Resea ch a icle
Digi aliza ion, inno a ion and en i onmen al policies aimed a achie ing
sus ainable p oduc ion
José Manuel Guai a Ma ínez
a,
⁎,RosaPue as
a
, Jose Ma ía Ma ín Ma ín
b
, Domingo Ribei o-So iano
c
a
Uni e si a Poli ècnica de València, Depa men o Economics and Social Sciences, Facul y o Business Adminis a ion and Managemen , Spain
b
Uni e si y o G anada, Depa men o In e na ional and Spanish Economics, Facul y o Economics and Business, Spain
c
Uni e si a de València, Depa men o Business Adminis a ion, Facul y o Economics, Spain
abs ac a icle in o
A icle his o y:
Recei ed 19 Janua y 2022
Recei ed in e ised o m 4 Ma ch 2022
Accep ed 31 Ma ch 2022
A ailable online 06 Ap il 2022
Edi o : D . Abbas Ma dani
Humani y is unning ou o ime o cu b clima e change, and i s e ec s a e becoming e e mo e in ense and
ha m ul o humankind. A change in habi s and p oduc ion me hods is equi ed in o de o slow he ad ance o
his scou ge. This esea ch seeks o p o ide quan i a i e in o ma ion on he nexus be ween digi aliza ion and
sus ainable p oduc ion (SP). The analysis ocuses exclusi ely on he 27 EU membe s a es (2015–2019), all o
which a e cha ac e ized by a p oac i es ance owa ds en i onmen al deg ada ion. Fi s , a syn he ic indexis con-
s uc ed using c oss-e ficiency, in o de o assess Eu ope's posi ion in e ms o SP. This index is hen aken as he
dependen a iable inan es ima ion o he e ec s o he di e en aspec s o digi aliza ion measu ed in he Digi al
Economy and Socie y Index, as well as he en i onmen al and inno a ion policies adop ed in he EU. The gene -
alized me hod o momen s isused o examine he e ec o he end in SP. Resul s e eal ha he le el o income
pe capi a does no de e mine SPand ha i is mo e a ma e o socie y's commi men o implemen ing p ac ices
ha os e SP. Fu he mo e, he e idence oundindica es ha Eu ope has no ye been able o b eak he nega i e
link be ween GDP and sus ainabili y, despi e he posi i e impac o all ace s o digi aliza ion, inno a ion and en-
i onmen al policies.
© 2022 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d on behal o Ins i u ion o Chemical Enginee s. This is an open ac-
cess a icle unde he CC BY license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
Keywo ds:
Digi aliza ion
Sus ainable p oduc ion
Inno a ion
En i onmen al policies
C oss-e ficiency
GMM
1. In oduc ion
Human beings a e acing majo challenges ha equi e an ac i e
s ance om all pa ies in ol ed; companies, public adminis a ions
and he gene al popula ion. Clima e change and he sca ci y o na u al
esou ces call o a new g ow h pa adigm, whe ein economic and social
p og ess gua an ee sus ainable de elopmen (SD). The Wo ld Commis-
sion on En i onmen and De elopmen defined SD as he abili y o mee
he needs o he p esen wi hou comp omising he abili y o u u e
gene a ions o mee hei own needs (WCED, 1987). SD cen es on he
p o ec ion o na u e, economic well-being and social inclusion, while
espec ing plane a y bounda ies (Hummels and A gy ou, 2021;
Méndez-Picazo e al., 2021;Ma inakis and Whi e, 2022).
SD has been he basis o he adop ion o he 2030 Agenda, which
se s he global goal o ensu ing people's well-being while p o ec ing
he plane (UN, 2015). A o al o 17 Sus ainable De elopmen Goals
(SDGs) we e es ablished, di ided in o 169 economic, social and en i-
onmen al a ge s, all o which a e aimed a add essing he majo
challenges o he 21s cen u y and ensu ing a be e li e wi hou
comp omising he balance o ecosys ems. The 17SDGs a e closely in e -
connec ed and canno be ackled in isola ion (Wei z e al., 2018; an
Soes e al., 2019). Fo example, he e is a s ong connec ion be ween
Responsible Consump ion and P oduc ion (SDG 12), Ze o Hunge
(SDG 2) and No Po e y (SDG 1); ha is, be e p oduc ion and con-
sump ion sys ems con ibu e o he e adica ion o hunge and po e y
(P incipa o e al., 2019).
Responsible Consump ion and P oduc ion is one o he mos c oss-
cu ing and ele an SDGs o de eloped coun ies (Gaspe e al.,
2019). I calls o p oduc ion models ha ensu e he e ficien use o na -
u al esou ces, educing was e gene a ion while p ope ly managing pol-
lu ing p oduc s. En i onmen al egula ions mean ha many indus ial
sec o s a e ha ing o explo e inno a i e in es men s in al e na i e
ways o ensu e compliance in o de o in e nalize en i onmen al ex e -
nali ies wi hou hinde ing compe i i eness (Rome o-Cas o e al., 2022).
Companies mus di ec hei inno a i e p ocesses owa ds he imple-
men a ion o sus ainable p ac ices ha a oid en i onmen al impac s
(Halda and Se hi, 2022); in his espec , he digi al e olu ion should
be examined om a dual pe spec i e. On he one hand, due o i s ecen
eme gence and apid de elopmen , i has become a majo ocus o en-
e gy demand, significan ly inc easing g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
(Fagas e al., 2017;Joyce e al., 2019). Howe e , he massi e p esence
Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion 32 (2022) 92–100
⁎Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: joguma @esp.up .es (J.M. Guai a Ma ínez), pue [email protected] .es
(R. Pue as), ma inma in@ug .es (J.M. Ma ín Ma ín), domingo. ibei o@u .es
(D. Ribei o-So iano).
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.spc.2022.03.035
2352-5509/© 2022 The Au ho (s). Published by Else ie L d on behal o Ins i u ion o Chemical Enginee s. This is an open access a icleunde he CC BYlicense(h p://c ea i ecommons.
o g/licenses/by/4.0/).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/spc
o digi al p ac ices in all economic sec o s makes i an oppo uni y o he
in oduc ion o en i onmen ally- iendly solu ions in all socio-economic
s uc u es (Abdollahpou i, 2017;Dabbous and Ta hini, 2021). Sus ain-
able p oduc ion (SP) and digi aliza ion a e, a fi s glance, wo e y dis-
pa a e concep s, bu hey a e becoming inc easingly in e connec ed
and can be seen o pu sue a common goal (Sau a, 2021).
