Daiktavardžio „pagalba“ įnagininko desemantizacija

LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Institute of the Lithuanian Language Research areas: morphosyntax, typology, valency, semantics. DESEMANTIZATION OF THE INSTRUMENTAL OF THE NOUN PAGALBA* Desemanticization of the Instrumental of the Noun Pagalba ABSTRACT The subject of this article is the instrumental case of the noun pagalba (‘help’). Based on material from the Corpus of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKT), the article discusses the semantics and features of desemantization of the instrumental of pagalba. The article maintains that the use of the instrumental of pagalba reflects the animacy hierarchy person > thing. KEYWORDS: instrumental of the noun, desemantization. ANNOTATION The object of the article is the instrumental case of the noun pagalba. According to the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (CCLL), the article addresses the semantics of the instrumental of the noun pagalba and the features of desemantization. The article follows an opinion that the use of the instrumental of the noun pagalba corresponds to the animacy hierarchy person > thing. KEYWORDS: instrumental of the noun, desemantization. *The topic of this article was presented in a paper read at the 12th International Congress of Balticists, in the Functional Words of the Baltic Languages section. I am sincerely grateful for their comments and ideas to Professor Daniel Petit, Professor Norbert Ostrowski, and Dr. Artūras Judžentis. Thanks to them, help is viewed more broadly here. I also warmly thank the esteemed anonymous reviewers for their suggestions, comments, and criticism. Straipsniai / Articles 9 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ 1. INTRODUCTORY REMARKS 1.1. In the electronic Dictionary of the Lithuanian Language (hereafter LKŽe), the noun pagalba is defined as ‘helping, aiding, support’¹, for example: (1) (With) your pagálba I succeeded KBI45². (2) Do it with your own head and God’s pagalba KrvP(Jnš). The derivative in -a, pagalba, is formed from pagelbėti ‘to help, to provide some assistance’, while the latter is formed with the prefix pa- (cf. gelbėti ‘to help, support, assist’). Let us compare the examples given in LKŽe: (3) The children help their parents with the work rš. (4) I will help you work K. (5) That lion asked the man to help him S.Dauk. (6) Can’t you help me with some money—I have to pay the debt today? Plng. (7) Both birch twigs and hop roots are good for the hair rš. (8) Even soap does no good for a naturally formed body Sim. (9) This warning helps little rš. (10) For stinging eyes, a little spring water may help M.Valanč. (11) The sick, if they could not cure themselves with those medicines, would burn themselves as an offering to the gods S.Dauk. Nijolė Sližienė Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodyne (toliau LKVJŽ) (1994: 201) aptaria keturių gelbėti reikšmių valentingumus (junglumus). Pavyzdžiui, (iš→)gelbėti ‘vaduoti, traukti iš bėdos’ LKVJŽ aprašomas kaip trivalentis, kurio sintaksiniai aktantai reiškiami agento [A] vardininku, paciento [P]³ galininku ir prielinksnių nuo, iš su kilmininku konstrukcijomis, atitinkančiomis kontragentą⁴ ¹ In the electronic Dictionary of Contemporary Lithuanian (DLKŽe), pagalba means ‘helping, aiding’. ² Plg. Friedricho Kuršaičio Deutsch-littauische Phraseologie der Präpositionen (1843) originalą: http://ub-goobi-pr2.ub.uni-greifswald.de/viewer/image/PPN737445068/49/. ³ Patient [P] – the function of the recipient of an action’s effect or the bearer of a state (Sližienė 1994: 20; cf. Valeckienė 1998: 35). ⁴ Counteragent [CA] – the function of a force acting against an agent and opposing it, characteristic of both living beings and inanimate objects, as well as natural and social phenomena (Sližienė 1994: 21). 10 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija [CA] or a content5 [Con], e.g.: Friends [A] saved him [P] from the clutches of the police (from his attackers) [CA]; Only closing one’s eyes [A] saves a person [P] from senseless grief [Con]. The syntactic actants of the trivalent verb (pa-)gelbėti ‘help someone do something’ are expressed by the agent in the nominative, the beneficiary [B]6 in the dative, and an infinitive corresponding to the content function, e.g.: Help me [B] load the log onto the cart [Con] (cf. sentences (3), (4)). Here, living beings—a person [Hum]—are expressed by the nominative subject and the dative object. When the trivalent verb (pa-)gelbėti is used in the sense ‘support, succor’, its syntactic actants are expressed by the agent in the nominative, the patient in the accusative or the beneficiary in the dative, and the content in the instrumental, e.g.: Perhaps you [A] can help me [P] / with money [B] [Con]? The nominative subject and the accusative or dative object denote a person [Hum], while the instrumental object denotes an inanimate thing [–Anim] (cf. sentences (5), (6)). (Pa-)gelbėti ‘be useful through its effect, affect’7, according to LKVJŽ, is bivalent. Its syntactic actants are realized by a nominative subject and a dative object, the former corresponding to an (inanimate) agent8 and the latter to a patient9, e.g.: These medicines [A₂] could help you [P]; hop roots [A₂] help hair [P]. The nominative subject denotes 5 Content [Con] – the function of the content of an action or state, characteristic of various objects and phenomena (Sližienė 1994: 22). 6 Sližienė (1994: 21) beneficientą supranta kaip adresato, gavėjo, turėtojo funkciją, būdingą gyvoms būtybėms, ypač asmenims, kurių naudai ar nenaudai kas vyksta, darosi, yra. Adelė Valeckienė (1998: 35t) mano: „Beneficientas Ben yra turėtojo, adresato (kieno naudai atliekamas, kam skirtas veiksmas) funkcija. Jis dažniausiai pasakomas naudininku [...], bet galimi ir kiti linksniai“. Plg.: Bartels (2005: 105t): „Eine semantisch weniger spezifische Dativ–Rolle, die nicht an Transfer und Possession gebunden ist, wird in der Regel die Rolle Benefaktiv angesetzt (vgl. Klaus kaufte Hans ein Buch. Dieser gab es aber nicht)“. 7 Cf. the definition of gelbėti in LKŽe: ‘rescue, extricate from trouble, protect from harm; treat’, e.g.: One cauterization does not save a wound from festering Vaižg.; Instinct often saves a person V.Kudir.; The earth saves everyone from hardship A1884,157; Poison saves the toad from its enemies J.Jabl.; Garden benedicts (sword benedicts, bitter St John’s-wort) cure eighteen diseases Grg.; We are saved from evil by His own grace KN62. 