guson & Ani
15
ga e an
example in which he e b shows de lec ed ag eemen wi h nās; bu o he wise did
no ea ag eemen pa e ns wi h nās and ʕālam in any de ail
16
. G o z eld
17
p o ided only gene al in o ma ion abou ag eemen pa e ns in Damascus,
ega ding nās as a plu al.
Fu he mo e, some s udies on o he A abic a ie ies include speci ic
e e ences o ag eemen pa e ns wi h he gene ic e m o deno ing ―people‖,
which usually is nās. Among hem a e D’Anna (Fezzānī A abic, sou hwes e n
Libya)
18
, P ocházka & Gabsi (U ban Tunisian, pa icula ly he a ie y o he
capi al)
19
, Ri -Benmimoun (Bedouin Tunisian, Ni zāwa egion)
20
, Feghali
(Lebanese A abic)
21
, B us ad (including da a om Mo occan, Egyp ian, Sy ian,
and Kuwai i A abic)
22
, Belnap (Cai ene A abic)
23
, and Holes (Bah aini A abic)
24
.
Some ema ks abou nās in Nadji A abic a e ound in Be ega
25
, and o he
dialec o he ci y o Sal (Jo dan) in He in & Al-We
26
.
1.1. Indi idualiza ion s. collec i i y
B us ad’s s udy on ag eemen in some a ie ies o A abic
27
has demons a ed
ha he lexical i ems do no de e mine he ag eemen pa e ns bu he speake
who chooses i acco ding o seman ic o p agma ic ac o s. She explains ha ―i a
noun is highly indi idua ed, anima e, speci ic, ex ually p ominen , o quan i ied,
he speake ends o choose plu al ag eemen
28
; con e sely, i he noun is non-
14
. Amb os. Damascus A abic, pp. 72 y 86.
15
. Fe guson & Ani. Damascus A abic, p. 238.
16
. Fe guson (―G amma ical ag eemen ‖, p. 12) also p o ides some in o ma ion abou ela ing nās
o de lec ed ag eemen .
17
. G o z eld. Sy isch-a abische, pp. 97-98 ( n. 1).
18
. D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, pp. 107-110.
19
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, pp. 244-247 and 253.
20
. Ri -Benmimoun. ―Ag eemen ‖, pp. 268-272.
21
. Feghali. Syn axe des pa le s, pp. 124-126 and 143-144.
22
. B us ad. The syn ax, pp. 53-61.
23
. Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen , pp. 61-67, 77-78 and 88-89 ( his PhD hesis includes nume-
ous e e ences o he noun nās); Belnap. ―The meaning·, pp. 100-102 and 108-109; Belnap. ―A new
pe spec i e‖, pp. 173-175.
24
. Holes. Dialec , cul u e, pp. 326-341.
25
. Be ega. ―Re hinking ag eemen ‖, pp. 136-137.
26
. He in & Al-We . ―F om phonological a ia ion‖, p. 67.
27
. B us ad. The syn ax, p. 54.
28
. Khan (―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470) adds ha ―[a] nominal which e e s o a speci ic en i y is mo e
indi idua ed han a gene ic nominal, which e e s o a class o en i ies.‖ He de ines ―indi idua ion‖ as
AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC
MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
7
speci ic, collec i e, and less p ominen , he ag eemen will end o be eminine
singula ‖
29
. Mos o he s udies on ag eemen in di e en a ie ies o A abic
co obo a e his asse ion, poin ing ou ha he deg ee o indi idua ion pe cei ed
by he speake is a key ac o in he choice o ag eemen .
The p esen pape is s uc u ed closely on Be ega
30
, wi h he necessa y
modi ica ions o ea ing he con olle s’ pa icula i ies. I is di ided in o a ge -
ela ed and con olle - ela ed ac o s. The i s pa analyzes he a ge ype, he
dis ance be ween con olle and a ge (s), and he wo d o de . The second pa
ea s quan i ica ion, quali ica ion, e lexibili y, speci ici y, and de ini eness.
Ou co pus includes 236 ins ances o nās and ʕālam
31
(nās: 120, ʕālam: 116)
con olling 410 a ge s (266 e bs, 60 anapho ic p onouns, 28 adjec i es, 27
ac i e pa iciples, 15 pe sonal p onouns, 9 passi e pa iciples, and 7
demons a i e p onouns). Ag eemen occu s ei he in masculine plu al (i.e. s ic )
o in hi d pe son eminine singula (i.e. de lec ed)
32
.
ANALYSIS
2. TARGET-RELATED FACTORS
2.1. Ta ge ype
Ta ge ype has been s a ed o be he key ac o o de e mining he kind o
ag eemen
33
. The numbe o occu ences o each kind o a ge and he ag eemen
ype wi h he con olle s nās and ʕālam p o ide us wi h a clea idea o ag eemen
endencies. Resul s a e gi en in he ollowing able and analyzed below.
Kind o a ge 34
De lec ed ag eemen
S ic ag eemen
TOTAL
Ve bs
104 (39.09%)
162 (60.90%)
266
Anapho ic p onouns
26 (43.33%)
34 (56.66%)
60
― he dis inc ness o salience o he nominal om i s own backg ound and, wi h ega d o a e b
complemen nominal, also i s dis inc ness om he subjec ‖ (p. 470).
29
. B us ad. The syn ax, p. 59. Cowell’s g amma (A e e ence g amma , p. 423) concluded: ―Mos
inanima e plu als, and some anima e plu als and collec i e, ha e eminine ag eemen in he p edica e
when collec i i y o gene ali y is emphasized a he han he e ogenei y o pa icula i y‖.
30
. Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖.
31
. Ins ances o ʕālam showing masculine singula ag eemen occu only when ʕālam deno es
―wo ld‖ and no jus ―inhabi an s o he wo ld (i.e. people)‖: o ins ance, (1) la-ḥa a nkūn ʕala ṣila
maʕ ǝl-ʕālam ǝl-ġa bi ― o us o be in con ac wi h Wes e n wo ld‖ (ġa bi: ADJ.MSG). In he
examples in his pape , ʕālam will e e o he gene ic ―people‖ unless indica ed o he wise.