SP was o iginally defined by he Lowell Cen e o Sus ainable
P oduc ion (LCSP, 1998) as he c ea ion o goods and se ices h ough
p ocesses ha a e non-pollu ing, conse ing o ene gy and na u al e-
sou ces, economically iable, and sa e, heal hy and ewa ding o em-
ployees and consume s. G ounded on his no ion a e he p inciples o
SP, which ake six aspec s in o conside a ion: esou ces; he en i on-
men ; economic pe o mance; communi y de elopmen and social jus-
ice; wo ke s and p oduc s (Khanzodee al.,2021). In u n, digi aliza ion
is he ans o ma ion o all ypes o in e ac ions, communica ions, busi-
ness unc ions and business models in o a digi al model, os e ing he
au oma ion and boos ing he speed o almos all asks. I is a complex
concep due o hemul i udeo associa ed ace s,a ec ingo ganiza ions
a di e en le els and in di e en ways (B oekhuizen e al., 2021;Tiago
e al., 2021). E-comme ce is jus one o i s mani es a ions; his echnol-
ogy can be ound in all le els o socie y and he business en i onmen ,
om he use o email o sma phones, and has changed he way mos
day- o-day ac i i ies a e done (B anca e al., 2020).
The ise o digi aliza ion in businesses,households andfinancial sec-
o s is making i di ficul o sepa a e ou he di ec and indi ec e ec s o
In o ma ion and Communica ion Technology (ICT) on he en i onmen
(Danish e al., 2018;A om e al., 2020), and globaliza ion is undoub -
edly a d i e o he adop ion o digi al echnology (Ska e and So iano,
2021). This si ua ion has spa ked he in e es o he scien ificcommu-
ni y, and a la ge body o li e a u e has ecen ly eme ged, ocusing on
his new way o doing hings. Fo example, Ahmed e al. (2021) p o ide
e idence o he posi i e impac o ICT and globaliza ion on CO
2
emissions, while a he same ime g ow h and u baniza ion deg ade
he a ious laye s o he biosphe e. T adi ional goods and se ices a e
being eplaced by i ual p ac ices ha educe ene gy use and
emissions. E-comme ce, e-banking, i ual mee ings and online educa-
ion ende people's physical p esence unnecessa y, educing a el
and he associa ed pollu ion (Adeleye e al., 2021;Ulucak and Danish,
2020). New e idence has been epo ed on he e ec s o obo iza ion,
digi aliza ion and inno a ion on p oduc i i y and employmen in com-
panies (Balles a e al., 2021). Digi al ans o ma ion a all le els will en-
su e sus ainable p oduc ion and consump ion, as well as business
con inui y in any scena io, including pandemic si ua ions (Al-Omoush
e al., 2020;Bai e al., 2021;Guai a e al., 2022;Kliman e al., 2021) p o-
ide e idence o he ad ances implemen ed in manu ac u ing p o-
cesses, yielding mo e e ficien wo k eams and use o esou ces.
The p esen esea ch in ol es a de ailed analysis o he nexus be-
ween he di e en a eas o digi aliza ion and SP, as well as he ole o
en i onmen al policies and inno a ion (Ma i and Pue as, 2022). In
o de o use a homogenous se ing o he analysis, he s udy ocuses
on he 27 EU membe s a es, which show a p oac i e a i ude owa ds
clima e change mi iga ion, as made clea by he ecen Eu opean
G een Deal. A fi e-yea pe iod (2015–2019) is analysed in o de o en-
su e he obus ness o he esul s, whichwill allow us o answe wo e-
sea ch ques ions:
Q1. Which coun ies a e mos commi ed o de eloping and in o-
ducing SP in hei economies?
As pa o his s udy, a Syn he ic Index (SI) is cons uc ed o e eal
he ela i e posi ion o each coun y, wi h SP e alua ed in e ms o e-
sou ces and he na u al en i onmen . A a ian o Da a En elopmen
Analysis (DEA)—in e empo al c oss-e ficiency (CE)—will be used o
p oduce a anking ha can p o ide an answe o his ques ion.
Q2. Wha aspec s o digi aliza ion a e s eng hened by he policies
adop ed in coun ies' pu sui o SP?
This ques ion will be answe ed by es ima ing he pa ame e s o a
panel da a model using he Gene alized Me hod o Momen s (GMM).
The di e en pilla s o he Digi al Economy and Socie y Index (DESI)
will be analysed indi idually, along wi h a iables ha shed ligh on
he en i onmen al posi ion and ICT inno a ion policies o he analysed
coun ies.
This esea ch aims o fill he ela ed gap in he li e a u e by p o id-
ing aluable e idence on as ye unde s udied aspec s: (1) digi aliza ion
is analysed wi h a ocus on all i s ace s (human capi al, connec i i y, in-
eg a ion o digi al echnology, and digi al public se ices) ino de o iden-
i y possible di e ences among hem; (2) he SI assesses di e en
aspec s o SP, so ha he anking is no based on a single a iable;
(3) he leng h o he pe iod analysed gua an ees he quali y o he e-
sul s ob ained, ensu ing ha isola ed e en s do no dis o he conclu-
sions; (4) he use o up- o-da e s a is ical in o ma ion means ha he
conclusions d awn can immedia ely be pu in o e ec in policies ha
con ibu e o he a duous ask o achie ing SP.
The es o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2 p esen s a e-
iew o he li e a u e on he ad ances made ela ing o digi aliza ion
and SP. Sec ion 3 desc ibes he me hods and he sample used.
Sec ion 4 analyses he esul s ob ained in he esea ch. Las ly, he con-
clusions, con ibu ions o he s udy and limi a ions a e summa ized in
Sec ion 5.
2. Theo e ical amewo k: p og ess made in digi aliza ion and sus-
ainable p oduc ion
Business objec i es a e changing in esponse o he deg ada ion o
he biosphe e; many indus ies a e beginning o p io i ize he educ ion
o en i onmen al impac o e p ofi , p omo ingdigi alizedmanu ac u -
ing, known as Indus y 4.0. This ans o ma ion has e up ed in o all
le els o socie y, wi h physical in o ma ion being con e ed in o lan-
guages ead using in o ma ion echnology p ac ices. The inc ease in
p oduc i i y has been amply demons a ed, om i s adap a ion in
socio-economic uses o en i onmen al issues (Mondeja e al., 2021;
Liou as e al., 2021). This ans o ma ion is also p o iding he da a
needed o op imal decision-making, acili a ing he e ficien use o
a ailable esou ces and se ices (Dubey e al., 2019;Appio e al., 2021).