8 Sližienė (1994: 19) negyvą agentą – [A₂] – apibrėžia kaip veiksmo atlikėjo funkciją, kuri „būdinga negyviems daiktams, stichinėms jėgoms bei kitiems gamtos ir visuomenės reiškiniams, įvairiems įrenginiams, mašinoms, prietaisams, kurie turi tam tikrą energiją ir dėl to gali atlikti ir sukelti, sužadinti veiksmą, bet neturi savo iniciatyvos. [...] Agento₂ funkcija yra nevienalytė. Prireikus ją galima būtų suskaidyti bent į tris poklasius: gamtinę jėgą, priežastį ir veiksmo priemonę. Veiksmo priemonę reiškiantis agentas₂ nuo instrumento funkcijos skiriasi tuo, kad galimas tik tada, kai veiksmas gali būti suvokiamas kaip vykstantis be kieno nors iniciatyvos [kursyvas straipsnio autorės – L. V.-S.]; veiksmo priemonė tada laikoma vieninteliu veiksmo atlikėju – agentu₂, pvz.: padangę raižo lėktuvai. Vis dėlto riba tarp instrumento ir agento₂ yra gana sąlygiška“. 9 Given this definition of the meaning of pagelbėti and the dative expression of the object, this patient may apparently also be understood as having a benefactive nuance (i.e. that of an addressee, recipient, for whose benefit something happens), that is, as [Pᴮ]. Straipsniai / Articles 11 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ an inanimate thing [−Anim], whereas the dative denotes a living or inanimate thing [±Anim] (cf. sentences (7)–(9))10. As seen in sentences (1)–(2), the instrumental of the relational noun pagalba is used with the stated or potentially expressible preposition su (with your help). It is precisely this instrumental of pagalba that the article will discuss. 1.2. Jonas Šukys (1998: 554 ff.; see also ibid.: 229), in discussing the use of Lithuanian cases and prepositions, draws attention to the fact that in contemporary Lithuanian it is “a grave error to use the instrumental pagalba, which is increasingly becoming prepositional. It began to spread especially during the Soviet period, following the Russian prepositional use of pri pomošči, and [...] is strongly displacing the traditional expression of means and manner. [...] Thus, any construction with the putative postposition pagalba, whether it expresses a tool or mechanism [see sentences (12), (13)], some other means [see sentences (14), (15)], or even an abstract means [see sentences (16), (17)], must be replaced by the instrumental [italics by the article’s author – L. V.-S.]. [...] When speaking about more abstract things, especially when pagalba is used with verbal nouns, this nonstandard construction is best replaced with half-participles or participles [see sentence (18)]. [...] The nonstandard pagalba construction can often be corrected in more than one way [see sentence (19)]”11. (12) We calculate with the help of a calculatorpagalba (= (with) calculators). (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 554) (13) We analyzed the data with the help of computerspagalba (= with computers). (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 554) (14) Dolphins “talk to one another” with the help of their nosespagalba (= with the nose, by means of the nose). (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 555) (15) A chameleon catches insects with the help of its tonguepagalba (= with its tongue). (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 555) (16) We convey thoughts to one another with the help of wordspagalba (= in words). (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 555) 10 Plg. LKVJŽ teikiamą padėti ‘pagelbėti’ junglumą (ŠlŽienė 1998: 96). Šiai reikšmei būdingos trys skirtingos sintaksinio valentingumo struktūros, kuriomis realizuojamos skirtingos semantinio valentingumo struktūros, pvz.: a) Algis [A] padėdavo jai [B] išspręsti [Con] algebros lygtis; Tas gėralas [A] padės karvei [B] greičiau pasveikti [Con]; Tavo patarimai [A] mums [B] padėjo; b) Gal galėtum [tu] [A₁] padėti man [B] pinigais (duona) [Con]; c) Kietelių arbata [A₂] padeda galvai [P]; Kai kuriems ligoniams [P] geriausiai padeda miegas [A₂]. 11 Panašią nuomonę šiuo klausimu dar žr.: Šukys in: Miliūnaitė 2003a: 91t; Pupkis in: Miliūnaitė 2003b: 96; plg. Mikulėnienė 1991: 60; Kniūkšta 2000: 181. 12 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija (17) Demokratijos pagalba (= (Su) demokratija, per demokratiją) daug pasiekėme. (Cituojama pagal Šukys 1998: 555) (18) Psichologijos pagalba (= Pasiremiant / pasirėmus psichologija) galima padėti visiems mokiniams. (Cituojama pagal Šukys 1998: 555) (19) Šių meninių priemonių pagalba (= Šiomis meninėmis priemonėmis, Naudodamas šias menines priemones) rašytojas sukūrė ryškų paveikslą. (Cituojama pagal Šukys 1998: 555) Ten pat Šukys (1998: 556; plg. Šukys in: Miliūnaitė 2003a: 91; Kniūkšta 2000: 181) teigia, kad „pasakymas su (kieno) pagalba tinka tik tada, kai kalbama ne apie veiksmo atlikimo priemonę, bet apie kieno nors (kokių asmenų) pagalbą, tarpininkavimą. Tačiau kai prielinksnio su nėra, polinksnis pagalba ir kalbant apie asmens (asmenų) tarpininkavimą netinka [kursyvas straipsnio autorės – L. V.-S.]“ (žr. sakinius (20)–(22); dar plg. sakinius (1)–(2)). (20) I built a garage with my brother's help. (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 556) (21) We conveyed that information to our unit through the couriers (= with the help of the couriers, better: via the couriers). (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 556) (22) Nereikia pagalba advokatų (= su advokatų pagalba, geriau su advokatais; padedamiems advokatų) ieškoti įstatymuose spragų. (Cituojama pagal Šukys 1998: 556) Here it becomes clear that, in order to comply with the rules of the standard, a language user should replace postpositionally used with the instrumental case, the preposition with plus the instrumental construction, the preposition through plus the accusative, or participial constructions (in the broad sense) in cases where the means or manner is expressed by an inanimate or abstract entity¹². Unlike (someone's) help, the construction with someone's help is permitted when referring to a person who helps or mediates¹³ (cf. the definition of the meaning of help: ‘assistance, helping, support’). A distinction that correlates with expression permitted by the standard is apparent: animate vs. inanimate (or person vs. thing). A human [Hum] as the complement of help can occur in a construction with the preposition with; when referring to things in the broad sense—[–Anim] and [Abstr]—with someone's help must be replaced by other constructions: (withINSTR / throughACC / PART). In cases where help with a person-denoting complement (mother's help) is used without the preposition with, 12 Cf. also the idiom nakties pagalba ‘before morning, during the night’, used to express time, e.g.: Nakties pagalba išvažiavo; Nakties pagalba tėvelis lėks to daktaro (Paulauskas, 2001: 443). 