32
. O he ypes o ag eemen , like he masculine singula ag eemen e y commonly ound in he
Jo danian ci y o Sal (c . He in & Al-We . ―F om phonological a ia ion‖, p. 67), o he eminine
plu al ag eemen ound in Ni zāwa, sou he n Tunisia (Ri -Benminoun. ―Ag eemen ‖) and
sou hwes e n Libya (D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 107), do no occu in ou da a.
33
. Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 173.
34
. The kinds o a ge s a e lis ed in o de o numbe o appea ances.

CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS
MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
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Adjec i es
11 (39.28%)
17 (60.71%)
28
Ac i e pa iciples
7 (25.92%)
20 (74.07%)
27
Pe sonal p onouns
0 (0.00%)
13 (100%)
13
Passi e pa iciples
4 (44.44%)
5 (55.55%)
9
Demons a i e p onouns
1 (14.28%)
6 (85.71%)
7
2.1.1. Ve bs
Ve bs a e he mos - equen ly used a ge s in he da a, wi h a o al o 266
ins ances. S ic ag eemen p e ails wi h a pe cen age o 60.90% e sus 39.09%
o de lec ed ag eemen .
nās
ʕālam
To al
De lec ed ag eemen
64
40
104
S ic ag eemen
88
74
162
Example o de lec ed ag eemen :
(2) i ʕālam bǝ aḍḍǝla, hiyye k ī ṭayybe ― he e a e people who p e e i , i is e y
as y‖ (bǝ aḍḍǝl-: VB.3FSG)
Example o s ic ag eemen :
(3) i nās byǝʕǝmlu laban b-ǝxyā ― he e a e people who make yogu wi h
cucumbe ‖ (byǝʕǝmlu: VB.PL)
Acco ding o Feghali
35
, in Lebanese A abic he e b ag ees indi e en ly in
plu al (s ic ag eemen ) o in eminine singula (de lec ed ag eemen ) when
con olle s, including he nouns nās and ʕālam, e e o human collec i es. Bu
his is no he case o Damascus, whe e, a leas in clauses whe e he con olle s
nās and ʕālam a e in ol ed, s ic ag eemen is mo e likely o occu .
In Bah ain, cases o e bs showing de lec ed ag eemen wi h he noun nās
ha e been associa ed wi h desc ip ions o gene al ac ions a he han o wha
happened a a speci ic poin in he pas
36
. Ou da a sugges he same, hough he
numbe o examples o his kind is limi ed—pe haps because mos o ou ex s
a e desc ip i e, ocused on di e en aspec s o he daily li e in Damascus as well
as on he cus oms and adi ions o Damascene socie y. The e o e gene ic ac ions
clea ly p e ail.
Holes has ela ed de lec ed ag eemen o a pa icula ly common use o nās as
an inde ini e dis ibu i e (i.e. ―some o he s‖)
37
, which is also ue o Damascus,
as he ollowing example shows:
35
. Feghali. Syn axe des pa le s, p.124.
36
. Holes. Dialec , cul u e, p. 331.
37
. Ídem, p. 333.
AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC
MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152
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(4) i ʕālam b ǝʔʕod
38
ʕal-ka āsi w ṭāwlā , i ʕālam ǝb ǝš abon ʕal-wāʔe ― he e
a e people who si on he chai s and ables, and he e a e people (=some o he s)
who d ink i s anding up‖ (b ǝʔʕod: VB.3FSG)
39
.
2.1.2. Adjec i es
Ou da a con ain 28 ins ances o adjec i es con olled by nās o ʕālam. In
60.71% o he cases ag eemen is s ic and in 39.28% de lec ed
40
.
nās
ʕālam
To al
De lec ed ag eemen
10
1
11
S ic ag eemen
12
5
17
Example o de lec ed ag eemen :
(5) kāne ǝn-nās bən-nǝsbe ʔǝli k ī ġa ībe ― he people we e e y s ange o me‖
(ġa ībe: ADJ.FSG)
Example o s ic ag eemen :
(6) əl-ʕālam yaʕni hēke wadūdīn ― he people a e, I mean... like his,
wa mhea ed‖ (wadūdīn: ADJ.PL)
S ic ag eemen clea ly p e ails, ep esen ing almos wo- hi ds o he o al.
Acco ding o B us ad
41
, he eason o hese esul s is he highe deg ee o
indi idua ion associa ed wi h modi ied nouns (see sec ion 3.2.1.).
Mo eo e , as can be seen in he nex able, no signi ican di e ences in
ag eemen ype conce ning he a ibu i e o p edica i e na u e o he adjec i es
a e obse ed in he da a
42
.
nās
ʕālam
A ibu i e
P edica i e
A ibu i e
P edica i e
De lec ed ag eemen
8
2
1
0
S ic ag eemen
9
3
1
4
TOTAL
17
5
2
4
38
. The e bal modi ie o he gene al p esen is b-, which gene ally u ns in o m o he i s pe son
plu al, c . Cowell. A e e ence g amma , p. 180. Mo eo e , in Damascus q is ealized as a glo al s op
(ʔ), excep in bo owings o Classical A abic, c . Len in. Damascus A abic, p. 546.
39
. In hese cases he exis en ial pa icle i ― he e is‖ usually occu s be o e he con olle s.
40
. This example om Cowell (A e e ence g amma , p. 500), nās ġǝšǝm ―igno an people‖, also
shows s ic ag eemen .
41
. B us ad. The syn ax, p. 61.
42
. Only p edica i e adjec i es show a highe numbe o cases o s ic ag eemen wi h ʕālam (4
cases o de lec ed ag eemen agains none o s ic ag eemen ). Bu we conside he numbe o
ins ances insu icien o any conclusion.