Howe e , despi e he ac ha i s implemen a ion yields highe le els
o e ficiency and p oduc i i y while using ewe esou ces, i is a fie cely
deba ed issue in he li e a u e, gi ing ise o opposing posi ions. Jabbou
e al. (2018) a gue ha he e a e syne gies be ween Indus y 4.0 and
en i onmen ally-sus ainable manu ac u ing, conside ing he o me as
a means o de eloping g een p oduc s and p ocesses ha will enable
changes o pa e ns o p oduc ion and consump ion. Langley e al.
(2021) claim ha his new app oach is associa ed wi h a wide ma gin
o unce ain y, o cing companies o in oduce o ganiza ional changes
and o conside mul iple in e ela ionships in decision-making p ocesses.
The scien ific communi y has shown g ea in e es in hese wo
fields o knowledge, bu has some imes o e looked he possible in e -
sec ion be ween hem. Ma ei e al. (2019) poin o he inhe en di fi-
cul y in join ly analysing digi aliza ion and sus ainabili y. While he
la e equi es a long- e m commi men o changing he unde lying
s uc u es o indus ies, digi aliza ion can be ea ed as a end owa ds
echnological ad ancemen independen o sus ainabili y. The adop ion
o sus ainable business models is now beginning o be seen as anoppo -
uni y. Za e e al. (2019) claim ha indus ial e olu ion is ocused on
digi aliza ion as a means o ensu e SP, wi h he posi i e ela ionship be-
ween hese wo no ions ecen ly being confi med (Bag e al., 2021;
S a ce al.,2021).Acco ding oSha mae al.(2020) hiseme ging ech-
nology is posing a majo en i onmen al challenge wo ldwide. Au ho s
such as Kamble e al. (2018) conside Indus y 4.0 as a pa adigm shi
in manu ac u ing, me ging new echnologies aimed a ensu ing maxi-
mum pe o mance wi h he e ficien use o esou ces. Table 1 p esen s
in mo e de ail some o he esea ch ca ied ou .
Simila ly, he e has been a apid ise in ecen yea sin henumbe o
s udies ocusing on he digi aliza ion o specific p oduc ion p ocesses as
a way o cu b pollu ion. G užauskas e al. (2018) analyze he e ec o
J.M. Guai a Ma ínez, R. Pue as, J.M. Ma ín Ma ín e al. Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion 32 (2022) 92–100
93
implemen ingIndus y4.0in hesupply chain h ough heuseo au on-
omous ehicles, in o de o de e mine whe he compe i i e ad an ages
can be main ained in he long un. The au ho s find ha issues such as
legisla ion and a ailable in as uc u e can be a cons ain . Ka ki and
Po as (2021) e iew he li e a u e on Indus y 4.0 in main enance se -
ices, demons a ing he posi i e e ec in e ms o sus ainabili y.
Annosi e al. (2021) esea ch he e ec o his new pa adigm in he
ood supply chain as a means o p e en ing was e gene a ion.
In ligh o his new app oach, and al hough i should be cla ified ha
he ecosys ems analysed may ha e a ying deg ees o digi aliza ion, in-
no a ion and en i onmen al policies, inno a ion is an essen ial elemen
o he eplacemen o adi ional managemen sys ems, acili a ing he
adjus men s needed o success ully b ing oge he digi aliza ion and SP.
Many di e en esou ces a e equi ed, and managemen mus play an
app op ia e ole in in eg a ing he wo concep s. Some o he esou ces
analysed in he li e a u e include in o ma ion p ocessing capabili y,
p oduc and p ocess aceabili y, design o he en i onmen and o e-
manu ac u e, g een human esou ces and IT esou ces (Bag and
P e o ius, 2020;Li e al., 2019;Saidani e al., 2017;Telukda ie e al.,
2018). Fo example, digi al pla o ms acili a e mass p oduc ion, mean-
ing demand can be me wi hou he need o o e p oduc ion; his helps
ensu e ene gy sa ings, gi ing companies an ad an age o e hei com-
pe i o s. Mi al e al. (2018) a gue ha companies opposed o adap ing
o his new ope a ional app oach ha e li le chance o su i al. Acco d-
ing o Hecklau e al. (2017) indus y mus mo e owa ds SP by inco po-
a ing eco-design o a cleane a mosphe e. Geissdoe e e al. (2017)
claim ha his is an eme gen , mo e en i onmen ally- iendly way o
manu ac u ing, whe e p ope esou ce managemen is assu ed and
ecycling helps o p e en undesi able was e.
In sho , he ul ima e goal o all hese echnological p ocesses mus
be he in oduc ion o new de elopmen s ha os e SP. Technological
inno a ion plays a c ucial ole in economic p ospe i y by os e ing com-
pe i i eness, g een inno a ion and SD (OECD, 2015). Ne e heless, de-
spi e all he p og ess ha has been made, he link be ween economic
g ow h and pollu ion has no ye been b oken (Safie al., 2021;Su
e al., 2022). In his con ex , g een inno a ions con ibu e o he educ-
ion o ca bon emissions (Kha ak e al., 2022), while ensu ing compa-
nies' compe i i eness (Le and Ik am, 2022).
3. Me hods and ma e ials
The empi ical analysis o his esea ch was ca ied ou using a sam-
ple o EU membe s a es o he pe iod be ween 2015 and 2019. The
mo i a ion o choosing hese coun ies was o iden i y pa e ns o
beha iou in he na ions mos commi ed o clima e change issues.
In e empo al CE is used o p oduce an SI ha combines in a single a -
iable he di e en ace s o one o he main indica o s o SP, esou ces,
along wi h GHG emissions. Addi ionally, he pa ame e s ha de e mine
he nexus be ween he di e en aspec s o digi aliza ion and SP a e es-
ima ed usingGMM, andcoun ies' commi men in e ms o inno a ion
and clima e change is analysed.
3.1. S age 1: c oss-e ficiency and a iables used in he SI
DEA is a non-pa ame ic linea p og amming me hod used o de e -
mine he le el o e ficiency o decision-makinguni s (DMUs). I in ol es
cons uc ing a p oduc ion on ie based on he op imal combina ion o
he inpu s and ou pu s ha define he p oblem unde s udy. O iginally,
Cha nes e al. (1978) buil he model in a se ing o cons an e u ns o
scale (CRS), which did no accoun o he size o he DMUs; hey all op-
e a ed a an op imal scale. In esponse o his limi a ion, Banke e al.