13 In this article, person is understood in the broad sense, that is, communities, organizations, and their names are also understood as persons. Straipsniai / Articles 13 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ this is corrected by analogy with things – (withINSTR / throughACC / PART. Are these constructions semantically identical? Judging from the proposed corrections to the preceding sentences, apparently they can be used in various ways (see below). And if they can differ semantically and do differ, is it appropriate to replace them with others? In sentences (12)–(19), (21)–(22), the expressions proposed in place of pagalba also have (or should have) the meaning of a means (instrument) (in the broad sense)14 or manner15. In contemporary Lithuanian, a typical way of expressing a means is (withINSTR, e.g.: Jonas cuts bread with a knife; We eat soup with spoons (cf. sentences (10)–(11)) (inter alia Ambrazas 2006: 297; Sližienė 1998: 23, 1986: 54; Valiulytė 1991; Paulauskienė 1989: 129; 1994: 128; cf. Šukys 1998: 228t, 497t, 554). Here, as in sentence (12), either of the two ways of expressing a means may be used. In sentence (17), instead of the pagalba construction, it is proposed to use the instrumental case of the noun demokratija, either alone or with the preposition su. However, in this sentence, unlike in (12), the INS-TR / withINSTR forms used express manner, that is, an adverbial circumstance, not an object16. Aldona Paulauskienė (1989: 130; see also 1994: 129) states: “For the instrumental to have a manner meaning, it is first necessary that the verb’s action not require an instrument of performance. This condition is met by sentences whose predicate is a verb of spontaneous action and whose subject is a nominative denoting an inactive thing. [...] When the predicate is a verb of active action and the actor is a person, the manner meaning is conditioned by the lexical meaning of the noun. Most often, the instrumental of abstract nouns has this meaning.” According to Paulauskienė (1989: 138), it “cannot have an instrumental meaning. The primary meaning of the instrumental as a means turns into a manner meaning,” cf.: We achieved a lot through democracy / democratically. The corrections to sentence (17) also show that a construction consisting of the preposition per su and the accusative case has the meaning of an adverbial of manner; Paulauskienė considers it very close to manner adverbs, and, as her examples show: We’ll get nothing by being nice: we’ll attain happiness through struggle (cf. by fighting); Kaziukas gulped, gulped – in a few gulps (cf. in a few gulps), he drank the whole glass; they may be “synonyms”. 14 “From a referential perspective, an instrument is an object which an actor uses to perform an active action directed at another object (writes a letter with a pencil), at oneself (washes oneself with water), or an undirected action (nods one’s head)” (Valiulytė 1991: 148). From a semantic perspective, Sližienė (1986: 54) defines an instrument as the function of an auxiliary means used by an agent, characteristic of inanimate objects. Cf. Ambrazas (2006: 256): “Anything that helps to perform an action can be understood as its instrument.” 15 Cf.: “The instrumental of an object is often the first (obligatory) complement (e.g., to delight in art), whereas the instrumental of a means is always only the second (non-obligatory) complement (e.g., You can’t drain the sea with a spoon). It also has a nuance of manner of action” (Šukys 1998: 227). 16 Cf.: “Manner instrumentals [...] cannot be replaced by constructions with the preposition su” (Šukys 1998: 236). 14 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija su būdo įnagininku ir kitomis aplinkybių raiškos priemonėmis“ (Paulauskienė 1989: 126t; plg. Šukys 1998: 454) (plg. sakinius (16), (18)–(19))17. In sentence (20), su (whose) pagalba probably also expresses manner, cf.: I built the garage (HOW? IN WHAT WAY?) with my brother’s help. As sentence (21) shows, manner of action may also be expressed by a construction consisting of per su and the accusative case, which denotes the intermediary through whom an action is performed. According to Šukys (1998: 454), the intermediary “may be a person (see sentences (23)–(24)), an institution (see sentence (25)), or even an object (see sentences (26)–(27)).” Why can the intermediary be either a person or an object, while the helper can only be a person? (23) The envoys spoke with me through an interpreter. (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 454) (24) The gentleman, of course, will resist; he can do it through lawyers... (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 454) (25) The Polish language began to penetrate our region through the church. (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 454) (26) Some diseases can be caught through the air. (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 455) (27) But you can’t hear a living voice through letters. (Quoted from Šukys 1998: 455) Sentence (22) showed that the instrumental of pagalba—with the help of lawyers—is replaced by a construction with the preposition su, i.e. with the help of lawyers, and instead of the latter, it is suggested that with lawyers be used instead. Are the constructions one need not look for loopholes with the help of lawyers and one need not look for loopholes with lawyers semantically identical? If so, this means they express manner (HOW SHOULD ONE NOT LOOK FOR LOOPHOLES?). But here, unlike in sentence (20), the suPAGALBA and suINSTR constructions (must) also be understood as having a comitative meaning18 17 Kaip teigia Šukys (1998: 454), prielinksnio per konstrukcijos „būdo reikšmė kartais susipynusi su veiksmo priemonės reikšme. Reikia miltus per sietą nusijoti. [...] Kai tikslingiau pabrėžti veiksmo priemonę, ne būdą, geriau vartoti įnagininką. Paskambink man per telefoną (= telefonu)“. 