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Despi e he p e alence o s ic ag eemen , ou esul s indica e ha in
Damascus A abic cases o adjec i es showing de lec ed ag eemen wi h he
con olle s nās and ʕālam occu wi h mo e equency han in o he A abic
a ie ies. Fo example, in U ban Tunisian, P ocházka & Gabsi ha e de ec ed only
a ew cases o adjec i es igge ing de lec ed ag eemen wi h nās and ʕbād, bo h
meaning ―people‖ (e.g. nās bāhya ―good people‖)
43
. They conside hese cases
idioma ic colloca ions, hus no con olled by p agma ic discou se s uc u es, and
hey a i m ha de lec ed ag eemen o adjec i es —wi h human con olle s— is
e en mo e es ic ed han wi h e bs and p onouns. A he same ime, Feghali,
ocusing on Lebanese A abic, claimed ha he ag eemen o he adjec i e wi h
con olle s e e ing o human collec i es is always s ic
44
. In Bah aini A abic,
s ic ag eemen wi h adjec i es clea ly p e ails
45
. Howe e , Holes also eco ded
se e al cases o de lec ed ag eemen , usually when he e e ence was gene ic o
collec i e. By con as , Be ega’s indings in Omani A abic a e e y in e es ing
since hey show a high pe cen age (94.3%) o a ibu i e adjec i es a ac ing
de lec ed ag eemen
46
. These esul s a e, howe e , based on non-human
con olle s and he au ho poin s ou ha his da a abou he noun nās is
insu icien o s a is ical analysis
47
.
Ou esul s ag ee wi h Belnap’s
48
, whose hie a chy o de lec ed ag eemen
pa icula ly ocused on nās places p edica i e adjec i es on he op o he lis
49
.
Acco ding o B us ad
50
, e bs igge de lec ed ag eemen mo e han adjec i es,
explained by he highe deg ee o indi idua ion o modi ied nouns. This
s a emen is ne e heless no ocused on he con olle s nās and ʕālam. Ou da a
show exac ly he same pe cen age o de lec ed ag eemen o bo h e bs and
adjec i es.
Adjec i es and hei connec ion wi h he con olle ’s quali ica ion a e u he
analyzed in sec ion 3.2.1.
43
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 247.
44
. Feghali. Syn axe des pa le s, p. 143. The au ho p o ides wo examples o his kind. He
a ibu es excep ions o his ule o he in luence o he Classical language, o o he need o hyme in
popula songs (p. 144). These s a emen s de ini ely do no ag ee wi h ou indings, which show almos
40% o de lec ed ag eemen . We wonde how he si ua ion could change so much in a pe iod o less a
cen u y, especially gi en ha Lebanese A abic is a Le an ine a ie y e y close o Damascus A abic.
45
. Holes. Dialec , cul u e, pp. 327-329.
46
. Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 168. Fo p edica i e adjec i es he pe cen age is 55.6%.
47
. Ídem, n. 17.
48
. Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen , p. 88.
49
. Belnap (G amma ical ag eemen , pp. 66-67) mo eo e men ions ha in Abdel-Massih e al. (A
e e ence g amma , p. 22) all he speake s used de lec ed ag eemen wi h nās and ʕālam o some
deg ee.
50
. B us ad. The syn ax, p. 61.
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2.1.3. Pa iciples
Ou da a include 36 pa iciples con olled by nās and ʕālam. Among hem, 27
a e ac i e and 9 passi e. Due o hei di e en g amma ical na u e and beha io ,
hey will be ea ed sepa a ely.
a) Ac i e pa iciples
Ac i e pa iciples show a clea inclina ion o s ic ag eemen wi h a e y high
pe cen age o occu ences (74.07%):
nās
ʕālam
To al
De lec ed ag eemen
3
4
7
S ic ag eemen
13
7
20
Example o de lec ed ag eemen :
(7) ǝn-nās āyḥa ʕala šǝġla ― he people a e going o hei job‖ ( āyḥa: AP.FSG)
Example o s ic ag eemen :
(8) i nās mu šāy īn ― he e a e people who do no see‖ (šāy īn: AP.PL)
The p e alence o s ic ag eemen could be explained by i s ole as a e b
o m
51
. Howe e , in 17 o ou 20 examples o s ic ag eemen wo o he ea u es
o speci ica ion o indi idua ion may ha e had an impac on he esul s: he
p esence o he ela i e p onoun in 6 cases, and a dis ance g ea e han ou wo ds
om he con olle in 11 cases
52
.
Conce ning he small numbe o occu ences o de lec ed ag eemen (7
occu ences — 25.92%), one is clea ly in luenced by MSA, being in a eligious
con ex wi h some MSA loans, and h ee ha e e ms emphasizing collec i i y
53
.
The e o e, only h ee cases o de lec ed ag eemen a e no in luenced by any
special ac o s.
The limi ed da a abou he ag eemen pa e ns o hese pa iciples wi h bo h
human and non-human con olle s in Sy ian A abic, as well as in o he a ie ies
o A abic, do no allow us o de e mine whe he o no ou indings a e a egula
endency in ag eemen . This is de ini ely a poin o u he esea ch.
b) Passi e pa iciples
On he o he hand, passi e pa iciples show a nea ly equal p opo ion o bo h
kinds o ag eemen , 55.55% s ic and 44.44% de lec ed. Ne e heless, hese
51
. In ou da a e bs show a ela i ely high pe cen age o s ic ag eemen (60.90%: see sec ion
2.1.1).
52
. These ac o s a e u he examined in sec ions 3.2.2 and 2.3, espec i ely.
53
. I.e. i k ī , baʕǝḍ, and kǝll, as discussed in sec ions 3.1.1-2 and 3.3.
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The i s a ge (bǝ šū : VB.3FSG) is sepa a ed by one wo d om i s con olle
and shows de lec ed ag eemen , while he wo second a ge s (biḥāwlu: VB.3PL,
yʔalldu: VB.3PL) a e sepa a ed om hei con olle by nine and en wo ds,
espec i ely, and show s ic ag eemen .
