Patrones de concordancia de los nombres nās y ʕālam en el árabe de Damasco

MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC Pa ones de conco dancia de los nomb es nās y ʕālam en el á abe de Damasco Ca men BERLINCHES RAMOS [email p o ec ed] Uni e sidad de Za agoza Abs ac : This pape examines he ag eemen pa e ns wi h he con olle s nās and ʕālam in Damascus A abic, a ques ion no ye ho oughly s udied. The collec i e na u e o hese nouns allows wo kinds o ag eemen : s ic ag eemen in he plu al and de lec ed ag ee- men in he eminine singula . The analysis ocuses on he a ia ion be ween s ic and de- lec ed ag eemen , especially as ega ds seman ic and p agma ic ac o s, and also he mo - phological s uc u e o he a ge s. The s udy is synch onic and based on da a collec ed in he capi al o Sy ia, Damascus. I is di ided in o wo main sec ions: he i s analyzes a - ge - ela ed ac o s, including a ge ype, wo d o de , and dis ance; he second ocuses on con olle - ela ed ac o s, including quan i ica ion, quali ica ion, e lexibili y, speci ici y, and de ini eness. In ecen yea s nume ous s udies on ag eemen ha e been conduc ed and hey indica e pa allels among di e en a ie ies o A abic, bu such s udies mainly add ess non-human con olle s. The esul s o he p esen s udy show a p e alence o s ic ag ee- men wi h he nouns nās and ʕālam. Ta ge ype is a key ac o in de e mining he kind o ag eemen , wi h dis ance be ween con olle and a ge also being impo an . In line wi h p e ious s udies, a ia ion in ag eemen is closely connec ed o he con olle ’s deg ee o indi idualiza ion o collec i i y as pe cei ed by he speake , who ul ima ely chooses which kind o ag eemen o use. Resumen: Es e a ículo examina los pa ones de conco dancia de los nomb es nās y ʕālam en á abe de Damasco, una cues ión aún no es udiada en p o undidad. El sen ido colec i o de ambos é minos con olado es pe mi e la conco dancia en emenino singula o en mas- culino plu al, po lo que se analiza es a a iación a endiendo a ac o es semán icos y p agmá icos, así como a la es uc u a mo ológica de los é minos con olados. La pe spec- i a del es udio es sinc ónica y es á basada en un co pus de ex os ecogidos en Damasco. Se di ide en dos pa es: (1) Fac o es elacionados con el é mino con olado ( ipología; posición en la o ación; dis ancia con espec o al é mino con olado ). (2) Fac o es elacio- nados con el é mino con olado (cuan i icación; cuali icación; e lexi idad; especi ica- ción; de e minación). Asimismo, los es udios sob e la conco dancia, pa icula men e p olí- icos en los úl imos años, han pe mi ido aza pa alelismos con o as a iedades á abes. Los esul ados mues an una mayo ecuencia de conco dancia en plu al. Además, la ipo- logía del é mino con olado es un ac o ele an e en la conco dancia, así como una cie a dis ancia en e con olado y con olado. Po úl imo, y de acue do con es udios an e io es, la a iación en la conco dancia es á es echamen e elacionada con el g ado de indi iduali- dad o colec i idad del con olado pe cibido po el hablan e quién, en úl ima ins ancia eli- ge el ipo de conco dancia. Key wo ds: A abic dialec ology. Ag eemen . Nās and ʕālam. Damascus A abic. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 4 Palab as cla e: Dialec ología á abe. Conco dancia. Nās y ʕālam. Á abe de Damasco. Recibido: 10/04/2020 Acep ado: 10/07/2020 1. INTRODUCTION 1 The e m ag eemen commonly e e s o some sys ema ic co a iance be ween a seman ic o o mal p ope y o one elemen and a o mal p ope y o ano he 2 . Among hese wo elemen s, he con olle de e mines he ag eemen (say he subjec noun ph ase) and he a ge is he elemen whose o m is de e mined by ag eemen 3 . In A abic, he ag eemen o he a ge wi h i s con olle may be o wo ypes: s ic , i some ca ego y ha is o e ly inhe en ly p esen in he con olle (subjec o head-noun) and copied in he a ge ( e b, noun-modi ie ), and de lec ed, i a plu al con olle is associa ed wi h a eminine singula a ge 4 . Belnap’s s udy on Cai ene A abic 5 demons a ed ha a ia ion wi h human con olle s is a mo e ex ensi e in his in e iews han he li e a u e would gene ally lead one o suspec 6 . Al hough human nouns end o a o plu al ag eemen , he case o nās and ʕālam, bo h meaning ―people‖, mus be conside ed apa , because being he mos gene ic e ms used o e e o human beings, hey ha e an implici collec i e sense 7 and he e o e bo h kinds o 1 . Damascus A abic phoneme in en o y: 1. Consonan s. 1.1. Occlusi e: ʔ la yngeal, oiceless; b bi- labial, oiced; ḅ bilabial, ela ized, oiced; den al, oiceless; d den al, oiced; ṭ den al, ela ized, oiceless; ḍ den al, ela ized, oiced; k pos pala al, oiceless; q u ula , oiceless; g pos pala al, oice- less. 1.2. F ica i e: labioden al, oiceless; labioden al, oiced; x ela , oiceless; ġ ela , oiced; h la yngeal, oiceless; ḥ pha yngeal, oiceless; ʕ pha yngeal, oiced. 1.3. Sibilan : s al eola , oiceless; z al eola , oiced; ṣ al eola , ela ized, oiceless; ẓ al eola , ela ized, oiced; š p epala al, oiceless; ž p epala al, oiced. 1.4. Nasal: m bilabial, oiced; n den al, oiced. 1.5. La e al: l al eola , oiced; ḷ al eola , ela ized, oiced. 1.6. T ill: al eola , oiced. 2. Semi owels: w bilabial, oiced; y pala al, oiced. 3. Vowels. 3.1. Sho owels: a on , low; e on , mid; ə cen al, mid; i on , high; o back, mid; u back, high. 3.2. Long owels: ā on , low; ē on , mid; ī on , high; ō back, mid; ū back, high. 2 . S eele. ―Wo d o de ‖, p. 610. 3 . Co be . Ag eemen , p. 4. 4 . Fe guson. ―G amma ical ag eemen ‖, p. 9. 5 . Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen . 6 . Simila ly, conce ning Damascus A abic, Amb os (Damascus A abic, p. 86) poin ed ou ha ―e en highly sophis ica ed ules (which ha e no been es ablished so a ) would ail o co e all ins ances o ag eemen wi h plu al subjec s as occu ing in eco ded ex s‖. 7 . C . Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen , pp. 173-175, e e ing o nās in Cai ene A abic. In Mode n S anda d A abic (MSA) nās is de ined as one o he wo plu als o ʔinsān, he o he being ʔunās, ―people‖ (Co ien e & Fe ando. Dicciona io A anzado, p. 34; Weh . A abisches Wö e buch, p. 48; W igh , A g amma , p. 233). I is, howe e , ma ked as collec i e in Weh (A Dic iona y, p. 30). Rega ding ʕālam, Co ien e & Fe ando (Dicciona io A anzado, p. 799) ake i o mean me ely ―wo ld, uni e se‖, whe eas Weh (A abisches Wö e buch, p. 871) ela es i gene ally o ―people (Wel bewohne , Menschen)‖ when i akes he plu al ʕalamūn. Ba hélemy’s dic iona y (Dic ionnai e a abe- ançais), which ocused on Le an ine, and pa icula ly Aleppine, A abic, places he e m nās unde wo oo s: √ʔns ―man wi h he gene al meaning o be human (homme dans le sense géné al, ê e humain)‖ (p. 17); and √nws ―men, people (hommes, gens)‖ (p. 855). In bo h cases nās is a plu al. By con as , ʕālam appea s de ined by he a icle (lʕālam), meaning ― he wo ld, he people (le monde, les AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 5 ag eemen a e possible. Besides, ecen s udies ha e demons a ed ha he deg ee o indi idua ion o collec i i y pe cei ed by he speake is c ucial o de e mining he kind o ag eemen , hus linking ag eemen pa e ns mo e o seman ic and p agma ic ac o s han o mo phology. The majo pu pose o his pape is o in es iga e he ag eemen pa e ns o he nouns nās and ʕālam in Damascus A abic 8 . I will ocus on he a ia ion be ween ―s ic ag eemen ‖ (plu al — plu al) and ―de lec ed ag eemen ‖ (plu al — eminine singula ), conside ing mo phological, seman ic, and p agma ic ac o s. The cases in which each kind o ag eemen ends o occu , and ac o s which may a o one ag eemen o he o he , will be examined. Resul s a e based on a s a is ical analysis o he occu ence o nās and ʕālam wi h he ollowing kinds o a ge s: e bs, anapho ic p onouns, adjec i es, ac i e and passi e pa iciples, and pe sonal and demons a i e p onouns. This s udy is conduc ed om a synch onic pe spec i e and based on a co pus o ex s ga he ed in Damascus be ween 2007 and 2008 9 . I consis s o abou eigh hou s o in e iews (o app oxima ely 63,350 wo ds) p oduced by i y in o man s. Many o he ex s desc ibe di e en places in Damascus, adi ions o he socie y, and pe sonal expe iences o he speake s: hus he ime used is he p esen . O he ex s, ewe in numbe , na a e gene al o pe sonal e en s in he pas . The ex s do no con ain any con e sa ions. Va ia ion in ag eemen has been he subjec o esea ch in di e en A abic a ie ies, wi h a no iceable inc ease in publica ions du ing he las yea s (see he lis o e e ences below 10 ). Melanie Hani sch 11 has s udied, pa icula ly in Damascus A abic, he a ia ion in ag eemen o non-human plu al nouns con olling a ibu i e adjec i es 12 . To he bes o my knowledge, he e is no o he piece o esea ch ha so a has ocused on he subjec o his s udy, excep o a ew gene al e e ences a ailable in he main g amma s o Damascus A abic. Among hem, Cowell 13 showed he exis ence o bo h kinds o ag eemen wi h plu al and collec i e nouns, and poin ed ou indi iduali y s. collec i i y as a main ac o in de e mining ag eemen . He ga e se e al examples wi h nās and gens)‖ (p. 547). Thus nās is mainly ega ded as plu al (o collec i e), while ʕālam is a o mally (masculine) singula which p ima ily means ―wo ld‖ and may also deno e ―(a g oup o ) people‖. 8 . The main linguis ic pa icula i ies o Damascus A abic a e igo ously exposed in Len in. Damas- cus A abic. Ne e heless, he mos ele an ea u es appea ing in ou examples will be poin ed ou . 9 . This co pus was ga he ed o a Ph.D s udy abou he language o he you h in Damascus. La e , i was e ised and published as Be linches. El dialec o. 10 . I am deeply hank ul o Simone Be ega o p o iding me wi h se e al o hese sou ces, o eading an ea ly d a o his pape , and o his help ul hough s and commen s. 11 . Hani sch. ―Kong uenz a ia ion‖. 12 . Un o una ely, his pape lacks quan i a i e da a. 13 . Cowell. A e e ence g amma , pp. 423-426. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 6 ʕālam, bu un o una ely did no s a e quan i a i e esul s. Amb os 14 b ie ly e e ed o he a ia ion in ag eemen wi h plu al subjec s, including wo examples showing bo h kinds o ag eemen wi h nās. Fe guson & Ani 15 ga e an example in which he e b shows de lec ed ag eemen wi h nās; bu o he wise did no ea ag eemen pa e ns wi h nās and ʕālam in any de ail 16 . G o z eld 17 p o ided only gene al in o ma ion abou ag eemen pa e ns in Damascus, ega ding nās as a plu al. Fu he mo e, some s udies on o he A abic a ie ies include speci ic e e ences o ag eemen pa e ns wi h he gene ic e m o deno ing ―people‖, which usually is nās. Among hem a e D’Anna (Fezzānī A abic, sou hwes e n Libya) 18 , P ocházka & Gabsi (U ban Tunisian, pa icula ly he a ie y o he capi al) 19 , Ri -Benmimoun (Bedouin Tunisian, Ni zāwa egion) 20 , Feghali (Lebanese A abic) 21 , B us ad (including da a om Mo occan, Egyp ian, Sy ian, and Kuwai i A abic) 22 , Belnap (Cai ene A abic) 23 , and Holes (Bah aini A abic) 24 . Some ema ks abou nās in Nadji A abic a e ound in Be ega 25 , and o he dialec o he ci y o Sal (Jo dan) in He in & Al-We 26 . 1.1. Indi idualiza ion s. collec i i y B us ad’s s udy on ag eemen in some a ie ies o A abic 27 has demons a ed ha he lexical i ems do no de e mine he ag eemen pa e ns bu he speake who chooses i acco ding o seman ic o p agma ic ac o s. She explains ha ―i a noun is highly indi idua ed, anima e, speci ic, ex ually p ominen , o quan i ied, he speake ends o choose plu al ag eemen 28 ; con e sely, i he noun is non- 14 . Amb os. Damascus A abic, pp. 72 y 86. 15 . Fe guson & Ani. Damascus A abic, p. 238. 16 . Fe guson (―G amma ical ag eemen ‖, p. 12) also p o ides some in o ma ion abou ela ing nās o de lec ed ag eemen . 17 . G o z eld. Sy isch-a abische, pp. 97-98 ( n. 1). 18 . D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, pp. 107-110. 19 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, pp. 244-247 and 253. 20 . Ri -Benmimoun. ―Ag eemen ‖, pp. 268-272. 