18 Cf.: “Constructions with the preposition su often express the manner in which an action is performed. That manner usually has a comitative nuance, since the action is accompanied by some phenomenon (a) or state (b). [...] (a) We raise you with love; (b) He looked distrustfully at the man approaching from the highway” (Šukys 1998: 495). “Constructions with the preposition su most often express comitative (being together, participating together) relations. The actor performs the action together with another, less important actor, more rarely with several actors. [...] Most often such actors are people (a), less often non-people (b). [...] (a) Petriukas and Katriukė took out a basket of potatoes and sat down to peel them; (b) And the hare returned home with the witnesses. [...] It [the manner meaning] is quite clear when the first actor is not stated, but only implied. [...] But with friends he did the same thing halfway” (Šukys 1998: 493–494). Straipsniai / Articles 15 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ (comitative19) meaning. If in sentence (22) the typical friend-meaning with-INSTR construction (may be) used alongside the manner-meaning SUPAGALBA, it follows that they are related here and possibly “overlap” (Eng. overlapping) (see below). From what has been said about the instrumental of pagalbą, it is clear that its use is connected with the distinctions person vs. thing and object vs. circumstance. On the basis of sentences (26)–(27), one may suppose that a thing understood as an intermediary can also be expressed by a pagalba construction. Let us set aside the question of whether such use is normatively acceptable. In any case, when things are being discussed, pagalba constructions express an (instrumental) object or, as with persons, a (manner) circumstance (see below). The article raises the question of why the SUPAGALBA construction is possible when referring to persons but not when referring to things, and whether there is sufficient basis for this opposition. To answer this and other questions, the study draws on material collected from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (hereafter DLKT), compiled by the Centre of Computational Linguistics at Vytautas Magnus University in Kaunas. The material was classified by genre and animacy (see section 2). The following discussion addresses the semantics of the instrumental of pagalba and signs of its desemanticization (see section 3), before summarizing the findings (see section 4). 2. RESEARCH MATERIAL AND CLASSIFICATION CRITERIA Most of the DLKT consists of written, often edited texts from different genres (journalistic, fiction, nonfiction, and administrative literature). There are markedly fewer examples of spoken language. This article draws on 438 examples from different genres in which the instrumental of pagalba is used. The sentences were selected in sequence by entering the word pagalba into the DLKT search field. Of the sentences under discussion, 58.45% (256 sentences) contain the preposition su, while 41.55% (182 sentences) do not. Their distribution by genre is shown in Table 1. Given that the use of the instrumental of pagalba is based on the opposition person vs. thing, the sentences were classified according to animacy. This is shown in Table 2. 19 Cf.: “The comitative is a secondary function of an agent, patient, or beneficiary, occurring alongside the corresponding primary function and most often realized in a sentence by the prepositional construction suInstr, e.g., he set brother against sister” (Sližienė 1994: 22). 16 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija TABLE 1. Use of the instrumental of pagalba by genre Genre | suPAGALBA | PAGALBA | Number of sentences Spoken language | 1 | 9 | 10 Fiction | 80 | 14 | 94 Nonfiction | 86 | 74 | 160 Journalism | 79 | 54 | 133 Administrative literature | 10 | 31 | 41 TOTAL | 256 (58.45%) | 182 (41.55%) | 438 TABLE 2. Use of the instrumental of pagalba by animacy Genre | HUM: suPAGALBA, PAGALBA, Number of sentences | – ANIM: suPAGALBA, PAGALBA, Number of sentences | ABSTR: suPAGALBA, PAGALBA, Number of sentences Spoken language | 1 | 1 | 2 | | 4 | 4 | | 4 | 4 Fiction | 69 | 3 | 72 | 7 | 7 | 14 | 4 | 4 | 8 Nonfiction | 54 | 8 | 62 | 11 | 23 | 34 | 21 | 43 | 64 Journalism | 56 | 3 | 59 | 9 | 28 | 37 | 14 | 23 | 37 Administrative literature | 9 | 2 | 11 | | 19 | 19 | 1 | 10 | 11 TOTAL | 187 (91.7%) | 17 (8.3%) | 206 | 27 (25%) | 81 (75%) | 108 | 40 (32.3%) | 84 (67.7%) | 124 An analysis of the data in Table 2, consisting mostly of written language, clearly shows that language users do not adhere to the norm. The use of Pagalba is influenced not only by the aforementioned Russian, but apparently by other languages as well: Polish20, 20 Cf. Polish: The essence of this proposal was to distribute the national wealth among citizens by means of 24 special privatization vouchers. The formant is the suffix <–vs?>. It is used to form denominal derivatives in Russian. Latin, however, has two types of subordinate clauses unknown in contemporary Polish, which cannot be described by means of accommodation with respect to the conjunction, for the simple reason that they contain no conjunction (quoted from Hentschel 1998: 176ff., 184). Straipsniai / Articles 17 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ German21, English22, French23, and so on. It was precisely the thorough examination of present-day Polish constructions przy pomocy, za pomocą, z pomocą in Gerd Hentschel’s (1998) article that prompted an inquiry into what influences and how it influences the use of pagalba in Lithuanian. Even at first glance, it is clear that, with respect to animacy, language users tend to choose different forms of expression: with [Hum], the su-PAGALBA construction predominates, whereas with [−Anim] and [Abstr], the PAGALBA instrumental is chosen much more often. Let us compare sentences (28)–(33) from DLKT and discuss this further (see section 3). (28) Ironijos strėlė prašvilpė pro pat ausį, bet Klermensas apsimetė kurčiu. – Jai dabar, regis, dvidešimt penkeri? – Tai kas iš to? – Kaip jinai?– Su tavo pagalba – gerai. Ištekėjo, gyvena Romoje. Modeliuotoja.