Howe e , in o he cases de lec ed ag eemen is main ained h ough he whole
sen ence despi e dis ance:
(16) bass ǝl-ʕālam ma bǝ ḥǝss ḥāla mǝṭṭa a ǝḥmǝla ―bu he people don’ eel
obliged o ca y i ‖.
In his case he consecu i e sequence o he a ge s (bǝ ḥǝss: VB.3FSG, -a:
PRON.3FSG, mǝṭṭa a: PP.SG, ǝḥmǝl-: VB.3FSG) seems o esul in de lec ed
ag eemen o all o hem.
(17) i nās bǝ kūn žāye ʔabl ǝl-kǝll ʕal-madīne
89
, zāy e - asūl u baʕdēn bǝ ūḥ
ʕala makke ― he e a e people who i s come o Medina, isi he P ophe , and
a e wa ds go o Makkah‖. bǝ ūḥ (VB.3FSG) is sepa a ed by nine wo ds om i s
con olle , a dis ance which no mally would ha e esul ed in s ic ag eemen .
This example was possibly in luenced by MSA because he opic o he
con e sa ion was he Pilg image and se e al ea u es o MSA can be obse ed in
i .
(18) nnās bǝ kūn bibyū ha bakkī w-b ǝži ʕašīye mǝn ʔašġālha ― he people a e
ea ly a home and come back om wo k in he e ening‖
In his example, ex ac ed om Bloch & G o z eld
90
, all he a ge s (bǝ kūn:
VB.3FSG, -ha: PRON.3FSG, b ǝži: VB.3FSG, -ha: PRON.3FSG) show de lec ed
ag eemen .
Finally, P ocházka & Gabsi ha e ound pa icula ly common pa e ns o
mixed ag eemen in which he i s clause (V-S) shows de lec ed ag eemen and
he second s ic ag eemen (wi h he same con olle )
91
. Un o una ely ou da a
only con ain he ollowing example wi h simila s uc u e, which migh be due o
he limi ed numbe o V-S clauses:
(19) bass kāne mǝ ǝl-ma ʔǝl -ǝllek yǝžu n-nās kǝlla yǝž ǝmʕu ―bu , as I old you,
all he people came o mee ‖ (kāne : VB.3FSG, yǝžu: VB.3PL, yǝž ǝmʕu:
VB.3PL).
bə ḥəbbi ―you (F) like‖ > bə ḥəbbī ―you (F) like him‖. Whe eas when a wo d ends in a consonan , he
p onoun is -o, o ins ance: bē ―house‖ > bē o ―his house‖.
89
. The shi a > e in inal posi ion (madīna > madīne) is known as inal ʔimāla and akes place a -
e non-pha yngeal, la yngeal o ela ized consonan s (i.e. b, , ž, d, z, s, š, , k, l, m, n, w, y) and some-
imes a e (c . Cowell. A e e ence g amma , p. 138-139).
90
. Bloch & G o z eld. Damaszenisch-a abische, p. 80. T ansla ion by he p esen au ho .
91
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 246.

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Al hough ou da a ocuses only on clauses in ol ing he subjec s nās and
ʕālam, esul s sugges ha his pa e n is no e y equen in Damascus A abic.
On he o he hand, cases o a ge s showing he shi om s ic o de lec ed
ag eemen wi h he same con olle a e no ound in ou da a.
Finally, ou da a include se e al ins ances o coo dina ed clauses, each wi h
wo di e en con olle s and a ge s. They ha e simila g amma ical s uc u e bu
show di e en kinds o ag eemen . Appa en ly, he e is no c i e ia o explaining
i , as he ollowing examples show:
(20) mǝnḥǝbb
92
ǝl-ʕālam ǝ - ānye, i ḥǝbb lal-musāʕade lan-nās ǝl-ʔāxa īn ―we
like o he people; he e is lo e o helping (= we like helping) o he s‖
This example includes wo coo dina ed sen ences wi h pa allel seman ic
cons uc ion —ǝl-ʕālam ǝ - ānye and n-nās ǝl-ʔāxa īn— bu a ge s ( ānye:
ADJ.FSG, ʔāxa īn: ADJ.PL) showing di e en ag eemen . The eason o his is
opaque.
(21) i masalan ʕālam byǝ ba aʕu b-maṣā i, masalan ʕālam ǝb ǝḥ āž ʕamaliyyā
i ʕālam byǝ ba aʕu masalan, i ḥa a ʕālam ǝb-dubay ǝb ǝbʕa ǝ yāb ― he e is o
example people who dona e money; o example (i ) people need an ope a ion,
he e a e people who dona e, o example, e en people in Dubai who send
clo hes‖
The ou a ge s in his passage, in o de o appea ance, a e: byǝ ba aʕu
(VB.3PL), b ǝḥ āž (VB.3FSG), byǝ ba aʕu (VB.3PL), and b ǝbʕa (VB.3FSG).
The ou e bs appea a e hei ou espec i e con olle s, which is ʕālam in all
ou cases. The less agen i i y o he e b b ǝḥ āž may explain he de lec ed
ag eemen , bu based on his a gumen we a e no able o explain he de lec ed
ag eemen o he ou h e b. The a ia ion mus be due o he speake ’s c i e ia.
3. CONTROLLER-RELATED FACTORS
3.1. Quan i ica ion
P e ious s udies ha e demons a ed ha quan i ie s play an impo an ole in
de e mining he ype o ag eemen
93
. These sou ces pa icula ly con i m ha mos
o he nume ical quan i ie s s ongly a o s ic ag eemen ; howe e , he
uncoun able na u e o he con olle s nās and ʕālam does no allow nume ical
quan i ica ion.
Ou da a include he ollowing quan i ie s: k ī ―many‖, kǝll ―all‖, ġālibiyye
―majo i y‖, ʔak a ―majo i y‖, and baʔiyye ― emainde ‖.
92
. m is he i s pe son plu al e bal modi ie o he p esen , a e he assimila ion b > m (see n.
38).
93
. C . o ins ance Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen . p. 68, and Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h‖, p. 157.