(1984) p oposed he in oduc ion o a iable e u ns o scale (VRS),
such ha inpu s and ou pu s would no ha e o a y p opo ionally.
The flexibili y o he DEA model also allows di e en o ien a ions o
be es ablished, as app op ia e: hus, ou pu s can be maximized wi h
he a ailable esou ces (ou pu o ien a ion, oo); o , con e sely, inpu s
can be minimized while p oducing he highes possible le el o ou pu
(inpu o ien a ion, io). Unde ei he o ien a ion, he op imal le el o e -
ficiency akes he alue o 1. In hecase o oo, he excess o e 1 indica es
how much heou pu s should inc ease by, using he a ailable esou ces,
o achie e maximum e ficiency. As o io, hee ficiency le el anges be-
ween 0 and 1, and he dis ance o 1 ep esen s he educ ion in inpu s
needed o achie e a sco e o 1. Fo oo, hee ficiencysco e is calcula edas
he in e se o he alue ob ained. The li e a u e includes a no able body
o scien ific ou pu ha suppo s he use o his me hod wi h issues e-
la ed o sus ainabili y, ene gy (Chu e al., 2021), ca bon emissions (Sun
e al., 2021), g een ou ism (Ma ín and Salinas, 2022;Zhang e al.,
2022), wa e secu i y (de Cas o-Pa do e al., 2022) and e en in he SP
o oodssuchasco n(Mwambo e al., 2021).
Despi e he g ea popula i y o his me hod, i also has some disad-
an ages ha mus be aken in o accoun o ensu e ha he co ec in-
e p e a ion is d awn om he conclusions (Coope e al., 2006): he
esul s a e highly dependen on he choice o inpu s and ou pu s, and
i is no possible o alida e hei selec ion; he p esence o ou lie s
can se iously influence he esul s; only quan i a i e da a can be used;
and i is no possible o dis inguish be ween e ficien obse a ions, as
hey a e all assigned he alue o 1 wi hou necessa ily being equi alen .
In e empo al CE o e comes some o hese limi a ions by enabling a
Table 1
Li e a u e e iew: sus ainable-digi aliza ion.
Au ho s Obje i e Me hodology Conclusions
Jo ano iće al. (2018) Examine he ela ionship be ween
digi aliza ion and sus ainable de elopmen
Co ela ions o DESI and
o he composi e indices.
Digi al pe o mance o EU a ec s main sus ainable de elopmen
componen s: economic, social, and en i onmen al
Bü gin (2020) Analyze how ecen ad ances in
he use o digi al echnology
con ibu ed o be e da a
Semis uc u ed in e iews The e a e posi i e e ec s o digi aliza ion on he ins i u ional
capaci y o key s akeholde s, and i can na ow he
implemen a ion gap in EU en i onmen al law
Cilibe o e al. (2021) Examine he ela ionships among
sus ainable p oduc ion, lean
p oduc ion, and Indus y 4.0
Lean p oduc ion heo y The p inciples on which he pilla s o a compe i i e and
sus ainable en e p ise es a e se ou .
Denicolai e al. (2021) In es iga e he in e na ionaliza ion,
digi aliza ion, and sus ainabili y a e
g ow h pa hs o fi ms
Tobi eg ession Digi aliza ion and sus ainabili y a e posi i ely ela ed and hey
u n o be compe ing g ow h pa hs when he fi m in e na ionalizes.
Š a c e al., 2021 In es iga e he associa ion o
in ellec ual capi al wi h he EU
digi al ans o ma ion eadiness
Mul iple linea eg ession Social capi al and wo king skills can de ec ce ain elemen s
o digi al di ide be ween EU membe s a es.
Del Río Cas o e al. (2021) Ca ego ize he main SDGs esea ch
gaps and explo a ion explo a ion o
he po en ial con ibu ion o digi al pa adigms
Re iew and syn hesis o
ele an li e a u e
Digi aliza ion should be esponsibly ha nessed by mi iga ing
nega i e impac s and ensu ing genuine sus ainabili y
Tok aş-Palu (2022) Analyze he e ec s o Indus y 4.0
echnologies and coo dina ion on he
sus ainabili y o supply chains
Nash ba gaining based
e enue-sha ing con ac s
When a supply chain uses he ad an ages o Indus y 4.0
echnologies in conjunc ion wi h coo dina ion, his chain
leads he ma ke in e ms o o e all sus ainabili y
J.M. Guai a Ma ínez, R. Pue as, J.M. Ma ín Ma ín e al. Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion 32 (2022) 92–100
94
comple e anking o all he obse a ions in he sample. Mo eo e , in
o de o a oid he influence o possible ou lie s, he obse a ions co e-
sponding o he 5 yea s o he sample a e aken as a comp ehensi e se ,
wi h he cons uc ion o a single p oduc ion on ie .Thus, he e ficiency
le el o he DMUs is he mean ob ained in each yea (Pue as e al.,
2020a;Ca acedo and Pue as, 2021;B esciani e al., 2021).
The CE ma ix p o ides an e alua ion o he pe o mance o each
DMU using he op imal inpu and ou pu weigh s o he o he DMUs
in he sample, wi h i s final alue being hea e ageo all he e ficiencies
ob ained. This a ian o DEA was o iginally p oposed by Sex on e al.
(1986), who de eloped an e alua ion ma ix o acili a e he p oduc ion
o ankings, hus allowing he esea che o o de all he obse a ions.
This me hod in ol es calcula ing he e ficiency sco e o each DMU n
imes o p oduce a CE ma ix. The elemen s o he ma ix a e calcula ed
using he ollowing equa ion:
Ekj ¼Ps
¼1u ky j
Pm
i¼1 ikxij
j¼1;…;n; k ¼1;…;nð1Þ
whe e u
k
and
ik
a e he op imal mul iplie s de e mined h ough DEA
o he co esponding DMU, x
ij
and y
j
ep esen he inpu s and
ou pu s consumed and p oduced by each j- h uni . The CE sco e o
DMU jis he a e age o i s co esponding e ficiency sco es ob ained in
he ma ix, E
kj
.