– Ak, vis dėlto! – už tokią žinią būtų galėjęs išbučiuoti japonų karininko kardą. Arba rankinuką. DLKT (29) “That’s why he hated me. And secretly took revenge!” He filled Hela’s glass. “But you got your horse back.” “With Marga’s help, though indirectly. When she married, she received money as a dowry. We used it to buy the horse through an intermediary—before Bruno could finish him off.” DLKT (30) As she fed the purring Bastet, she reminded herself that she had a pistol. The doors were open. After a brief depression, with Prozac’s help, a time of radical change began in Rita’s life. DLKT 21 Cf. German mithilfe, mit Hilfe (adverb, in connection with “von”) 1. with assistance: mithilfe / mit Hilfe von bestimmten Leuten; 2. by means of, using: Abgase mithilfe / mit Hilfe von Katalysatoren entgiften (quoted from http://www.duden.de/suchen/dudenonline/mithilfe). For example: Mithilfe des neuen Sicherheitssystems sind weitere Schäden ausgeschlossen. Im Kindergarten werden mithilfe der Erzieher neue Konzepte umgesetzt. Mithilfe professioneller Geräte konnten wir den Parkettboden an einem Wochenende komplett renovieren (quoted from http://www.rechtschreibtipps.de /mithilfe.php). 22 Cf. the definition of the English noun help in the large English–Lithuanian dictionary (Piesarskas 2007: 425): 1. assistance; with the help of smb. with someone’s help; to open with the help of a knife to cut open with a knife; [...] 3. a means. 23 Cf. the use of French à l’aide de “with the help of”: Nous avons donc décidé que d’ici 2010, nous identifierons ces secteurs à l'aide de critères objectifs et que d'ici juin 2011, nous évaluerons la situation pour savoir si nous avons un accord international ou même des accords sectoriels internationaux. / We therefore decided that by 2010 we would identify these sectors using objective criteria and that by June 2011 we would assess the situation to determine whether we had an international agreement or even international sectoral agreements (quoted from http://linguee.com/pranc%C5%ABz%C5%B3-lietuvi%C5%B3/vertimas/%C3%A0+l'aide+de.html). Une étude contrastive pilote révèle que la valeur déontique du verbe français devoir peut être traduite vers le lituanien à l’aide des verbes de nécessité get, privalėti, reikėti, tekti, turėti (quoted from http://www.kalbotyra.flf.vu.lt/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/kalbotyra-65_113-1321.pdf, p. 132) 18 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija (31) Viktorija pristūmė aparatą prie vieno iš cilindrų, pažvelgė pro okuliarą ir keleto sraigtų pagalba jį sureguliavo. Tuomet pasitraukė į šalį, kviesdama Kolerį pažiūrėti. Koleris atrodė suglumęs. – Jūs sukaupėte matomus kiekius? DLKT (32) Kanklikėmis vargu ar teks groti. Jaunajai muzikos mokytojai kreivadaintis užtaise vaiką – turbūt kažkaip nedorai, su juodosios magijos pagalba, nes kur matyta, kad moteris, muvinti tokias gražias, pilkšvai žaibuojančias pédkelnes, žavėtųsi tokiu mulkiu!.. DLKT (33) Jei ko nors nenori pamatyti, tai ir nematai, ar ne? – jos balsas vos girdėjosi pro pravažiuojančių mašinų ūžesį. – Hmm... teoriškai įmanoma. Savitaigos pagalba. – Deivis man pasakojo, jog kažkur džiunglėse atrado aborigenų tautelę, kuri niekada nebuvo mačiusi baltojo žmogaus. DLKT 3. SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIATION: SPECIFICATION OF MEANING AND/OR DESEMANTICIZATION 3.1. With the help of a subordinate who is a living being In cases where the complement of pagalba is a noun denoting a living being ([Hum], [+Anim]), constructions with the preposition su are most often used. A comparison of its use in sentences (28), (34)–(42) shows that these constructions express different meanings: in sentences (28), (34)–(36), suPAGALBA expresses manner; in sentences (37)–(40), the meaning of accompaniment becomes clearly apparent, while the interpretation of sentences (41)–(42) remains unclear without a broader context—that is, alongside a manner interpretation, an accompaniment interpretation is also possible. Sentence (34) can be paraphrased as follows: I want to wish that, with God’s help, you grow up to be a healthy and decent person. Here, the manner adjunct expressed by suPAGALBA is associated with the meaning of the noun pagalba ‘help, assistance, support’. Alongside manner, the meaning of accompaniment also becomes clear, for example, in sentence (37): suPAGALBA expresses not only the manner of the action (HOW?), but also the person or persons acting together with the agent subject (subject) in the action denoted by the predicate (verb) (TOGETHER WITH WHOM?)—a co-agent; these participants are not equal in status, cf.: Eugenija herself does most of the cleaning [WHO?] of the dining room, [WITH WHOM?] with a hired girl and mother Rainienė, who comes more often. Hentschelis (1998: 166), nagrinėdamas przy pomocy / za pomocą / z pomocą vartojimą dabartinėje lenkų kalboje, kalba apie skirtingus Straipsniai / Articles 19 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ degrees of comitativity—of the main agent subject X and co-agent Z (expressed by a noun denoting a living being in the przy pomocy / z pomocą construction): in some cases, both subject X and co-agent Z are involved in the action denoted by the predicate (as in sentences (37)–(40)); in others, such a (comitative) interpretation cannot be ruled out (as in sentences (41)–(42)), or it is unlikely (as in sentences (34)–(36)). (34) What shall the two of us talk about now, eh? You don’t know?.. Well, here’s what I want to tell you... I want to wish that with God’s help you grow up to be a healthy and decent person... DLKT (35) When the noise died down, the teacher smiled: “First of all, I want to welcome Rimantas Zuika back to school. I hope that with the help of his friends Rimas su draugų pagalba will make up for the gaps in his knowledge caused by his illness. Well, now we’ll begin the lesson...” DLKT (36) “Mann reichen an die Gottheit an” is sung in The Magic Flute. Pamina and Papageno sing this hymn to love. At the end of the opera, Pamina with Eros’s help enters the Temple of Wisdom together with her beloved Tamino. DLKT (37) She supervises and advises, and when it comes to cooking, Eugenija herself does most of the work in the kitchen and dining room with the help of the hired girl and mother Rainienė, who comes more often pagalba. The guests are much the same; only teacher Anelė has taken the place of the young woman from Troškūnai. DLKT (38) Užrakinti varteliai? Kam rūpi užtrenktos durys? Raktas ten (tarp kuoliuko ir laiškų dėžutės), kur jam pridera būti. Tarsi pats iššoka į spyną ir su mano pagalba rakina. Visai nei tuščia, nei nyku viduj. Vėjo ked enamos plaikstosi dieninės užuolaidos, kur ne kur prilipusios prie pūkuotų kaktusų. DLKT (39) Ura!, dar pagrasinę sugrįžti ir kaip reikiant pamokyti, nušliaužė, taip, ne