21 . Feghali. Syn axe des pa le s, pp. 124-126 and 143-144. 22 . B us ad. The syn ax, pp. 53-61. 23 . Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen , pp. 61-67, 77-78 and 88-89 ( his PhD hesis includes nume- ous e e ences o he noun nās); Belnap. ―The meaning·, pp. 100-102 and 108-109; Belnap. ―A new pe spec i e‖, pp. 173-175. 24 . Holes. Dialec , cul u e, pp. 326-341. 25 . Be ega. ―Re hinking ag eemen ‖, pp. 136-137. 26 . He in & Al-We . ―F om phonological a ia ion‖, p. 67. 27 . B us ad. The syn ax, p. 54. 28 . Khan (―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470) adds ha ―[a] nominal which e e s o a speci ic en i y is mo e indi idua ed han a gene ic nominal, which e e s o a class o en i ies.‖ He de ines ―indi idua ion‖ as AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 7 speci ic, collec i e, and less p ominen , he ag eemen will end o be eminine singula ‖ 29 . Mos o he s udies on ag eemen in di e en a ie ies o A abic co obo a e his asse ion, poin ing ou ha he deg ee o indi idua ion pe cei ed by he speake is a key ac o in he choice o ag eemen . The p esen pape is s uc u ed closely on Be ega 30 , wi h he necessa y modi ica ions o ea ing he con olle s’ pa icula i ies. I is di ided in o a ge - ela ed and con olle - ela ed ac o s. The i s pa analyzes he a ge ype, he dis ance be ween con olle and a ge (s), and he wo d o de . The second pa ea s quan i ica ion, quali ica ion, e lexibili y, speci ici y, and de ini eness. Ou co pus includes 236 ins ances o nās and ʕālam 31 (nās: 120, ʕālam: 116) con olling 410 a ge s (266 e bs, 60 anapho ic p onouns, 28 adjec i es, 27 ac i e pa iciples, 15 pe sonal p onouns, 9 passi e pa iciples, and 7 demons a i e p onouns). Ag eemen occu s ei he in masculine plu al (i.e. s ic ) o in hi d pe son eminine singula (i.e. de lec ed) 32 . ANALYSIS 2. TARGET-RELATED FACTORS 2.1. Ta ge ype Ta ge ype has been s a ed o be he key ac o o de e mining he kind o ag eemen 33 . The numbe o occu ences o each kind o a ge and he ag eemen ype wi h he con olle s nās and ʕālam p o ide us wi h a clea idea o ag eemen endencies. Resul s a e gi en in he ollowing able and analyzed below. Kind o a ge 34 De lec ed ag eemen S ic ag eemen TOTAL Ve bs 104 (39.09%) 162 (60.90%) 266 Anapho ic p onouns 26 (43.33%) 34 (56.66%) 60 ― he dis inc ness o salience o he nominal om i s own backg ound and, wi h ega d o a e b complemen nominal, also i s dis inc ness om he subjec ‖ (p. 470). 29 . B us ad. The syn ax, p. 59. Cowell’s g amma (A e e ence g amma , p. 423) concluded: ―Mos inanima e plu als, and some anima e plu als and collec i e, ha e eminine ag eemen in he p edica e when collec i i y o gene ali y is emphasized a he han he e ogenei y o pa icula i y‖. 30 . Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖. 31 . Ins ances o ʕālam showing masculine singula ag eemen occu only when ʕālam deno es ―wo ld‖ and no jus ―inhabi an s o he wo ld (i.e. people)‖: o ins ance, (1) la-ḥa a nkūn ʕala ṣila maʕ ǝl-ʕālam ǝl-ġa bi ― o us o be in con ac wi h Wes e n wo ld‖ (ġa bi: ADJ.MSG). In he examples in his pape , ʕālam will e e o he gene ic ―people‖ unless indica ed o he wise. 32 . O he ypes o ag eemen , like he masculine singula ag eemen e y commonly ound in he Jo danian ci y o Sal (c . He in & Al-We . ―F om phonological a ia ion‖, p. 67), o he eminine plu al ag eemen ound in Ni zāwa, sou he n Tunisia (Ri -Benminoun. ―Ag eemen ‖) and sou hwes e n Libya (D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 107), do no occu in ou da a. 33 . Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 173. 34 . The kinds o a ge s a e lis ed in o de o numbe o appea ances. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 8 Adjec i es 11 (39.28%) 17 (60.71%) 28 Ac i e pa iciples 7 (25.92%) 20 (74.07%) 27 Pe sonal p onouns 0 (0.00%) 13 (100%) 13 Passi e pa iciples 4 (44.44%) 5 (55.55%) 9 Demons a i e p onouns 1 (14.28%) 6 (85.71%) 7 2.1.1. Ve bs Ve bs a e he mos - equen ly used a ge s in he da a, wi h a o al o 266 ins ances. S ic ag eemen p e ails wi h a pe cen age o 60.90% e sus 39.09% o de lec ed ag eemen . nās ʕālam To al De lec ed ag eemen 64 40 104 S ic ag eemen 88 74 162 Example o de lec ed ag eemen : (2) i ʕālam bǝ aḍḍǝla, hiyye k ī ṭayybe ― he e a e people who p e e i , i is e y as y‖ (bǝ aḍḍǝl-: VB.3FSG) Example o s ic ag eemen : (3) i nās byǝʕǝmlu laban b-ǝxyā ― he e a e people who make yogu wi h cucumbe ‖ (byǝʕǝmlu: VB.PL) Acco ding o Feghali 35 , in Lebanese A abic he e b ag ees indi e en ly in plu al (s ic ag eemen ) o in eminine singula (de lec ed ag eemen ) when con olle s, including he nouns nās and ʕālam, e e o human collec i es. Bu his is no he case o Damascus, whe e, a leas in clauses whe e he con olle s nās and ʕālam a e in ol ed, s ic ag eemen is mo e likely o occu . In Bah ain, cases o e bs showing de lec ed ag eemen wi h he noun nās ha e been associa ed wi h desc ip ions o gene al ac ions a he han o wha happened a a speci ic poin in he pas 36 . Ou da a sugges he same, hough he numbe o examples o his kind is limi ed—pe haps because mos o ou ex s a e desc ip i e, ocused on di e en aspec s o he daily li e in Damascus as well as on he cus oms and adi ions o Damascene socie y. The e o e gene ic ac ions clea ly p e ail. Holes has ela ed de lec ed ag eemen o a pa icula ly common use o nās as an inde ini e dis ibu i e (i.e. ―some o he s‖) 37 , which is also ue o Damascus, as he ollowing example shows: 35 . Feghali. Syn axe des pa le s, p.124. 36 . Holes. Dialec , cul u e, p. 331. 37 . Ídem, p. 333. AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 9 (4) i ʕālam b ǝʔʕod 38 ʕal-ka āsi w ṭāwlā , i ʕālam ǝb ǝš abon ʕal-wāʔe ― he e a e people who si on he chai s and ables, and he e a e people (=some o he s) who d ink i s anding up‖ (b ǝʔʕod: VB.3FSG) 39 . 