CEj¼1
nX
k≠j
Ekj ð2Þ
Th ough he use o CE, DMUs ha a e no e ficien , bu a e close o
being so, can achie e a good posi ion in he anking. This me hod co -
ec s he possible disp opo ion be ween he numbe o ou pu s and
he scale o he ac i i y o he g oup hey ep esen . I has been widely
used in he li e a u e o SI cons uc ion (Ma i and Pue as, 2020;
Fe nández-Macho e al., 2020;Pue as e al., 2020b).
In his s udy, an SI is cons uc ed o de e mine he ela i e posi ion
o Eu opean coun ies in e ms o SP. The inpu s and ou pu s used
we e fi s ea ed o ensu e ha di e en uni s o measu emen do
no esul in e oneous ankings (OECD, 2008;Che chye e al., 2008).
Be o e calcula ing he le el o e ficiency, all a iables we e ans o med
in o na u al loga i hms and hen escaled o alues anging be ween 1
and 2. Finally, since he e was no clea co espondence be ween he
a iables used and hei assigna ion as inpu s o ou pu s, he inpu s
we e ans o med in o “ a iables o be imp o ed”so as o yield an ap-
p op ia e p oduc ion unc ion (Ma í e al., 2017).
Two inpu s (domes ic ma e ial consump ion and final ene gy con-
sump ion o indus y) and h ee ou pu s ( enewable ene gy, ecycling
and indus ial GHG emissions) ha e been used in he cons uc ion o
he SI. All o hese ha e p e iously been used as indica o s o SP in he
li e a u e (Vele a and Ellenbecke , 2001;K ajnc and Gla ič,2003;
Elhuni and Ahmad, 2017). Gi en he aim o his esea ch and he a i-
ables used, i was decided o es ima e a CE model unde VRS and oo,
using DeaR so wa e (Coll-Se ano e al., 2018). Table 2 p esen s he
a iables, indica ing he ole hey play, he uni s o measu emen and
hei co esponding sou ces.
Since GHG emissions cons i u e an undesi able ou pu , his a iable
has been ans o med (1/GHG) so ha i can be maximized along wi h
he es o he p oposed a iables (Koçak e al., 2021;Ca acedo e al.,
2021). Table 3 shows he main desc ip i e s a is ics o all he a iables.
An analysis o he alues in Table 3 shows ha he e is no pa e n in
he beha iou o hese indica o s. While Es onia and Finland consume
he mos ma e ial and ene gy pe capi a, espec i ely, Sweden and
Ge many a e he mos ad anced coun ies in e ms o enewable ene gy
and ecycling. A he opposi e end o he scale a e La ia and Mal a in
e ms o inpu s, and Luxembou g and Romania in e ms o ou pu s. Re-
ga ding emissions, Aus ia is he coun y wi h he highes le el o GHG
pe capi a and Denma k is he leas pollu ing. These esul s eflec he
coun ies' commi men o ackling clima e change and he e o s
made in ce ain sec o s.
3.2. S age 2: GMM and a iables used
Answe ing he second esea ch ques ion equi es a panel da a anal-
ysis. A dynamic panel da a model has been chosen in o de o inco po-
a e an endogenous s uc u e in o he model, accoun ing o causal
ela ionships in he es ima ion. This app oach, o iginally p oposed by
A ellano and Bond (1991), in ol es ea ing endogenei y h ough di -
e ences o he lags. O he es ima o s we e de eloped o deal wi h
small panels, whe e lags in he le els o he a iables a e used as ins u-
men s. Gi en he cha ac e is ics o he sample, his pape uses he a i-
an de eloped by Roodman (2006), whe e he ins umen s a e
inco po a ed in le els, educing in o ma ion loss.
The ac ha he di e en aspec s o digi aliza ion a e co ela ed
means hey ha e o be analysed indi idually, hus equi ingfi e es ima-
ions (one pe pilla and ano he o he o e all index). In addi ion, we
analyze he deg ee o he impac o en i onmen al and inno a ion pol-
icies on SP. The e o e, 10 models in o al ha e o be es ima ed, he gen-
e al s uc u e o which is gi en as ollows:
ln SI_PSi ¼β0þβ1lnSIi −1þβ2lnVA_DESIi þβ3ln Xi −1þβ4lnZi
þβ5lnGDPi þεi ð3Þ
i=1,2,…, 27 coun ies and =2015,…, 2019.
whe e SI_PS ep esen s he SP index; VA_DESI is indus ial alue
added o each pilla o he DESI analysed (Kopp and Lange, 2019); X
and Z a e a iables in oduced o accoun o inno a ion (en i onmen-
al pa en s and go e nmen budge alloca ions o ICT R&D) and en i-
onmen al commi men (business expendi u e on en i onmen al
p o ec ion and en i onmen al axes); las ly, GDP cap u es he le el o
p oduc ion o he coun ies analysed.
The Eu opean Commission publishes he DESI annually o moni o
he p og ess made in EU coun ies in e ms o digi al compe i i eness.
I co e s ou dis inc dimensions: human capi al (HC), connec i i y
(C), in eg a ion o digi al echnology (IDT), and digi al public se ice
(DPS). All o hem a e defined by sub-dimensions and indica o s ha
yield a alue o each pilla and o he o al digi aliza ion index. The
DESI o 2021 eflec s s a is ical in o ma ion om he p e ious yea ;
hus, his s udy uses he DESIs published in he pe iod 2016–2020,
which p o ide da a o he pe iod 2015–2019. Table 4 p o ides defini-
ions o he independen a iables o each o he models.
Table 2
Va iables used in he cons uc ion o he SI.
Va iable Role Uni Sou ce
Domes ic ma e ial
consump ion
Inpu Tonnes pe
capi a
Eu os a
Indus ial ene gy consump ion Inpu Tonnes pe
capi a
Odyssee
Renewable ene gy Ou pu Pe cen age Eu os a
Recycling Ou pu Kg pe capi a Eu os a
Indus ial GHG emissions Undesi able
ou pu
Tonnes pe
capi a
Eu os a
Table 3
Desc ip i e s a is ics o inpu s and ou pu s (2015–2019).
Mean SD Max Min
Domes ic ma e ial consump ion 3.52 2.07 12.47 1.02
Indus ial ene gy consump ion 0.62 0.40 2.12 0.15
Renewable ene gy 21.13 11.77 56.39 4.99
Recycling 126.28 63.10 309.00 14.00
Indus ial GHG emissions 0.90 0.43 1.95 0.32
J.M. Guai a Ma ínez, R. Pue as, J.M. Ma ín Ma ín e al. Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion 32 (2022) 92–100
95
These a iables enable an analysis o he nexus be ween SP and dig-
i aliza ion, as well as he impo ance o he en i onmen al and inno a-
ion policies adop ed in Eu opean coun ies. Table 5 shows he
desc ip i e s a is ics o all he a iables.