nuvažiavo, o nušliaužė kažkur kareivinių pusėn. Sugrįžęs tėvas su kaimynų pagalba dideliais faneros lakštais bent laikinai – artėjo naktis – užtaisė tą didžiulę spragą. Tą naktį šeima beveik nesumerkė akių. DLKT (40) They painted it white, put in new panes, repaired the porch, and built a veranda on the side facing the Merkys; of course, it wasn’t done by one person, but with with the help of Algirdas Svirskis pagalba. I’m just sad that Aldina came from Druskininkai only once. DLKT (41) – Aš nebegaliu nuo tavęs slėpti... Noriu, kad žinotum visą teisybę... Tie žmonės Antanu nebepasitikėjo. Po to, kai su jo pagalba policija surengė pasalą... Jie privertė mane iš Antano paimti pinigus ir atvežti į vilą miške... Aš nežinojau, kad Antanas su draugu seka paskui... DLKT 20 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija (42) You and I have not negotiated anything at all, sir," Antanas was still calm. "Mr. Šeputis, I warn you: if you are doing this with your sister’s help..." Boleslovas spoke menacingly. "My sister has nothing to do with this. Forget her. She is no longer your companion," Antanas snapped24. DLKT In sentences (43)–(45), the use of (su)PAGALBA expresses not only manner but also mediation, a meaning usually conveyed by the aforementioned per su + accusative construction (cf. sentences (21), (23)–(25)). However, unlike per constructions, (su)PAGALBA, which implies mediation, does not assert it. As Hentschel (1998: 167) says, if someone mediates for another, that means they also help that person25. If we agree with this idea, we must also acknowledge that the PAGALBA constructions in sentences (21), (44)–(45), which are in need of correction in terms of meaning, cannot be replaced by per su + accusative26. Another difference is relevant here: in sentence (45), unlike, for example, sentence (43), the meaning of the noun pagalba—‘help, assistance, support’—is less salient. If we replace the expression with the help of the clergy or the police with a prepositional su construction, we will imply that they sought to punish their former spouse with the clergy’s or police’s assistance. However, the minimal context of the sentence suggests that they are rather talking about using the clergy or police to achieve their own ends. (43) In ancient times, Tantric yogis meditating in the famous twenty-four Himalayan charnel grounds used vultures as... carrier pigeons and with their help (cf. with their assistance; through them) passed secret letters to one another. The lama accompanying the deceased on their final journey visualizes the vultures as dakinis. DLKT (44) Nacionalinė futbolo asociacija nubaudė 6 taškų bauda net 12 Jugoslavijos klubų. Tačiau teismų pagalba (plg. teišmams padedant; per teismus) pavyko anuliuoti šią bausmę. Sugrąžintų taškų Belgrado „Partizanui“ pakako tapti čempionais. DLKT 24 Cf. usage in need of correction: You know this. It turned out that our body has a particular feature that makes it possible to avoid such deep medical interventions. With my help, biochemistry revives these chemicals. The body automatically, without asking the mind why, produces substances to prevent illness (DLKT); Did he have to? Why did he have to? Maybe the “star” didn’t want to? And so Olaf Lex intended to call a horse psychiatrist, while Mark intended to use the police help to force him to take part in the Olympics? That did not seem very likely. “Would you like to go for a ride with Genghis Khan today?” (DLKT) 25 “If one person mediated for another, then he also helped that person” (Hentschel 1998: 167). 26 “This is therefore a one-way implication: za pośrednictwem is not incompatible with przy pomocy, but is a hyponym. [...] The sequence za pośrednictwem is therefore semantically more specific, more precise than przy pomocy” (Hentschel 1998: 167). Straipsniai / Articles 21 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ (45) Šios bylos nepateko į ištuokos bylų srautą, nes jų ieškovai neprašė dvasinio teismo nei skyrybų, nei separacijos. Dvasininkų ar policijos pagalba (plg.?su dvasininkų ar policijos pagalba;?dvasininkų ar policijos padedami; pasinaudoję dvasininkais ar policija; per dvasininkus, policiją) jie siekė nubaus­ti faktiškai buvusį savo sutuoktinį, išardy­ti jo naują šeimą ir susigrąžinti jį į ankstesnę (juridiškai teisetą). DLKT Žiūrint į (su)PAGALBA vartoseną, kai pagalba komplementu pasakomi gyvi daiktai, dažnai matyti aiški ir konstrukcijai relevantiška daiktavardžio pagalba leksinė reikšmė. Kartais (su)PAGALBA reiškiamas būdas yra susipynęs (persikloja) su komitatyvine, priemonės, tarpininkavimo ar kitomis reikšmėmis, kurioms tipiškai būdingos kitos raiškos priemonės (suINSTR, INSTR ar perACC), plg.: Jonas dažo sienas su draugu / su draugo pagalba; Jonas perdavė man laišką per Onutę / su Onutės pagalba; jį baudė rimbu / dvasininkų pagalba. Tokia (su)PAGALBA konstrukcijų kompleksinė reikšmė ne visada yra lygiavertė siūlomiems taisymams, t. y. jos yra opozicinės (su)PAGALBA vs. suINSTR ar perACC. Kalbos vartotojas per raišką, matyt, siekia kiek įmanoma tikslesnio turinio (dar žr. toliau). Sakinys (45) duoda pagrindo kalbėti apie asmenų kaip netiesioginių priemonių interpretavimą; čia matyti tiesioginę sąsają su pagalba ‘pagelbėjimas, padėjimas’ darosi kiek kebliau. Apie reikšmės metoniminį perkėlimą dera kalbėti sakinyje (29), kur Margos pagalba vartojama retributyvo27 reikšmei (už su galininku) pasakyti, t. y. gyvas (Marga) suvokiamas kaip negyvas (pinigai28) (Bet tu atgavai savo žirgą. – Margos pagalba (nors ir netiesioginė, t. y. už Margos pinigus). 3.2. Help servant – inanimate object Differences in meaning can also be seen when the complement of pagalba is an inanimate object ([–Anim], [Abstr]). In sentences (46)–(47) (see also sentence (30)), pagalba is associated with the meaning of (pa-)gelbėti ‘to be useful through one’s effect, to have an effect’29, and such constructions can be paraphrased, for example, as: garlic helps ward off many ailments; with the help of garlic we ward off ailments or garlic is useful for warding off many ailments. Should they be replaced by the proposed means 27 “The retributive role is a function of recompense, characteristic most often of money, with which something is paid for” (Sližienė 1994: 23). 28 Cf. gelbėti ‘to support, to assist’ and sentence (6) in section 1. 29 Cf.: “Here we have a metonymic extension (‘to have a positive effect’) of the prototypical core meaning of ‘to help’, which is associated with a personal agent ‘controlling the provision of help’” (Hentschel 1998: 175). 