2.1.2. Adjec i es Ou da a con ain 28 ins ances o adjec i es con olled by nās o ʕālam. In 60.71% o he cases ag eemen is s ic and in 39.28% de lec ed 40 . nās ʕālam To al De lec ed ag eemen 10 1 11 S ic ag eemen 12 5 17 Example o de lec ed ag eemen : (5) kāne ǝn-nās bən-nǝsbe ʔǝli k ī ġa ībe ― he people we e e y s ange o me‖ (ġa ībe: ADJ.FSG) Example o s ic ag eemen : (6) əl-ʕālam yaʕni hēke wadūdīn ― he people a e, I mean... like his, wa mhea ed‖ (wadūdīn: ADJ.PL) S ic ag eemen clea ly p e ails, ep esen ing almos wo- hi ds o he o al. Acco ding o B us ad 41 , he eason o hese esul s is he highe deg ee o indi idua ion associa ed wi h modi ied nouns (see sec ion 3.2.1.). Mo eo e , as can be seen in he nex able, no signi ican di e ences in ag eemen ype conce ning he a ibu i e o p edica i e na u e o he adjec i es a e obse ed in he da a 42 . nās ʕālam A ibu i e P edica i e A ibu i e P edica i e De lec ed ag eemen 8 2 1 0 S ic ag eemen 9 3 1 4 TOTAL 17 5 2 4 38 . The e bal modi ie o he gene al p esen is b-, which gene ally u ns in o m o he i s pe son plu al, c . Cowell. A e e ence g amma , p. 180. Mo eo e , in Damascus q is ealized as a glo al s op (ʔ), excep in bo owings o Classical A abic, c . Len in. Damascus A abic, p. 546. 39 . In hese cases he exis en ial pa icle i ― he e is‖ usually occu s be o e he con olle s. 40 . This example om Cowell (A e e ence g amma , p. 500), nās ġǝšǝm ―igno an people‖, also shows s ic ag eemen . 41 . B us ad. The syn ax, p. 61. 42 . Only p edica i e adjec i es show a highe numbe o cases o s ic ag eemen wi h ʕālam (4 cases o de lec ed ag eemen agains none o s ic ag eemen ). Bu we conside he numbe o ins ances insu icien o any conclusion. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 10 Despi e he p e alence o s ic ag eemen , ou esul s indica e ha in Damascus A abic cases o adjec i es showing de lec ed ag eemen wi h he con olle s nās and ʕālam occu wi h mo e equency han in o he A abic a ie ies. Fo example, in U ban Tunisian, P ocházka & Gabsi ha e de ec ed only a ew cases o adjec i es igge ing de lec ed ag eemen wi h nās and ʕbād, bo h meaning ―people‖ (e.g. nās bāhya ―good people‖) 43 . They conside hese cases idioma ic colloca ions, hus no con olled by p agma ic discou se s uc u es, and hey a i m ha de lec ed ag eemen o adjec i es —wi h human con olle s— is e en mo e es ic ed han wi h e bs and p onouns. A he same ime, Feghali, ocusing on Lebanese A abic, claimed ha he ag eemen o he adjec i e wi h con olle s e e ing o human collec i es is always s ic 44 . In Bah aini A abic, s ic ag eemen wi h adjec i es clea ly p e ails 45 . Howe e , Holes also eco ded se e al cases o de lec ed ag eemen , usually when he e e ence was gene ic o collec i e. By con as , Be ega’s indings in Omani A abic a e e y in e es ing since hey show a high pe cen age (94.3%) o a ibu i e adjec i es a ac ing de lec ed ag eemen 46 . These esul s a e, howe e , based on non-human con olle s and he au ho poin s ou ha his da a abou he noun nās is insu icien o s a is ical analysis 47 . Ou esul s ag ee wi h Belnap’s 48 , whose hie a chy o de lec ed ag eemen pa icula ly ocused on nās places p edica i e adjec i es on he op o he lis 49 . Acco ding o B us ad 50 , e bs igge de lec ed ag eemen mo e han adjec i es, explained by he highe deg ee o indi idua ion o modi ied nouns. This s a emen is ne e heless no ocused on he con olle s nās and ʕālam. Ou da a show exac ly he same pe cen age o de lec ed ag eemen o bo h e bs and adjec i es. Adjec i es and hei connec ion wi h he con olle ’s quali ica ion a e u he analyzed in sec ion 3.2.1. 43 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 247. 44 . Feghali. Syn axe des pa le s, p. 143. The au ho p o ides wo examples o his kind. He a ibu es excep ions o his ule o he in luence o he Classical language, o o he need o hyme in popula songs (p. 144). These s a emen s de ini ely do no ag ee wi h ou indings, which show almos 40% o de lec ed ag eemen . We wonde how he si ua ion could change so much in a pe iod o less a cen u y, especially gi en ha Lebanese A abic is a Le an ine a ie y e y close o Damascus A abic. 45 . Holes. Dialec , cul u e, pp. 327-329. 46 . Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 168. Fo p edica i e adjec i es he pe cen age is 55.6%. 47 . Ídem, n. 17. 48 . Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen , p. 88. 49 . Belnap (G amma ical ag eemen , pp. 66-67) mo eo e men ions ha in Abdel-Massih e al. (A e e ence g amma , p. 22) all he speake s used de lec ed ag eemen wi h nās and ʕālam o some deg ee. 50 . B us ad. The syn ax, p. 61. AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 11 2.1.3. Pa iciples Ou da a include 36 pa iciples con olled by nās and ʕālam. Among hem, 27 a e ac i e and 9 passi e. Due o hei di e en g amma ical na u e and beha io , hey will be ea ed sepa a ely. a) Ac i e pa iciples Ac i e pa iciples show a clea inclina ion o s ic ag eemen wi h a e y high pe cen age o occu ences (74.07%): nās ʕālam To al De lec ed ag eemen 3 4 7 S ic ag eemen 13 7 20 Example o de lec ed ag eemen : (7) ǝn-nās āyḥa ʕala šǝġla ― he people a e going o hei job‖ ( āyḥa: AP.FSG) Example o s ic ag eemen : (8) i nās mu šāy īn ― he e a e people who do no see‖ (šāy īn: AP.PL) The p e alence o s ic ag eemen could be explained by i s ole as a e b o m 51 . Howe e , in 17 o ou 20 examples o s ic ag eemen wo o he ea u es o speci ica ion o indi idua ion may ha e had an impac on he esul s: he p esence o he ela i e p onoun in 6 cases, and a dis ance g ea e han ou wo ds om he con olle in 11 cases 52 . Conce ning he small numbe o occu ences o de lec ed ag eemen (7 occu ences — 25.92%), one is clea ly in luenced by MSA, being in a eligious con ex wi h some MSA loans, and h ee ha e e ms emphasizing collec i i y 53 . The e o e, only h ee cases o de lec ed ag eemen a e no in luenced by any special ac o s. The limi ed da a abou he ag eemen pa e ns o hese pa iciples wi h bo h human and non-human con olle s in Sy ian A abic, as well as in o he a ie ies o A abic, do no allow us o de e mine whe he o no ou indings a e a egula endency in ag eemen . This is de ini ely a poin o u he esea ch. b) Passi e pa iciples On he o he hand, passi e pa iciples show a nea ly equal p opo ion o bo h kinds o ag eemen , 55.55% s ic and 44.44% de lec ed. Ne e heless, hese 51 . In ou da a e bs show a ela i ely high pe cen age o s ic ag eemen (60.90%: see sec ion 2.1.1). 