These a iables ha e been ln- ans o med in o de o smoo h he
a iabili y, make he da a mo e homogenous and help ensu e he o-
bus ness o he es ima es (Pue as and Ma i, 2021). Table 5 e eals
e y dispa a e beha iou o he a iables. Rega ding digi aliza ion,
while we do no obse e a low deg ee o dispe sion in he sample, he
s anda d de ia ion is well abo e he co esponding a e age. This may
be due o he dispa i y in he size and economic le el o he coun ies
analysed. The o e all DESI e eals ha he EU s ill has a long way o
go o imp o e digi aliza ion, wi h he maximum (63%) being eco ded
by Finland in 2019. Coun ies' economic si ua ion migh be expec ed
o be closely ela ed o he DESI; howe e , a coun y such as I aly,
which has a high le el o economic capaci y (measu ed in e ms o
GDP), has a le el o digi al de elopmen simila o C oa ia, Cyp us and
Slo akia, and lies behind o he coun ies such as Slo enia, Po ugal,
La ia, Li huania, Es onia and Czechia.
4. Resul s and discussion
In hefi s s age o he esea ch, he SI was calcula ed o es ablish he
ela i e posi ions o Eu opeancoun ies in e mso SP. Since hey all be-
long o he EU, hey show a ai ly homogeneous pa e n o beha iou in
esponse o clima e and en i onmen al challenges. The Eu opean G een
Pac signed in 2019 by he Eu opean Commission co e s pollu ion con-
ol measu es, social policies and ac ions agains clima e change, sus-
ainabili y laws, emission educ ion, ene gy e ficiency, he ci cula
economy and he g een economy. The o e a ching aim is o p ese e,
main ain and imp o e he EU's na u al capi al, he eby enhancing he
well-being o he popula ion. The e o e, he p oposed SI e eals which
coun ies hold he bes posi ions and, con e sely, which coun ies
need o ake s onge ac ion. Table 6 shows each coun y's e ficiency
sco e wi h he SI_PS, i s anking, and mean GDP pe capi a in pu chasing
powe pa i y (PPP) cons an p ices.
The applica ion o CE yielded a comple e anking, wi h Denma k,
Finland, Sweden and Ge many occupying he op posi ions, and o he s
such as Slo akia, Cyp us, Mal a and Romania a he bo om. The la e
equi e mo e ac ion on ene gy o os e he de elopmen o sus ainable
p ac ices, ecycling, enewable ene gies, and ac i i ies o educe GHG
emissions. Fu he mo e, i can be seen ha a coun y's weal h does
no de e mine i s commi men o SP. Fo example, Mal a, which has a
GDP pe capi a highe han Slo enia, Es onia and La ia, occupies he
second o las posi ion in he SI_PS, while he a o emen ioned coun ies
a e in fi h, six h and eigh h posi ions, espec i ely.
Bekun e al. (2019) confi m ha economic g ow h and non-
enewable ene gy consump ion inc ease ca bon emissions in Eu ope.
Hence, coun ies need o in ensi y he use o enewable ene gy in all p o-
duc ion sys ems. Despi e he di e ences be ween he coun ies analysed,
Wang e al. (2019) confi m ha Eu opean coun ies play a clea leading
ole in e ms o p ac ices ela ing o sus ainable p oduc ion and con-
sump ion. Fo all coun ies, i is a slow p ocess and di ficul o implemen ,
bu i ispa icula lyso o de eloping economies. In some ci cums ances,
economic p io i ies s ill ake p ecedence o e en i onmen al and social
Table 4
Desc ip ion o de e minan s in he SI.
Common a iables
Human Capi al
a
In e ne use skills and ad anced skills and
de elopmen
%
Connec i i y
a
Fixed b oadband ake-up, fixed b oadband
co e age, mobile b oadband and b oadband
p ices
%
In eg a ion o digi al
echnology
a
Digi al in ensi y, digi al echnologies o
businesses and e-comme ce
%
Digi al public
se ice
a
E-go e nmen %
DESI
a
To al index %
GDP G oss domes ic p oduc Millions
o eu os
Va iables Defini ion Uni
Model 1: inno a ion policies
Pa en s Pa en s de eloped in
en i onmen - ela ed echnologies
Numbe
ICT GBARD Go e nmen budge alloca ions o
ICT R&D
Millions
o eu os
Model 2: En i onmen al policies
Na ional expendi u e on
en i onmen al p o ec ion by
co po a ions (NEPE)
T ansac ions ela ed o he
p e en ion, educ ion, and
elimina ion o pollu ion and any
o he deg ada ion o he
en i onmen .
Millions
o eu os
En i onmen al axes (ET) To al ax e enue by ca ego y o
en i onmen al axes: ene gy axes,
anspo axes and he sum o
pollu ion and esou ce axes
Millions
o eu os
a
All DESIcomponen s ha e been mul iplied by VA oaccoun o he possibili y ha he
e ec o one a iable maydependon hes a eo ano he ; ha is, hee ec o digi aliza ion
on SP may di e depending on he indus ial VA.
Table 5
Desc ip i e s a is ics o independen a iables (2015–2019).
Mean SD Max Min
HC 0.12 0.02 0.17 0.07
C 0.09 0.02 0.14 0.04
IDT 0.08 0.02 0.14 0.03
DPS 0.14 0.04 0.21 0.02
DESI 0.42 0.09 0.63 0.21
GDP 703,221.62 1,028,202.80 4,481,173.47 17,733.19
Pa en s
-1a
4410.34 10,618.09 55,643.79 25.03
ICT GBARD 209.21 329.74 1769.06 0.15
NEPE
-1a
5154.74 9069.74 48,383.00 31.10
ET 11,714.17 17,117.58 61,111.00 269.90
a
These wo a iables ha e been lagged one yea due o he una ailabili y o s a is ical
in o ma ion o 2019. Some ime, howe e , he esea ch mus eflec he ime lag needed
o ob ain he co esponding esul s.
Table 6
SI_PS o Eu opean Coun ies (2015–2019).