22 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija ‘Let us ward off ailments with garlic’? If we want to preserve the semantic distinctions—no. The same applies to sentences (48)–(50): here (su)PAGALBA ‘mediates’ not only the aforementioned meaning ‘to be useful through one’s effect’, but also the meanings of means and/or mediation (cf. sentences (25)–(27)). The form su-PAGALBA used in sentence (51) likewise has its own semantic basis and is not equivalent to the instrumental of means; cf. the paraphrase Swedish technology will help automate cartography. Here, too, we can discern a semantic shift in the noun pagalba, which is evident in sentences (52)–(54). The semantic basis for using these constructions is also apparent in passive sentences (55)–(56), where an inanimate object is understood as an agent rather than as a means. For example, the active voice of sentence (55) would be: The pump submerged in the pool water [A2] helps return (returns) water to the fountain, and that of sentence (56): detectors [A2] convert the beam of rays into digital signals. In addition to the semantic differences noted between (su)INSTR, perACC and (su)PAGALBA, looking at a sentence such as (57) (cf. also sentence (56)) also makes the influence of syntactic distribution evident: two functionally different instrumentals (of means, path, or subject, predicative) are reluctant to “co-occur.” (46) Garlic is a useful, inexpensive, and readily available remedy. It continues to be studied. And we Lithuanians should grow plenty of garlic in our gardens and with the help (cf.?with it) ward off many ailments. And so that we do not smell of garlic, let us chew a parsley leaf or drink a cup of skim milk. DLKT (47) Blood—a perfluoroorganic compound—which greatly improves microcirculation and gas exchange and has very good detoxifying properties. With its help (cf.?with it) we saved more than 10 patients. It is a pity that we cannot use this medicine for every patient—this preparation is very expensive. DLKT (48) The story of the mirrors told by the shepherds… An allusion to a scene from “The Enchanted”, in which the shepherd with the help of a mirror (cf. by means of a mirror, through a mirror; using the mirror for divination) summons a terrible vision. DLKT (49) How would we find out about this if not with the help of the media (cf. through the media; or perhaps from the media)? Isn’t it also the case that people affected by poverty cannot afford the press that writes about them? That is so. Even Vakaro žinios is unaffordable for many. DLKT (50) A competitive scuba diver breathes while swimming through a tube or with the help of scuba gear (cf. using scuba gear, through a scuba regulator). The first tubes through which people breathed underwater were reeds made of cane or bamboo. Over time, the tubes improved and their shape changed. DLKT (51) Lithuanian forestry guidelines. If forestry operations recover within a couple of years, a new set of Lithuanian guidelines will emerge, with Swedish technology Straipsniai / Articles 23 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ help (cf. Swedish technology) automate cartography, and foresters will be able to earn a decent living, then I’ll be able to finish my career peacefully and retire. DLKT (52) of the Atlantic Ocean, near Cape Hatteras, in North Carolina, he installed radars with which he recorded precipitation levels. With the help of a satellite (cf. by satellite, via satellite) he tracked the movement of the sea. By synchronizing the times of the readings from the radar and the artificial Earth satellite, the scientist was able to confirm his observation. DLKT (53) Perkūnas, kaip metų gyvybės rato dievas, prikelantis žemę ir gyvybę su van-dens ir ugnies pagalba (plg. vandeniu, ugnimi), pats nueina šį ratą, pasi-reikšdamas įvairiu laikotarpiu. Padavimai sako, jog Perkūnų yra keli – pava-sario ir rudens, rytų, vakarų, pietų, šiaurės. DLKT (54) “I’ll definitely come.” “That’s very kind. And don’t worry about the young lady. We’ll take care of her. Her condition is serious, but I hope that, with thanks to nature and us doctors, help everything will turn out well... Who said that nothing compares to starry nights, when you wade through them, waiting for the dawn twenty years away.” DLKT (55) Iš liūto nasrų čiurkšlė nuteka į šalia esantį vandens baseinėlį, iš kurio panar-dinto vandens siurblio pagalba (plg. per vandens siurblį; vandens siurbliu) vanduo vėl grąžinamas į fontaną. Baseinėlis montuojamas iš pailgų šaligat-vio betoninių plytelių ir išklojamas hidroizoliacine plėvele. DLKT (56) Siauras, besisukantis rentgeno spindulių pluoštas, kuriuo peršviečiamas tiria-mas kūnas, detektorių pagalba (plg. detektorių, detektoriais) paverčiamas skaitmeniniais signalais. Šiuos signalus apdorojus galingu matematiniu apa-ratu gaunamas kūno pjūvio vaizdas. DLKT (57) Ir nedideliu išgąsčiu. Mūsų nuostoliai – irklas ir Irmos batai, srovės nuplėšti nuo kojų ir nunešti nežinia kur. Bandom surasti kitą irklą ir irvių pagalba (plg. virvėmis) stačiomis uolomis nusileidžiame prie ką tik gavusio „Dviejų batų“ vardą nematomo slenksčio. Pasirodo, tai net ne slenkstis, o tikras krio-klys. DLKT If in sentence (57) we justify the expression of an instrument (withPAGALBA, then we can also go on to discuss sentences (58)–(62), where these constructions are replaced by the instrumental case of an instrument or by paraphrases using use. Are here (withPAGALBA and the instrumental case equivalent? It could go either way. Hentschelis ir Thomas Menzelis (2000: 8; dar apie tai žr. Hentschel 1998: 174tt, 182tt), aptardami priemonės raišką dabartinėje rusų kalboje, mano esant tikslinga kalbėti ir skirti laipsnišką tipišką > netipišką priemonės raišką, 24 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija correlating with Instr > pri. POMOŠČI, s pomošč’ju (cf.: They sat at the table and ate soup with spoons /??with the help of spoons / with the help of strangers’, awkward spoons / with the help of jar lids. In the authors’ opinion, in those cases when an object is assigned the function of an instrument, that is, when in a particular context it is understood as an instrument, it is more likely to be expressed with pri pomošči, s pomošč’ju constructions, which specifically “focus” the instrumentality of the object (e.g.: The young Chinese