52 . These ac o s a e u he examined in sec ions 3.2.2 and 2.3, espec i ely. 53 . I.e. i k ī , baʕǝḍ, and kǝll, as discussed in sec ions 3.1.1-2 and 3.3. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 18 The i s a ge (bǝ šū : VB.3FSG) is sepa a ed by one wo d om i s con olle and shows de lec ed ag eemen , while he wo second a ge s (biḥāwlu: VB.3PL, yʔalldu: VB.3PL) a e sepa a ed om hei con olle by nine and en wo ds, espec i ely, and show s ic ag eemen . Howe e , in o he cases de lec ed ag eemen is main ained h ough he whole sen ence despi e dis ance: (16) bass ǝl-ʕālam ma bǝ ḥǝss ḥāla mǝṭṭa a ǝḥmǝla ―bu he people don’ eel obliged o ca y i ‖. In his case he consecu i e sequence o he a ge s (bǝ ḥǝss: VB.3FSG, -a: PRON.3FSG, mǝṭṭa a: PP.SG, ǝḥmǝl-: VB.3FSG) seems o esul in de lec ed ag eemen o all o hem. (17) i nās bǝ kūn žāye ʔabl ǝl-kǝll ʕal-madīne 89 , zāy e - asūl u baʕdēn bǝ ūḥ ʕala makke ― he e a e people who i s come o Medina, isi he P ophe , and a e wa ds go o Makkah‖. bǝ ūḥ (VB.3FSG) is sepa a ed by nine wo ds om i s con olle , a dis ance which no mally would ha e esul ed in s ic ag eemen . This example was possibly in luenced by MSA because he opic o he con e sa ion was he Pilg image and se e al ea u es o MSA can be obse ed in i . (18) nnās bǝ kūn bibyū ha bakkī w-b ǝži ʕašīye mǝn ʔašġālha ― he people a e ea ly a home and come back om wo k in he e ening‖ In his example, ex ac ed om Bloch & G o z eld 90 , all he a ge s (bǝ kūn: VB.3FSG, -ha: PRON.3FSG, b ǝži: VB.3FSG, -ha: PRON.3FSG) show de lec ed ag eemen . Finally, P ocházka & Gabsi ha e ound pa icula ly common pa e ns o mixed ag eemen in which he i s clause (V-S) shows de lec ed ag eemen and he second s ic ag eemen (wi h he same con olle ) 91 . Un o una ely ou da a only con ain he ollowing example wi h simila s uc u e, which migh be due o he limi ed numbe o V-S clauses: (19) bass kāne mǝ ǝl-ma ʔǝl -ǝllek yǝžu n-nās kǝlla yǝž ǝmʕu ―bu , as I old you, all he people came o mee ‖ (kāne : VB.3FSG, yǝžu: VB.3PL, yǝž ǝmʕu: VB.3PL). bə ḥəbbi ―you (F) like‖ > bə ḥəbbī ―you (F) like him‖. Whe eas when a wo d ends in a consonan , he p onoun is -o, o ins ance: bē ―house‖ > bē o ―his house‖. 89 . The shi a > e in inal posi ion (madīna > madīne) is known as inal ʔimāla and akes place a - e non-pha yngeal, la yngeal o ela ized consonan s (i.e. b, , ž, d, z, s, š, , k, l, m, n, w, y) and some- imes a e (c . Cowell. A e e ence g amma , p. 138-139). 90 . Bloch & G o z eld. Damaszenisch-a abische, p. 80. T ansla ion by he p esen au ho . 91 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 246. AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 19 Al hough ou da a ocuses only on clauses in ol ing he subjec s nās and ʕālam, esul s sugges ha his pa e n is no e y equen in Damascus A abic. On he o he hand, cases o a ge s showing he shi om s ic o de lec ed ag eemen wi h he same con olle a e no ound in ou da a. Finally, ou da a include se e al ins ances o coo dina ed clauses, each wi h wo di e en con olle s and a ge s. They ha e simila g amma ical s uc u e bu show di e en kinds o ag eemen . Appa en ly, he e is no c i e ia o explaining i , as he ollowing examples show: (20) mǝnḥǝbb 92 ǝl-ʕālam ǝ - ānye, i ḥǝbb lal-musāʕade lan-nās ǝl-ʔāxa īn ―we like o he people; he e is lo e o helping (= we like helping) o he s‖ This example includes wo coo dina ed sen ences wi h pa allel seman ic cons uc ion —ǝl-ʕālam ǝ - ānye and n-nās ǝl-ʔāxa īn— bu a ge s ( ānye: ADJ.FSG, ʔāxa īn: ADJ.PL) showing di e en ag eemen . The eason o his is opaque. (21) i masalan ʕālam byǝ ba aʕu b-maṣā i, masalan ʕālam ǝb ǝḥ āž ʕamaliyyā i ʕālam byǝ ba aʕu masalan, i ḥa a ʕālam ǝb-dubay ǝb ǝbʕa ǝ yāb ― he e is o example people who dona e money; o example (i ) people need an ope a ion, he e a e people who dona e, o example, e en people in Dubai who send clo hes‖ The ou a ge s in his passage, in o de o appea ance, a e: byǝ ba aʕu (VB.3PL), b ǝḥ āž (VB.3FSG), byǝ ba aʕu (VB.3PL), and b ǝbʕa (VB.3FSG). The ou e bs appea a e hei ou espec i e con olle s, which is ʕālam in all ou cases. The less agen i i y o he e b b ǝḥ āž may explain he de lec ed ag eemen , bu based on his a gumen we a e no able o explain he de lec ed ag eemen o he ou h e b. The a ia ion mus be due o he speake ’s c i e ia. 3. CONTROLLER-RELATED FACTORS 3.1. Quan i ica ion P e ious s udies ha e demons a ed ha quan i ie s play an impo an ole in de e mining he ype o ag eemen 93 . These sou ces pa icula ly con i m ha mos o he nume ical quan i ie s s ongly a o s ic ag eemen ; howe e , he uncoun able na u e o he con olle s nās and ʕālam does no allow nume ical quan i ica ion. Ou da a include he ollowing quan i ie s: k ī ―many‖, kǝll ―all‖, ġālibiyye ―majo i y‖, ʔak a ―majo i y‖, and baʔiyye ― emainde ‖. 92 . m is he i s pe son plu al e bal modi ie o he p esen , a e he assimila ion b > m (see n. 38). 93 . C . o ins ance Belnap. G amma ical ag eemen . p. 68, and Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h‖, p. 157. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 20 3.1.1. Quan i ie k ī and he co-occu ence o i k ī The quan i ie k ī ―many, a lo ‖ ollowed by an inde ini e noun os e s de lec ed ag eemen because i deno es low indi idua ion 94 . Ou da a include only one example o k ī a ac ing de lec ed ag eemen bu 7 examples a ac ing s ic ag eemen , hough 5 o he 7 cases o s ic ag eemen show o he ea u es o speci ica ion, which pe haps explains he highe pe cen age o s ic ag eemen . This pa icula ques ion should be u he s udied by examining mo e occu ences o k ī in sen ences in ol ing nās and ʕālam and di e en human and non-human con olle s. Examples o de lec ed ag eemen : (22) k ī nās ǝb ǝ ʔoṣ dabke ―many people dance Dabka‖ (b ǝ ʔoṣ: VB.3FSG) Examples o s ic ag eemen : (23) hiyye ʔǝ ne m a abe w ǝk ī ʕālam sāknīn iyya ―i is a well-o ganized place and many people li e he e‖ (sāknīn: AP.PL) Howe e , ou da a indica e ha he co-occu ence o he exis en ial pa icle i ― he e is/a e‖ and he quan i ie k ī clea ly p omo es de lec ed ag eemen . In his cons uc ion k ī may p ecede o ollow he con olle (e.g. i k ī nās/ʕālam o i nās/ʕālam ǝk ī ). Among ou examples, he ag eemen is de lec ed in 8 cases and s ic in 3, one o he la e in ol ing ea u es o speci ica ion. Al hough s udies ocused on o he a ie ies o A abic ha e indica ed ha i is an emphasize o gene ali y and collec i i y, as in U ban Tunisian 95 and sou hwes e n Libya 96 , in Damascus A abic i seems ha his is ue only when i accompanies k ī , a leas in clauses in ol ing he con olle s nās and ʕālam 97 . Examples o de lec ed ag eemen : (24) i ʕālam ǝk ī ǝb ǝži ʕala hāda l-ʔǝž imāʕ ― he e a e a lo o people who come o his mee ing‖ (b ǝži: VB.3FSG) (25) i k ī ʕālam ʔāxde ǝk e kī kāne ʕāyše l-masīḥiyye ʔabǝl ― he e a e a lo o people who ha e an idea o how he li e o he Ch is ians was be o e‖ (ʔāxde: AP.FSG) Example o s ic ag eemen : 94 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 244, y p. 246, e e ing o he o m baṛša ―many‖ in U ban Tunisian. Also, example (5) in Ri -Benmimoun. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 266 (Tunisian Bedouin), also in ol ing baṛša, is consis en wi h his. 95 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 245. 96 . D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108. 97 . Resul s which co obo a e ha i does no igge only one kind o ag eemen a e: i nās i ʕālam TOTAL De lec ed ag eemen 19 16 35 S ic ag eemen 22 8 30 AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 21 (26) i ʕālam ǝk ī byǝlǝbsu ḥalaʔ ǝkbī ― he e a e a lo o people who wea big ea ings‖ (byǝlǝbsu: VB.3PL) 3.1.2. Quan i ie kǝll The quan i ie kǝll ―all‖ emphasizes collec i i y and gene ali y, hence igge s de lec ed ag eemen . Ou da a show 21 cases o de lec ed ag eemen in which kǝll p ecedes o ollows he con olle s (i.e. kǝll nās/ʕālam o ǝn-nās/ʕālam kǝll-a/on), and 7 cases o s ic ag eemen , wo o which can be explained by he dis ance be ween he con olle and he a ge o by he p esence o ea u es o speci ica ion. The esul s con i m he clea endency o collec i i y os e ed by kǝll – hus de lec ed ag eemen p e ails. The same has been obse ed in o he a ie ies o A abic, as in U ban Tunisian 98 and Bedouin Tunisian 99 , bo h s udies speci ically e e ing o he con olle nās, and in Omani A abic 100 . Examples o de lec ed ag eemen : (27) kǝll ǝn-nās ʔaʕde ǝb-bē a ―all he people s ayed a home‖ (ʔaʕde : VB.3FSG) (28) kǝll ǝl-ʕālam mawžūde bǝž-žāmeʕ ―all he people a e a he mosque‖ (mawžūde: PP.FSG) Example o s ic ag eemen : (29) bǝ šū i kǝll ǝl-ʕālam wāʔ īn ʕaž-žabal u ʕam-byǝdʕu abbon ―you see all he people s anding upon he moun ain and implo ing God‖ (wāʔ īn: AP.PL) 3.1.3. O he quan i ie s In addi ion o k ī and kǝll, ou da a include h ee mo e quan i ie s: ġālibiyye ―majo i y‖, ʔak a ―majo i y‖, and baʔiyye ― es ‖. All o hem seem o a o s ic ag eemen . Ġālibiyye appea s in he ollowing wo clauses: (30) bǝ lāʔi ʔǝnno ġālibī ǝl-ʕālam ǝlli sāknīn byǝš ǝġlu ǝžžā , bǝl-ʕamā a, ġālibī on byǝš ǝġlu bǝl-mǝhan ǝl-yadawiyye ―you ind ha mos o he people who li e ( he e) a e ade s; in he ʕAmā a 101 mos o hem a e c a smen‖ (sāknīn: AP.PL, byǝš ǝġlu: VB.3PL, ġālibī on: NOUN-PRON.PL, byǝš ǝġlu: VB.3PL). In his case, he con olle is clea ly speci ied by he ela i e p onoun ǝlli. 98 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 245. 99 . Ri -Benmimoun. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 272, p. 283. 100 . Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 163. On he o he hand, in sou hwes e n Libya kǝll does no seem o a ac de lec ed ag eemen (D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108, speci ically e e ing o nās). 101 . Name o a adi ional neighbo hood in Damascus. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 22 (31) kamān ġālibī hal-ʕālam bǝ ḥǝssiyyon ʔǝnno hǝnnen la-hallaʔ šǝġlon ka- mwaẓẓa īn ―also, mos o he people, you eel ha up o now hey ha e wo ked as employees‖ (bǝ ḥǝssiyy-on: VB-PRON.PL, hǝnnen: PRON.3PL, šǝġl-on: NOUN- PRON.PL, mwaẓẓa īn: PP.PL) ʔak a occu ed wice in ou da a, bo h imes in clauses which show s ic ag eemen : (32) iyya nās bass ʔak a on sū iyyīn ― he e a e people in i ; bu mos o hem a e Sy ians‖ (ʔak a -on: ADV-PRON.PL, sū iyyīn: NOUN.PL) Finally, baʔiyye appea s jus once, in a sen ence showing s ic ag eemen : (33) ǝl-baʔiyye nās ʕādiyyīn ― he es a e common people‖ (ʕādiyyīn: ADJ.PL) 3.2. Quali ica ion 3.2.1. Adjec i es Khan s a ed ha a nominal speci ied by a quali ie is mo e indi idua ed han one no so speci ied 102 . Among he quali ie s which speci y he con olle s nās and ʕālam, adjec i es a e he mos nume ous and a ac s ic ag eemen wi h mo e equency (60.71%; see sec ion 2.1.2.). Examples o s ic ag eemen : (34) ʔak a mǝn ǝl-nās ǝl-ʕādīn ―mo e han he common people‖ (ʕādīn: ADJ.PL) (35) ǝl-nās ḥabbābīn u kǝllon laṭī īn ― he people a e a ec iona e and all (o hem) cha ming‖ (ḥabbābīn: ADJ.PL, kǝll-on: ADV-PRON.PL, laṭī īn: ADJ.PL) S ic ag eemen is main ained despi e he p esence o kǝll, which igge s de lec ed ag eemen (see sec ion 3.1.2.). Examples o de lec ed ag eemen : (36) ṭabʕan mǝnḥǝbb ǝl-ʕālam ǝ - ānye ―o cou se we lo e he o he people‖ ( ānye: ADJ.3FSG) (37) i nās ġa ībe bi ǝššu l-mǝlǝḥ ʔāxe ʔāxe ǝš-ši ― he e a e s ange people who add he sal a he e y end‖ This is a case o mixed ag eemen in which he i s a ge (ġa ībe: ADJ.FSG) shows de lec ed ag eemen and he second a ge (bi ǝššu: VB.3PL) s ic ag eemen . In e es ingly, bo h a ge s appea one a e he o he . 