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3.1.1. Quan i ie k ī and he co-occu ence o i k ī
The quan i ie k ī ―many, a lo ‖ ollowed by an inde ini e noun os e s
de lec ed ag eemen because i deno es low indi idua ion
94
. Ou da a include only
one example o k ī a ac ing de lec ed ag eemen bu 7 examples a ac ing s ic
ag eemen , hough 5 o he 7 cases o s ic ag eemen show o he ea u es o
speci ica ion, which pe haps explains he highe pe cen age o s ic ag eemen .
This pa icula ques ion should be u he s udied by examining mo e occu ences
o k ī in sen ences in ol ing nās and ʕālam and di e en human and non-human
con olle s.
Examples o de lec ed ag eemen :
(22) k ī nās ǝb ǝ ʔoṣ dabke ―many people dance Dabka‖ (b ǝ ʔoṣ: VB.3FSG)
Examples o s ic ag eemen :
(23) hiyye ʔǝ ne m a abe w ǝk ī ʕālam sāknīn iyya ―i is a well-o ganized place
and many people li e he e‖ (sāknīn: AP.PL)
Howe e , ou da a indica e ha he co-occu ence o he exis en ial pa icle i
― he e is/a e‖ and he quan i ie k ī clea ly p omo es de lec ed ag eemen . In his
cons uc ion k ī may p ecede o ollow he con olle (e.g. i k ī nās/ʕālam o i
nās/ʕālam ǝk ī ). Among ou examples, he ag eemen is de lec ed in 8 cases and
s ic in 3, one o he la e in ol ing ea u es o speci ica ion. Al hough s udies
ocused on o he a ie ies o A abic ha e indica ed ha i is an emphasize o
gene ali y and collec i i y, as in U ban Tunisian
95
and sou hwes e n Libya
96
, in
Damascus A abic i seems ha his is ue only when i accompanies k ī , a leas
in clauses in ol ing he con olle s nās and ʕālam
97
.
Examples o de lec ed ag eemen :
(24) i ʕālam ǝk ī ǝb ǝži ʕala hāda l-ʔǝž imāʕ ― he e a e a lo o people who come
o his mee ing‖ (b ǝži: VB.3FSG)
(25) i k ī ʕālam ʔāxde ǝk e kī kāne ʕāyše l-masīḥiyye ʔabǝl ― he e a e a lo o
people who ha e an idea o how he li e o he Ch is ians was be o e‖ (ʔāxde:
AP.FSG)
Example o s ic ag eemen :
94
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 244, y p. 246, e e ing o he o m baṛša ―many‖ in U ban
Tunisian. Also, example (5) in Ri -Benmimoun. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 266 (Tunisian Bedouin), also
in ol ing baṛša, is consis en wi h his.
95
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 245.
96
. D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108.
97
. Resul s which co obo a e ha i does no igge only one kind o ag eemen a e:
i nās
i ʕālam
TOTAL
De lec ed ag eemen
19
16
35
S ic ag eemen
22
8
30
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(26) i ʕālam ǝk ī byǝlǝbsu ḥalaʔ ǝkbī ― he e a e a lo o people who wea big
ea ings‖ (byǝlǝbsu: VB.3PL)
3.1.2. Quan i ie kǝll
The quan i ie kǝll ―all‖ emphasizes collec i i y and gene ali y, hence igge s
de lec ed ag eemen . Ou da a show 21 cases o de lec ed ag eemen in which kǝll
p ecedes o ollows he con olle s (i.e. kǝll nās/ʕālam o ǝn-nās/ʕālam kǝll-a/on),
and 7 cases o s ic ag eemen , wo o which can be explained by he dis ance
be ween he con olle and he a ge o by he p esence o ea u es o
speci ica ion. The esul s con i m he clea endency o collec i i y os e ed by
kǝll – hus de lec ed ag eemen p e ails. The same has been obse ed in o he
a ie ies o A abic, as in U ban Tunisian
98
and Bedouin Tunisian
99
, bo h s udies
speci ically e e ing o he con olle nās, and in Omani A abic
100
.
Examples o de lec ed ag eemen :
(27) kǝll ǝn-nās ʔaʕde ǝb-bē a ―all he people s ayed a home‖ (ʔaʕde :
VB.3FSG)
(28) kǝll ǝl-ʕālam mawžūde bǝž-žāmeʕ ―all he people a e a he mosque‖
(mawžūde: PP.FSG)
Example o s ic ag eemen :
(29) bǝ šū i kǝll ǝl-ʕālam wāʔ īn ʕaž-žabal u ʕam-byǝdʕu abbon ―you see all he
people s anding upon he moun ain and implo ing God‖ (wāʔ īn: AP.PL)
3.1.3. O he quan i ie s
In addi ion o k ī and kǝll, ou da a include h ee mo e quan i ie s: ġālibiyye
―majo i y‖, ʔak a ―majo i y‖, and baʔiyye ― es ‖. All o hem seem o a o s ic
ag eemen .
Ġālibiyye appea s in he ollowing wo clauses:
(30) bǝ lāʔi ʔǝnno ġālibī ǝl-ʕālam ǝlli sāknīn byǝš ǝġlu ǝžžā , bǝl-ʕamā a,
ġālibī on byǝš ǝġlu bǝl-mǝhan ǝl-yadawiyye ―you ind ha mos o he people
who li e ( he e) a e ade s; in he ʕAmā a
101
mos o hem a e c a smen‖
(sāknīn: AP.PL, byǝš ǝġlu: VB.3PL, ġālibī on: NOUN-PRON.PL, byǝš ǝġlu:
VB.3PL).
In his case, he con olle is clea ly speci ied by he ela i e p onoun ǝlli.
98
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 245.
99
. Ri -Benmimoun. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 272, p. 283.
100
. Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 163. On he o he hand, in sou hwes e n Libya kǝll does
no seem o a ac de lec ed ag eemen (D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108, speci ically e e ing o nās).
101
. Name o a adi ional neighbo hood in Damascus.