Coun y SI_SP Ranking GDP pe capi a (PPP, cons an )
Denma k 0.960 1 55,155
Finland 0.932 2 47,108
Sweden 0.917 3 51,882
Ge many 0.906 4 52,705
Slo enia 0.887 5 36,418
Es onia 0.884 6 33,673
Aus ia 0.869 7 54,297
La ia 0.838 8 28,775
I aly 0.819 9 41,484
Luxembou g 0.815 10 115,204
Bulga ia 0.808 11 21,534
I eland 0.807 12 78,357
Li huania 0.799 13 33,810
F ance 0.792 14 44,586
Czechia 0.790 15 38,584
C oa ia 0.789 16 27,102
Ne he lands 0.780 17 54,951
Po ugal 0.776 18 32,999
Belgium 0.770 19 50,560
Spain 0.769 20 39,289
Hunga y 0.766 21 29,785
Poland 0.754 22 30,281
G eece 0.748 23 28,789
Slo akia 0.721 24 26,913
Cyp us 0.711 25 37,767
Mal a 0.685 26 42,058
Romania 0.660 27 26,913
J.M. Guai a Ma ínez, R. Pue as, J.M. Ma ín Ma ín e al. Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion 32 (2022) 92–100
96
ones, despi e he ongoing and inc easingly se e e mani es a ions o cli-
ma e change (Ramcilo ic-Suominen and Pülzl, 2018).
Eu opean coun ies ha a e s ill lagging behind should p omo e he
useo enewableene giesin hei p oduc ion sys ems,whilesuppo ing
ecycling e o s. The combina ion o he wo p ac ices will lead o a
educ ion in he use o na u al esou ces and will cu ail emissions.
Acco ding o Yu e al. (2016) indus ialized economies should p omo e
knowledge-in ensi e as a way o educe ene gy consump ion and
ca bon emissions.
In he second s age o his esea ch, he SI_PS indica o is used as a
dependen a iable and a lagged independen a iable in a panel da a
es ima ion inco po a ing he di e en componen s o digi aliza ion.
Table 7 shows he esul s o he fi e models es ima ed using wo-s ep
GMM, also including indica o s o he inno a ion policies adop ed by
Eu opean coun ies. The coe ficien s ha e been s anda dized in o de
o compa e he ela i e weigh o each independen a iable in e ms
o he e ec on SP. Fu he mo e, a numbe o es s a e conduc ed o con-
fi m he adequacy o he esul s: he Hansen es confi ms ha he in-
s umen s used a e alid and ha he e is no o e iden ifica ion
p oblem (P ob>chi2 g ea e han 0.05); he A ellano-Bond es con-
fi ms he absence o second-o de se ial co ela ion [AR(2)] (P ob>z
g ea e han 0.05); he numbe o ins umen s is smalle han he num-
be o g oups (10 ins umen s and 27 g oups); and he Wald es , wi h a
P ob>chi2 o less han 0.05, confi ms he co ec specifica ion and ha
he se o indica o s explain he dependen a iable.
All he models analysed indica e ha i has s ill no been possible o
b eak he link be ween GDP and sus ainabili y, an issue ha has
a ac ed a g ea deal o deba e in he li e a u e (Azam e al., 2021).
This s ong associa ion is ypical o mo e economically ad anced
coun ies, as Alola e al. (2021) ha e shown o A ican coun ies ha
economic de elopmen and echnological inno a ion d i e SD.
Secondly, i is wo h no ing he impo ance o he di e en aspec s
o digi aliza ion o SP, wi h a posi i e ela ionship ound be ween he
wo concep s. This is aluable in o ma ion o decision-make s, as he
p og ess made in Indus y 4.0 os e s he in oduc ion o g een
manu ac u ing p ac ices. Au ho s such as Dema ini e al. (2019),
Mondeja e al. (2021) confi m ha hese echnological ad ances
make a posi i e con ibu ion o en i onmen al sus ainabili y, boos ing
esou ce and in o ma ion e ficiency, al hough i has no been possible
o elimina e he nega i e bu den associa ed wi h esou ce use and
was e gene a ion. Digi aliza ion plays a ole in add essing he se ious
challenges ha humani y aces due o clima e change.
Thi dly, i can be seen ha inno a ion has made i possible o o e -
come he cyclical e ec s caused by SP. The coe ficien o ICT GBARD
was ound o be posi i e and significan in all he models analysed,
yielding a highe alue o SP han in he p eceding pe iod. Addi ionally,
pa en s show simila beha iou in h ee o he fi e es ima ions. The li -
e a u e confi ms ha eco-inno a ion is a key ac o in cu ing ca bon
emissions(Ding e al., 2021). Coun ies seeking o bols e SP should os-
e inno a ion policies ha encou age he in oduc ion o new, mo e
plane - iendly means o p oduc ion (Bi kie, 2018).
The esul s ob ained when analysing en i onmen al policies a e
shown below (Table 8). Again, he coe ficien s ha e been s anda dized
in o de o be able o de e mine which a iable ca ies he g ea es
weigh when i comes o SP, and all he es s ca ied ou confi m he
adequacy o he esul s.
Table 7
Two-s ep GMM es ima ion esul s (Digi aliza ion + Inno a ion Policies).
Digi aliza ion + Inno a ion Policies
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
ln SI_SP
-1
0.032⁎⁎⁎ 0.021 0.031⁎⁎⁎ 0.025* 0.024⁎⁎
ln VA_HC 0.101⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_C 0.096⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_IDT 0.068⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_DPS 0.096⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_DESI 0.118⁎⁎⁎
ln Pa en s
-1
0.020 0.060⁎⁎⁎ 0.051⁎⁎⁎ 0.033 0.034⁎
ln ICT GBARD 0.044⁎⁎⁎ 0.052⁎⁎⁎ 0.047⁎⁎⁎ 0.044⁎⁎⁎ 0.047⁎⁎⁎
ln GDP −0.144⁎⁎⁎ −0.186⁎⁎⁎ −0.144⁎⁎⁎ −0.153⁎⁎⁎ −0.178⁎⁎⁎
Hansen chi2(P ob>chi2) 5.81(0.21) 2.31(0.68) 3.82(0.43) 2.37(0.67) 2.30(0.68)
Abond AR(2) z(P ob>z) 0.96(0.33) 1.31(0.19) 1.11(0.26) 1.05(0.29) 1.15(0.25)
Wald chi2 (P ob>chi2) 1342.7(0.00) 1167.1(0.00) 1177.0(0.00) 1445.2(0.00) 1070.1(0.00)
Obse a ions/g oups 108/27 108/27 108/27 108/27 108/27
Ins umen s 10 10 10 10 10
⁎⁎⁎p- alue <0.01, ⁎⁎p- alue <0.05, ⁎p- alue <0.1.