3.2.2. Rela i e p onoun (yǝ)lli The p esence o he ela i e p onoun in a clause clea ly emphasizes speci ica ion, hus a ac ing s ic ag eemen . Ou da a has 25 ins ances o his, agains 2 which show de lec ed ag eemen . Examples o s ic ag eemen : 102 . Khan. ―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470. AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 23 (38) ǝn-nās ǝlli ʕandon ǝ īʔ ṣā u yǝsha u ― he people who ha e a pa ne , s a ed going ou in he nigh ‖ (ʕand-on: PREP-PRON.PL, ṣā u: VB.3PL, yǝsha u: VB.3PL) (39) ḥābeb ʔǝnno n-nās ǝlli ba a bi-ʔō ǝbba yšū ūha ―I would like ha he people who a e ou side, in Eu ope, see i ‖ (yšū ū-: VB.3PL) Examples o de lec ed ag eemen : (40) nǝḥna ʕanna nās ǝlli ʕam-yǝ ʕallam ǝl-ʔǝslām 103 ―we ha e people who a e s udying Islam‖ (yǝ ʕallam: VB.3FSG) (41) lāzem ǝ sāʕdi n-nās yǝlli ma maʕa maṣā i ―you mus help he people who ha e no money‖ (maʕ-a: PREP-PRON.3FSG) The p e alence o s ic ag eemen in ela i e clauses has been obse ed in o he a ie ies o A abic, such as ha o sou hwes e n Libya 104 and in U ban Tunisian 105 . The e o e quali ica ion (by an adjec i e o a ela i e p onoun) a o s ic ag eemen , in con as o Omani A abic, whe e quali ied con olle s show a p e e ence o de lec ed ag eemen 106 . 3.3. Re lexibili y 3.3.1. Re lexi e p onoun baʕḍ Khan poin ed ou ha e lexi e complemen s a e a ea u e o non- indi idua ion 107 . Ou da a show 6 cases o de lec ed ag eemen and 2 o s ic ag eemen . Pe haps hese wo cases o s ic ag eemen a e because he a ge s ollow a a ge al eady in he plu al. As was s a ed abo e, he shi s ic > de lec ed is unusual in Damascus A abic (see sec ion 2.3.). Examples o de lec ed ag eemen : (42) ǝl-ḥā a š-šāmiyye kāne kǝll ǝn-nās aʕ e baʕḍa ―in he Damascene neighbo hood all he people knew each o he ‖ ( aʕ e : VB.3FSG, baʕḍ-a: PRON- PRON.3FSG) (43) masalan ǝn-nās ʕalāqā a maʕ baʕǝḍha kī ― o example, how is he people’s ela ion o each o he ‖ (ʕalāqā -a: NOUN-PRON.3FSG, baʕǝḍ-ha: PRON- PRON.3FSG) 103 . Usually he ela i e p onoun is only used when i s an eceden is de ini e (c . Aldoukhi e al. Leh buch, p. 217). Since nās is inde ini e, his example is an excep ion o he ule. 104 . D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108. 105 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 252. 106 . C . Be ega ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 161. 107 . Khan. ―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470; B us ad. The Syn ax, p. 55. Howe e B us ad p o es wi h he ollowing example ex ac ed om Cowell (A e e ence g amma , p. 425) ha de lec ed ag eemen does no always occu in hese cases: hal-ʔalwān mā bināsbu baʕḍon ― hese colo s don’ go oge he ‖. No ice, howe e , ha his example shows a non-human con olle . CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 24 Examples o s ic ag eemen : (44) ǝn-nās yaʕni mǝn ǝ ḥīn, mǝn ǝ ḥīn ʕala baʕḍon ― he people a e open-minded; open-minded o each o he ‖ (mǝn ǝ ḥīn: AP.PL, baʕḍ-on: PRON-PRON.PL) 3.4. Speci ici y 3.4.1. Pe sonal p onouns The high le el o indi idua ion p o ided by pe sonal p onouns seems o be he eason why in ou da a hey only show s ic ag eemen wi h hei con olle s. Bu in 4 o he 14 occu ences o pe sonal p onouns he ela i e p onoun, which a ou s s ic ag eemen , was also p esen (see sec ion 3.2.2.). Pe sonal p onouns a e placed a he end o Co be ’s hie a chy o de lec ed ag eemen 108 . Examples o s ic ag eemen : (45) hǝnnen ǝn-nās ma byǝš abu mn ǝn-nahǝ mubāša a an ― hey, he people, do no d ink di ec ly om he i e ‖ (hǝnnen: PRON.3PL, byǝš abu: VB.3PL) (46) bǝl-manṭiʔa bēn l-ǝ nēn bǝ lāʔi ʔǝnno ʕālam hǝnnen ʔaṣlan mānon šwām ―in he a ea be ween bo h, you ind people who a e no o iginally Damascene‖ (hǝnnen: PRON.3PL, mān-on: NEG-PRON.PL, šwām: ADJ.PL) 3.4.2. Demons a i e p onouns Demons a i e p onouns p ominen ly indi idualize hei con olle s, hence almos all he ins ances in ou da a (6/7) show s ic ag eemen . The only example o de lec ed ag eemen in ol es he sho o m hal-, which does no show gende and numbe . The s ong deic ic cha ac e o he demons a i es p o ides a high deg ee o p ominence o he con olle , as obse ed in U ban Tunisian 109 . Examples o s ic ag eemen : (47) lēš hadōl ǝn-nās hēke byǝʕǝmlu? ―why do hese people do so?‖ (hadōl: DEM.PL, byǝʕǝmlu: VB.3PL) (48) hadōl ǝn-nās yǝlli ma biḥǝṭṭu ǝl-ḥijāb ― hese people who don’ wea he hijab‖ (hadōl: DEM.PL, biḥǝṭṭu: VB.3PL). In his example, indi idua ion is p ominen ly ma ked by he co-exis ence o he ela i e p onoun yǝlli (see sec ion 3.2.2.). Example o de lec ed ag eemen : (49) hāda bikūn abb ǝl-ʕālamīn ʔǝnno ġa a -lon la-han-nās kǝlla ― his is God who absol ed all hese people‖ (kǝll-a: ADV-PRON.3FSG). 108 . C . Co be . Hie a chies, a ge s, p. 207. 109 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 252. Bu he au ho s add ha his is no he only possible eason o explaining he s ic ag eemen : i could also esul om mo pho-syn ac ic p inciples. AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 25 This is he only example o de lec ed ag eemen ound in he da a. I pe haps can be explained by he p esence o he quan i ie kǝll (see sec ion 3.1.2.), which igge s de lec ed ag eemen . Examples o demons a i e p onouns p ominen ly ma king he con olle s and he e o e a ac ing s ic ag eemen a e ound in o he a ie ies o A abic, like U ban Tunisian 110 . Be ega’s indings speci ically conce ning nās in Omani A abic sugges he same conclusion 111 . 3.4.3. Loca i e cons uc ions In many cases whe e he e a e e e ences o local places, s ic ag eemen p e ails. This could be explained by he ac ha such e e ences p o ide speci ic in o ma ion abou people in a de ini e place, hus clea ly indi idualizing he g oup. Examples: (50) ǝl-ʕālam ʔaḥyānan ba a ʔaw hēk ši bi akk u ʔǝnno ṣ-ṣalā ši bixawwe ǝl- ʕālam ― he people some imes, ou side (Sy ia) o so, hink ha (Muslim) p aying is some hing ha sca es he people‖ (bi akk u: VB.3PL) The loca i e ph ase ba a ʔaw hēk ši speci ies ha no e e yone hinks in he way he sen ence desc ibes, only hose ab oad. (51) i ʕālam bǝš-šām biʔūlu l-ma a b ǝʕmel ǝḥžāb la-žōza ― he e a e people in Damascus who say ha he woman makes an amule o he husband‖ (biʔūlu: VB.3PL) The loca i e ph ase bǝš-šām speci ies ha he sen ence e e s only o people in Damascus. A ew examples o his kind include he p eposi ion ʕand ―wi h, a ‖: (52) bǝdda k ī nās ʕandon byǝʔd u yǝ ʕāmalu maʕ ǝl-ʕālam u yǝḥku maʕ ǝl- ʕālam u hēk ―many people he e can mix wi h he people and alk o he people and so‖ (ʕand-on: PREP-PRON.PL, byǝʔd u: VB.3PL, yǝ ʕāmalu: VB.3PL, yǝḥku: VB.3PL) The p eposi ion ʕand ollowed by he anapho ic p onoun -on li e ally means ―a ha place, a he place whe e hey (= hese people) a e‖. Howe e , he ollowing example does no show s ic ag eemen despi e he occu ence o hnīke ― he e‖—pe haps due o he double p esence o he quan i ie kǝll, which a ac s de lec ed ag eemen : 110 . Ídem, p. 243. 