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(31) kamān ġālibī hal-ʕālam bǝ ḥǝssiyyon ʔǝnno hǝnnen la-hallaʔ šǝġlon ka-
mwaẓẓa īn ―also, mos o he people, you eel ha up o now hey ha e wo ked as
employees‖ (bǝ ḥǝssiyy-on: VB-PRON.PL, hǝnnen: PRON.3PL, šǝġl-on: NOUN-
PRON.PL, mwaẓẓa īn: PP.PL)
ʔak a occu ed wice in ou da a, bo h imes in clauses which show s ic
ag eemen :
(32) iyya nās bass ʔak a on sū iyyīn ― he e a e people in i ; bu mos o hem a e
Sy ians‖ (ʔak a -on: ADV-PRON.PL, sū iyyīn: NOUN.PL)
Finally, baʔiyye appea s jus once, in a sen ence showing s ic ag eemen :
(33) ǝl-baʔiyye nās ʕādiyyīn ― he es a e common people‖ (ʕādiyyīn: ADJ.PL)
3.2. Quali ica ion
3.2.1. Adjec i es
Khan s a ed ha a nominal speci ied by a quali ie is mo e indi idua ed han
one no so speci ied
102
. Among he quali ie s which speci y he con olle s nās
and ʕālam, adjec i es a e he mos nume ous and a ac s ic ag eemen wi h
mo e equency (60.71%; see sec ion 2.1.2.).
Examples o s ic ag eemen :
(34) ʔak a mǝn ǝl-nās ǝl-ʕādīn ―mo e han he common people‖ (ʕādīn: ADJ.PL)
(35) ǝl-nās ḥabbābīn u kǝllon laṭī īn ― he people a e a ec iona e and all (o hem)
cha ming‖ (ḥabbābīn: ADJ.PL, kǝll-on: ADV-PRON.PL, laṭī īn: ADJ.PL)
S ic ag eemen is main ained despi e he p esence o kǝll, which igge s
de lec ed ag eemen (see sec ion 3.1.2.).
Examples o de lec ed ag eemen :
(36) ṭabʕan mǝnḥǝbb ǝl-ʕālam ǝ - ānye ―o cou se we lo e he o he people‖
( ānye: ADJ.3FSG)
(37) i nās ġa ībe bi ǝššu l-mǝlǝḥ ʔāxe ʔāxe ǝš-ši ― he e a e s ange people who
add he sal a he e y end‖
This is a case o mixed ag eemen in which he i s a ge (ġa ībe: ADJ.FSG)
shows de lec ed ag eemen and he second a ge (bi ǝššu: VB.3PL) s ic
ag eemen . In e es ingly, bo h a ge s appea one a e he o he .
3.2.2. Rela i e p onoun (yǝ)lli
The p esence o he ela i e p onoun in a clause clea ly emphasizes
speci ica ion, hus a ac ing s ic ag eemen . Ou da a has 25 ins ances o his,
agains 2 which show de lec ed ag eemen .
Examples o s ic ag eemen :
102
. Khan. ―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470.
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(38) ǝn-nās ǝlli ʕandon ǝ īʔ ṣā u yǝsha u ― he people who ha e a pa ne , s a ed
going ou in he nigh ‖ (ʕand-on: PREP-PRON.PL, ṣā u: VB.3PL, yǝsha u:
VB.3PL)
(39) ḥābeb ʔǝnno n-nās ǝlli ba a bi-ʔō ǝbba yšū ūha ―I would like ha he
people who a e ou side, in Eu ope, see i ‖ (yšū ū-: VB.3PL)
Examples o de lec ed ag eemen :
(40) nǝḥna ʕanna nās ǝlli ʕam-yǝ ʕallam ǝl-ʔǝslām
103
―we ha e people who a e
s udying Islam‖ (yǝ ʕallam: VB.3FSG)
(41) lāzem ǝ sāʕdi n-nās yǝlli ma maʕa maṣā i ―you mus help he people who
ha e no money‖ (maʕ-a: PREP-PRON.3FSG)
The p e alence o s ic ag eemen in ela i e clauses has been obse ed in
o he a ie ies o A abic, such as ha o sou hwes e n Libya
104
and in U ban
Tunisian
105
.
The e o e quali ica ion (by an adjec i e o a ela i e p onoun) a o s ic
ag eemen , in con as o Omani A abic, whe e quali ied con olle s show a
p e e ence o de lec ed ag eemen
106
.
3.3. Re lexibili y
3.3.1. Re lexi e p onoun baʕḍ
Khan poin ed ou ha e lexi e complemen s a e a ea u e o non-
indi idua ion
107
. Ou da a show 6 cases o de lec ed ag eemen and 2 o s ic
ag eemen . Pe haps hese wo cases o s ic ag eemen a e because he a ge s
ollow a a ge al eady in he plu al. As was s a ed abo e, he shi s ic >
de lec ed is unusual in Damascus A abic (see sec ion 2.3.).
Examples o de lec ed ag eemen :
(42) ǝl-ḥā a š-šāmiyye kāne kǝll ǝn-nās aʕ e baʕḍa ―in he Damascene
neighbo hood all he people knew each o he ‖ ( aʕ e : VB.3FSG, baʕḍ-a: PRON-
PRON.3FSG)
(43) masalan ǝn-nās ʕalāqā a maʕ baʕǝḍha kī ― o example, how is he people’s
ela ion o each o he ‖ (ʕalāqā -a: NOUN-PRON.3FSG, baʕǝḍ-ha: PRON-
PRON.3FSG)
103
. Usually he ela i e p onoun is only used when i s an eceden is de ini e (c . Aldoukhi e al.
Leh buch, p. 217). Since nās is inde ini e, his example is an excep ion o he ule.
104
. D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108.
105
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 252.
106
. C . Be ega ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 161.
107
. Khan. ―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470; B us ad. The Syn ax, p. 55. Howe e B us ad p o es wi h he
ollowing example ex ac ed om Cowell (A e e ence g amma , p. 425) ha de lec ed ag eemen
does no always occu in hese cases: hal-ʔalwān mā bināsbu baʕḍon ― hese colo s don’ go oge he ‖.