Table 8
Two-s ep GMM es ima ion esul s (Digi aliza ion + En i onmen al Policies).
Digi aliza ion + En i onmen al Policies
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5
ln SI_SP
-1
0.066⁎⁎⁎ 0.062⁎⁎⁎ 0.063⁎⁎⁎ 0.060⁎⁎⁎ 0.062⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_HC 0.118⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_C 0.045⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_IDT 0.035⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_DPS 0.045⁎⁎⁎
ln VA_DESI 0.048⁎⁎⁎
ln NEPE
-1
0.008 0.016⁎⁎⁎ 0.013⁎⁎⁎ 0.010⁎0.012⁎⁎
ln ET 0.023⁎⁎ 0.032⁎⁎ 0.024⁎⁎ 0.028⁎⁎ 0.025⁎⁎
ln GDP −0.075⁎⁎⁎ −0.091⁎⁎⁎ −0.070⁎⁎⁎ −0.080⁎⁎⁎ −0.082⁎⁎⁎
Hansen chi2(P ob>chi2) 11.79(0.22) 13.62(0.13) 12.32(0.19) 10.85(0.28) 11.68(0.23)
Abond AR(2) z(P ob>z) 0.9(0.36) 0.92(0.36) 0.88(0.38) 0.90(0.36) 0.91(0.36)
Wald chi2 (P ob>chi2) 18,959.29(0.00) 15,277.2(0.00) 16,631.7(0.00) 15,237.3(0.00) 15,510.5(0.00)
Obse a ions/g oups 108/27 108/27 108/27 108/27 108/27
Ins umen s 15 15 15 15 15
⁎⁎⁎p- alue <0.01, ⁎⁎p- alue <0.05, ⁎p- alue <0.1.
J.M. Guai a Ma ínez, R. Pue as, J.M. Ma ín Ma ín e al. Sus ainable P oduc ion and Consump ion 32 (2022) 92–100
97
Once again, a coun y's le el o p oduc ion u ns ou o be he a i-
able ha has he g ea es e ec on SP, wi h an in e se ela ionship
ound be ween he wo. This is ollowed by he end e ec co espond-
ing o he SI_PS o he p eceding pe iod, and he di e en aspec s o dig-
i aliza ion. The excep ion is he model whe e human capi al isanalysed,
whe e his a iablehas heg ea es influence. The le el o en i onmen-
al axes eflec s a coun y's posi ion on clima e change; esul s e eal
ha he le ying o hese axes has a posi i e e ec on SP, as does p i a e
spending on en i onmen al p o ec ion. Decision-make s mus assess
hei s ance on clima e change, es ablishing measu es ha con ibu e
o clima e change mi iga ion. This will enable compliance no only
wi h he SDGs, bu also wi h he ag eemen s adop ed by he Eu opean
Commission in he Eu opean G een Pac . In his espec , au ho s such
as Pue as and Ma i (2021) conclude ha en i onmen al axes os e
he educ ion o GHG emissions, and he in ol emen o companies in
he o m o expendi u e on en i onmen al p o ec ion con ibu es o
he de elopmen o SP in Eu opean coun ies.
5. Conclusions
The e ec s o clima e change a e becoming inc easingly isible, no
only in e ms o disease andloss o human li e, bu also in e ms o signi -
ican economic damage ha can ac as a des abilizing o ce a ec ing
coun ies' g ow h. Close coope a ion be ween he public and p i a e sec-
o s is equi ed o ensu e ha hey wo k e ec i ely oge he o acili a e
he es ablishmen o a new, mo e en i onmen ally- iendly p oduc ion
model. The consump ion o pollu ing p oduc s such as ca bon mus be
eplaced by enewable ene gies and al e na i e ecycling p ac ices
mus be adop ed in o de o educe GHG emissions and hus gua an ee
he ansi ion o a new o m o manu ac u ing ha ensu es coun ies' SD.
This esea ch ocuses only on EU coun ies, all o which appea o be
s ongly commi ed o clima e change ag eemen s. The SI p oposed
he e o measu e SP e eals ha weal his no a de e minan o p oac i e
a i udes owa ds he in oduc ion o sus ainable p ac ices. Fo exam-
ple, Luxembou g and I eland, wi h a GDP pe capi a well abo e he a -
e age, lag behind coun ies such as Es onia and La ia in e ms o SP.
Mo eo e , Mal a, which is weal hie han he Eu opean a e age, anks
second o las in he SI_PS.
The analysis o he nexus be ween SP and digi aliza ion e eals he im-
po ance o each and e e y aspec ha defines Indus y 4.0. Fu he mo e,
i can be seen ha Eu opean coun ies ha e no ye been able o b eak he
nega i e link be ween p og ess in sus ainabili y and he le el o p oduc-
ion. Howe e , he e is a need o simul aneously bols e inno a ion and
en i onmen al policies in o de o in ensi y and accele a e he con e sion
o p oduc ion p ocesses o make hem mo e espec ul o he plane .
Despi e he clea conclusions d awn, which poin o a need o poli-
cies ha acili a e he mi iga ion o en i onmen al deg ada ion, his e-
sea ch is no wi hou i s limi a ions. The uni e se analysed should be
b oadened o includecoun ies wi h di e en economic p ofilesanden-
i onmen als ances, in o de o de e mine whe he Eu opeancoun ies
a e eally making as e p og ess in hei e o s o achie e clima e neu-
ali y. The a ailabili y o s a is ical in o ma ion o en makes i di ficul
o include he mos ecen yea s in he analysis, p e en ing conclusi e
esul s om being ob ained o de eloping coun ies.
I is p oposed o con inue his lineo esea ch by conside ing he link
wi h o he aspec s such as he le el o educa ion o he coun y
analysed, he condi ions o knowledge-in ensi e indus ialized econo-
mies, and e en he in e na ional ade le el, wi h he SP. Coun ies will
also be classified acco ding o hei posi ion ega ding digi al de elop-
men and SP, in o de o be able o examine de elopmen models.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing financial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o influ-
ence he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen
Funding o open access cha ge: CRUE-Uni e si a Poli ècnica de
València.
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