111 . Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 168, n. 17. CARMEN BERLINCHES RAMOS MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 26 (53) kǝll ǝl-ʕālam ǝhnīke lābse ʔabyaḍ, kǝll ǝl-ʕālam ―all he people he e wea whi e (clo hes), all he people‖ (lābse: AP.FSG) 112 . 3.4.4. Dis ance & Speci ica ion I was men ioned in sec ion 2.3. ha mixed ag eemen clauses usually include a i s a ge which is nea o i s con olle and shows de lec ed ag eemen , and a second a ge dis anced om he same con olle and showing s ic ag eemen . In many occasions, he dis anced a ge (s) add u he in o ma ion abou hei con olle s; he e o e dis ance is ega ded as a equen ac o o speci ica ion o indi idua ion 113 . This phenomenon has been egis e ed in o he a ie ies, like U ban Tunisian 114 , Bah ain 115 , and sou hwes e n Libyan 116 . Examples: (54) ǝn-nās ǝ sā e , ūḥ u ǝži, ṣā e ǝ šū ġē ʔašyāʔ, a-ṭṭa u ʔǝnno ydaww u ʕala luġa kūn ʔashal bǝ - aʕāmol ― he people a el, go and come, s a ed seeing o he hings; he e o e hey we e obliged o look o ano he language easie o he ela ion be ween hem‖ ( sā e : VB.3FSG, ūḥ: VB.3FSG, ǝži: VB.3FSG, ṣā e : VB.3FSG, šū : VB.3FSG, ṭṭa u: VB.3PL, ydaww u: VB.3PL) The second clause, in which all e bs a e in plu al, explains he ac ions aken as a esul o he si ua ion men ioned in he i s clause, in which all he e bs a e in eminine singula . (55) k ī nās ǝb ǝ ʔoṣ dabke wǝd-dabke b-sū ya masalan kǝll nās byǝ ǝʔṣuwwa šǝkǝl ―many people dance dabka; and he dabka in Sy ia, e e y one dances i in one way‖ (b ǝ ʔoṣ: VB.3FSG, byǝ ǝʔṣuww-: VB.3PL). In his example he i s sen ence shows de lec ed ag eemen , e e ing o he people as an unde ined g oup; and he de ec ed ag eemen is ein o ced by he p esence o he quan i ie k ī (see sec ion 3.1.1.). The second sen ence, despi e he p esence o kǝll, which emphasizes collec i i y, shows s ic ag eemen , since i speci ically e e s o he g oup o people men ioned in he i s sen ence, i.e. each o hose who dance he dabka 117 . 112 . A u he men ion o speci ica ion gi en by a loca i e, wi h an example o i showing s ic ag eemen , is in D’Anna (―Ag eemen ‖, p. 108), e e ing o sou hwes e n Libya. 113 . B us ad. The syn ax, p. 58. 114 . P ocházka & Gabsi. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 246. 115 . Holes. Dialec , cul u e, p. 335. 116 . D’Anna. ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 109. 117 . This example could i in he g oup o mixed pa e ns desc ibed hus: ―Mixed pa e ns also occu wi h S-V wo d o de in sen ences ha do no e e o pas e en s bu exp ess gene al asse ions. Again he i s pa con ains he gene al s a emen abou people as a collec i e whole, ollowed by a sen ence which ells us wha he indi idual membe s o his g oup a e doing‖ (P ocházka & Gabsi ―Ag eemen ‖, p. 246) . AGREEMENT PATTERNS WITH THE NOUNS NĀS AND ʕĀLAM IN DAMASCUS ARABIC MEAH, SECCIÓN ÁRABE-ISLAM [1696-5868] 70 (2021), 3-31. DOI 10.30827/meaha abe. 70i0.15152 27 Finally, some imes dis anced anapho ic p onouns p o ide u he speci ica ion abou he con olle s, as in he ollowing: (56) i ʕālam ǝk ī ǝb ǝži ʕala hāda l-ʔǝž imāʕ masalan ǝl-ʕālam yǝlli… hallaʔ masalan ʔana bǝnzel maʕon kǝll ǝnhā žǝmʕa ― he e a e many people who come o his mee ing, o example, he people who… o example, I go wi h hem e e y F iday day ime‖ (b ǝži: VB.3FSG, maʕ-on: PREP-PRON.PL). In his case he i s a ge (b ǝži) shows de lec ed ag eemen , p obably os e ed by he p esence o i k ī (see sec ion 3.1.1.), i s clause e e ing o people as a collec i e g oup. The second clause shows s ic ag eemen , speci ying p ecisely hose a he mee ing o whom i e e s: ha is, hose whom ―I go wi h … e e y F iday day ime‖. 3.5. De ini eness De ini eness was ega ded by Khan as a ea u e o indi idua ion 118 ; bu ou da a do no show any di e ence in ag eemen a ending he con olle s’ de ini ion o non-de ini ion. The e e ence o he con olle s in many o ou examples is de ini e, hough clea ly no speci ic o indi idual. Fo ins ance: (57) mšān hēk yaʕni n-nās bǝ ūḥ ― his is why he people go‖ (bǝ ūḥ: VB.3FSG), (58) hāda l- manẓa ǝl-ʕālam lǝssa mu mʕawwade ʕalē bi-ʔō ǝbba ―in Eu ope he people a e no used o his iew ye ‖ (mʕawwade: AP.FSG). The e o e, wi h ega d o clauses in ol ing he nouns nās and ʕālam, de ini eness does no seem o be a de e mining ac o in kind o ag eemen . The same phenomenon has been obse ed in Omani A abic. Be ega ound in his da a a sligh ly highe pe cen age (8%) o s ic ag eemen when con olle s a e de ined; howe e hese esul s a e based on inanima e con olle s 119 . I would be in e es ing o u he s udy his ques ion wi h non-human plu al con olle s in Damascus A abic. 4. CONCLUTION Ag eemen pa e ns wi h he nouns nās and ʕālam in Damascus A abic show s ic ag eemen p e ailing, being used in 60.90% o he ins ances. Also, bo h nouns pa e n simila ly; and he numbe o ins ances o each is abou he same (nās: 120 ins ances, ʕālam: 116 ins ances). Some ac o s seem o p omo e one ag eemen ype o e he o he ; bu all ypes o a ge s show p e e ence o s ic ag eemen . Howe e , ou limi ed numbe o 118 . Khan. ―Objec ma ke s‖, p. 470. The au ho , howe e , poin s ou ha de ini eness s. inde ini eness is no he only ac o ela ed o he deg ee o indi idua ion o a nominal. 119 . Be ega. ―Ag eemen wi h plu al‖, p. 161.