No ice, howe e , ha his example shows a non-human con olle .

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Examples o s ic ag eemen :
(44) ǝn-nās yaʕni mǝn ǝ ḥīn, mǝn ǝ ḥīn ʕala baʕḍon ― he people a e open-minded;
open-minded o each o he ‖ (mǝn ǝ ḥīn: AP.PL, baʕḍ-on: PRON-PRON.PL)
3.4. Speci ici y
3.4.1. Pe sonal p onouns
The high le el o indi idua ion p o ided by pe sonal p onouns seems o be
he eason why in ou da a hey only show s ic ag eemen wi h hei con olle s.
Bu in 4 o he 14 occu ences o pe sonal p onouns he ela i e p onoun, which
a ou s s ic ag eemen , was also p esen (see sec ion 3.2.2.). Pe sonal p onouns
a e placed a he end o Co be ’s hie a chy o de lec ed ag eemen
108
.
Examples o s ic ag eemen :
(45) hǝnnen ǝn-nās ma byǝš abu mn ǝn-nahǝ mubāša a an ― hey, he people, do
no d ink di ec ly om he i e ‖ (hǝnnen: PRON.3PL, byǝš abu: VB.3PL)
(46) bǝl-manṭiʔa bēn l-ǝ nēn bǝ lāʔi ʔǝnno ʕālam hǝnnen ʔaṣlan mānon šwām ―in
he a ea be ween bo h, you ind people who a e no o iginally Damascene‖
(hǝnnen: PRON.3PL, mān-on: NEG-PRON.PL, šwām: ADJ.PL)
3.4.2. Demons a i e p onouns
Demons a i e p onouns p ominen ly indi idualize hei con olle s, hence
almos all he ins ances in ou da a (6/7) show s ic ag eemen . The only example
o de lec ed ag eemen in ol es he sho o m hal-, which does no show gende
and numbe . The s ong deic ic cha ac e o he demons a i es p o ides a high
deg ee o p ominence o he con olle , as obse ed in U ban Tunisian
109
.
Examples o s ic ag eemen :
(47) lēš hadōl ǝn-nās hēke byǝʕǝmlu? ―why do hese people do so?‖ (hadōl:
DEM.PL, byǝʕǝmlu: VB.3PL)
(48) hadōl ǝn-nās yǝlli ma biḥǝṭṭu ǝl-ḥijāb ― hese people who don’ wea he
hijab‖ (hadōl: DEM.PL, biḥǝṭṭu: VB.3PL).
In his example, indi idua ion is p ominen ly ma ked by he co-exis ence o
he ela i e p onoun yǝlli (see sec ion 3.2.2.).
Example o de lec ed ag eemen :
(49) hāda bikūn abb ǝl-ʕālamīn ʔǝnno ġa a -lon la-han-nās kǝlla ― his is God
who absol ed all hese people‖ (kǝll-a: ADV-PRON.3FSG).
108
. C . Co be . Hie a chies, a ge s, p. 207.
109
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 252. Bu he au ho s add ha his is no he only possible
eason o explaining he s ic ag eemen : i could also esul om mo pho-syn ac ic p inciples.
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This is he only example o de lec ed ag eemen ound in he da a. I pe haps
can be explained by he p esence o he quan i ie kǝll (see sec ion 3.1.2.), which
igge s de lec ed ag eemen .
Examples o demons a i e p onouns p ominen ly ma king he con olle s and
he e o e a ac ing s ic ag eemen a e ound in o he a ie ies o A abic, like
U ban Tunisian
110
. Be ega’s indings speci ically conce ning nās in Omani
A abic sugges he same conclusion
111
.
3.4.3. Loca i e cons uc ions
In many cases whe e he e a e e e ences o local places, s ic ag eemen
p e ails. This could be explained by he ac ha such e e ences p o ide speci ic
in o ma ion abou people in a de ini e place, hus clea ly indi idualizing he
g oup. Examples:
(50) ǝl-ʕālam ʔaḥyānan ba a ʔaw hēk ši bi akk u ʔǝnno ṣ-ṣalā ši bixawwe ǝl-
ʕālam ― he people some imes, ou side (Sy ia) o so, hink ha (Muslim) p aying
is some hing ha sca es he people‖ (bi akk u: VB.3PL)
The loca i e ph ase ba a ʔaw hēk ši speci ies ha no e e yone hinks in he
way he sen ence desc ibes, only hose ab oad.
(51) i ʕālam bǝš-šām biʔūlu l-ma a b ǝʕmel ǝḥžāb la-žōza ― he e a e people in
Damascus who say ha he woman makes an amule o he husband‖ (biʔūlu:
VB.3PL)
The loca i e ph ase bǝš-šām speci ies ha he sen ence e e s only o people
in Damascus.
A ew examples o his kind include he p eposi ion ʕand ―wi h, a ‖:
(52) bǝdda k ī nās ʕandon byǝʔd u yǝ ʕāmalu maʕ ǝl-ʕālam u yǝḥku maʕ ǝl-
ʕālam u hēk ―many people he e can mix wi h he people and alk o he people
and so‖ (ʕand-on: PREP-PRON.PL, byǝʔd u: VB.3PL, yǝ ʕāmalu: VB.3PL,
yǝḥku: VB.3PL)
The p eposi ion ʕand ollowed by he anapho ic p onoun -on li e ally means
―a ha place, a he place whe e hey (= hese people) a e‖.
Howe e , he ollowing example does no show s ic ag eemen despi e he
occu ence o hnīke ― he e‖—pe haps due o he double p esence o he quan i ie
kǝll, which a ac s de lec ed ag eemen :
110
. Ídem, p. 243.
111
. Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 168, n. 17.
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(53) kǝll ǝl-ʕālam ǝhnīke lābse ʔabyaḍ, kǝll ǝl-ʕālam ―all he people he e wea
whi e (clo hes), all he people‖ (lābse: AP.FSG)
112
.
3.4.4. Dis ance & Speci ica ion
I was men ioned in sec ion 2.3. ha mixed ag eemen clauses usually include
a i s a ge which is nea o i s con olle and shows de lec ed ag eemen , and a
second a ge dis anced om he same con olle and showing s ic ag eemen . In
many occasions, he dis anced a ge (s) add u he in o ma ion abou hei
con olle s; he e o e dis ance is ega ded as a equen ac o o speci ica ion o
indi idua ion
113
. This phenomenon has been egis e ed in o he a ie ies, like
U ban Tunisian
114
, Bah ain
115
, and sou hwes e n Libyan
116
.
Examples:
(54) ǝn-nās ǝ sā e , ūḥ u ǝži, ṣā e ǝ šū ġē ʔašyāʔ, a-ṭṭa u ʔǝnno ydaww u
ʕala luġa kūn ʔashal bǝ - aʕāmol ― he people a el, go and come, s a ed seeing
o he hings; he e o e hey we e obliged o look o ano he language easie o
he ela ion be ween hem‖ ( sā e : VB.3FSG, ūḥ: VB.3FSG, ǝži: VB.3FSG,
ṣā e : VB.3FSG, šū : VB.3FSG, ṭṭa u: VB.3PL, ydaww u: VB.3PL)
The second clause, in which all e bs a e in plu al, explains he ac ions aken
as a esul o he si ua ion men ioned in he i s clause, in which all he e bs a e
in eminine singula .
(55) k ī nās ǝb ǝ ʔoṣ dabke wǝd-dabke b-sū ya masalan kǝll nās byǝ ǝʔṣuwwa
šǝkǝl ―many people dance dabka; and he dabka in Sy ia, e e y one dances i in
one way‖ (b ǝ ʔoṣ: VB.3FSG, byǝ ǝʔṣuww-: VB.3PL).
In his example he i s sen ence shows de lec ed ag eemen , e e ing o he
people as an unde ined g oup; and he de ec ed ag eemen is ein o ced by he
p esence o he quan i ie k ī (see sec ion 3.1.1.). The second sen ence, despi e
he p esence o kǝll, which emphasizes collec i i y, shows s ic ag eemen , since
i speci ically e e s o he g oup o people men ioned in he i s sen ence, i.e.
each o hose who dance he dabka
117
.
112
. A u he men ion o speci ica ion gi en by a loca i e, wi h an example o i showing s ic
ag eemen , is in D’Anna (―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108), e e ing o sou hwes e n Libya.
113
. B us ad. The syn ax, p. 58.
114
. P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 246.
115
. Holes. Dialec , cul u e, p. 335.
116
. D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 109.
117
. This example could i in he g oup o mixed pa e ns desc ibed hus: ―Mixed pa e ns also
occu wi h S-V wo d o de in sen ences ha do no e e o pas e en s bu exp ess gene al asse ions.
Again he i s pa con ains he gene al s a emen abou people as a collec i e whole, ollowed by a
sen ence which ells us wha he indi idual membe s o his g oup a e doing‖ (P ocházka & Gabsi
―Ag eemen ‖, p. 246) .
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Finally, some imes dis anced anapho ic p onouns p o ide u he speci ica ion
abou he con olle s, as in he ollowing:
(56) i ʕālam ǝk ī ǝb ǝži ʕala hāda l-ʔǝž imāʕ masalan ǝl-ʕālam yǝlli… hallaʔ
masalan ʔana bǝnzel maʕon kǝll ǝnhā žǝmʕa ― he e a e many people who come
o his mee ing, o example, he people who… o example, I go wi h hem e e y
F iday day ime‖ (b ǝži: VB.3FSG, maʕ-on: PREP-PRON.PL).
In his case he i s a ge (b ǝži) shows de lec ed ag eemen , p obably
os e ed by he p esence o i k ī (see sec ion 3.1.1.), i s clause e e ing o people
as a collec i e g oup. The second clause shows s ic ag eemen , speci ying
p ecisely hose a he mee ing o whom i e e s: ha is, hose whom ―I go wi h …
e e y F iday day ime‖.
3.5. De ini eness
De ini eness was ega ded by Khan as a ea u e o indi idua ion
118
; bu ou
da a do no show any di e ence in ag eemen a ending he con olle s’ de ini ion
o non-de ini ion. The e e ence o he con olle s in many o ou examples is
de ini e, hough clea ly no speci ic o indi idual. Fo ins ance: (57) mšān hēk
yaʕni n-nās bǝ ūḥ ― his is why he people go‖ (bǝ ūḥ: VB.3FSG), (58) hāda l-
manẓa ǝl-ʕālam lǝssa mu mʕawwade ʕalē bi-ʔō ǝbba ―in Eu ope he people a e
no used o his iew ye ‖ (mʕawwade: AP.FSG).
The e o e, wi h ega d o clauses in ol ing he nouns nās and ʕālam,
de ini eness does no seem o be a de e mining ac o in kind o ag eemen . The
same phenomenon has been obse ed in Omani A abic. Be ega ound in his da a
a sligh ly highe pe cen age (8%) o s ic ag eemen when con olle s a e
de ined; howe e hese esul s a e based on inanima e con olle s
119
. I would be
in e es ing o u he s udy his ques ion wi h non-human plu al con olle s in
Damascus A abic.
4. CONCLUTION
Ag eemen pa e ns wi h he nouns nās and ʕālam in Damascus A abic show
s ic ag eemen p e ailing, being used in 60.90% o he ins ances. Also, bo h
nouns pa e n simila ly; and he numbe o ins ances o each is abou he same
(nās: 120 ins ances, ʕālam: 116 ins ances).
Some ac o s seem o p omo e one ag eemen ype o e he o he ; bu all ypes
o a ge s show p e e ence o s ic ag eemen . Howe e , ou limi ed numbe o
118
. Khan. ―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470. The au ho , howe e , poin s ou ha de ini eness s.
inde ini eness is no he only ac o ela ed o he deg ee o indi idua ion o a nominal.
119
. Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 161.