tried to eat soup with spoons unfamiliar to them; The prisoners of war sat on the grass and ate soup with jar lids30 (cf. sentence (45)). A typical instrument is an inanimate object that the agent, a living actor, directly uses in the action expressed by the predicate to act upon another object—the patient object, e.g.: Jonas paints the wall with paint. When analyzing sentences (58)–(61), it seems that (with) help is semantically equivalent to the instrumental expressing an instrument. But the context of sentence (59) makes it clear that the use of this instrument (small axe) is less typical, i.e. firewood is chopped with a small axe31. Moreover, these sentences show that it is important to consider the correlation between expression and grammatical function: a less typical instrument, interpreted in the sentence as (also) an adjunct, tends to be marked differently from a typical instrument object. In other words, grammatical functions correlate with expression: object > adjunct respectively Instr > (with) help. A typical instrument object is usually expressed by the instrumental case or a with construction (we eat soup with spoons); > alongside the instrumental of an instrument, (with)help is also used (see sentences (57), (58)); > when an instrument is also interpreted as an adjunct, (with)help becomes more characteristic than the instrumental (see sentences (59)–(61)) (see also below). The instrumental help used in sentences (58)–(61) differs in another respect from that discussed earlier in sentences (46)–(56): here the inanimate objects functioning as complements of help lack the potential to perform an agentive action—as [A or A₂]—and help itself has undergone desemanticization. It is precisely such help that becomes / is a secondary postposition32 (see below). (58) The faction formed a temporary commission to assess the consequences of the agrarian reform carried out in 1991/1992. For a whole year, employees of several institutes, using computers 30 “The prepositional constructions focus instrumentality. They are therefore pragmatically acceptable only when the instrumentality of the instrument concerned is not trivial in the given context” (Hentschel, Menzel 2000: 8). 31 “The degree of typical instrumentality is primarily a function of the lexical meaning of the predicate of the noun phrase with the semantic role Instrument” (Hentschel 1998: 182). 32 “The desemanticization of pomoc [...] in the context of inanimate noun phrases is evident. All this indicates that the development toward a secondary preposition has advanced here” (Hentschel 1998: 175). Straipsniai / Articles 25 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ with the help (cf. using computers, while working on computers) that damage [WITH WHAT / HOW?] estimated and assessed at six national budgets—35 billion litas. DLKT (59) – And tell me, what kind of violence was used? – He was beaten. – How? – With the help of a small axe help (cf. with a small axe); a knife was used as a threatening instrument. – The identified assailant, Genadijus Radionovas, lives nearby, just a few hundred meters away. DLKT (60) Large and very large containers are often made in the shape of trailers and have wheels. All that remains is to [WITH WHAT / HOW?] transport them, load them onto or unload them from a railway car platform or a ship’s deck or hold, only with the help of a special tractor unit help (cf. with special tractor units). Smaller-capacity containers are placed inside larger containers. (61) A master craftsman from Plungė, Bernardas Surblys, proved it. The 72-year-old farmer made his GAZ-52 truck move [HOW?] with the help of a restored gas generator help (cf.?with a restored gas generator). The gas is produced by firewood burning in a special cylindrical furnace, one and a half meters high and with a capacity of 200 liters. DLKT The same as was said about concrete objects applies to abstract objects functioning as complements of help. For example, in sentences (62)–(69), (with) HELP constructions are associated with the aforementioned literal or figurative meanings of the noun help or the verb (to) help. Semantically, these constructions, like those with [–Anim], may imply intermediation (sentences (63), (68)), comitative meaning (sentence (64)), cause (for example, sentence (67)), or other meanings; thus they are not equivalent to the instrumental or the prepositional through construction33. (62) Prophecies are coming true; you’re already making my head spin. – No, I’m only saying it as it is. – You will be an honorary prisoner here. With the help of your critical mind help (cf.?with your critical mind; your critical mind, that is, with your help) I will check my actions. – By nature, a human being is free; one cannot be another person’s prisoner—even when being killed, one is free in spirit. DLKT (63) An artist’s nature is wonderfully sensitive and rich. His soul is open to all kinds of influences. With the help of his creative imagination help (cf.?with his creative imagination, through his creative imagination; aided by his creative 33 Plg. Šukio (1998: 555) siūlomą pagalba taisymą įnagininku, pavyzdžiui, sakinyje Turtus jis susikrovė išminties, sumanumo pagalba (= išmintimi, sumanumu; per išmintį, sumanumą). 26 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalbą įnagininko desemantizacija imagination34) can enter other people’s souls, and the poet’s intuition can warn of their deepest secrets. DLKT (64) There is no need to explain what is necessary by proving that the human spirit with the help of its innate ratio can essentially attain sufficient clarity regarding the question of the existence of a real supreme being—it can certainly choose to assent. DLKT (65) By creating what is called Greek ethical rationalism, or the belief that a person can with the help of reason attain virtue and happiness (cf. by reason; with reason’s help [i.e. helping oneself]). Rationalism also operates at the level of ontology: it is believed that a person can attain true being with the help of the activity of reason. DLKT (66) The farmer, the crop grower, is supposedly like nature’s helper, while the artisan (mechanic, technician, engineer) “takes the forces of nature so that with their help (cf. *by the forces of nature; with their aid) he may produce the things he seeks” (2, p. 324). DLKT (67) Nuo šiol niekas negali likti Jam nešališkas ir neutralus, nes kas ne su Juo, tas prieš Jį. Nors žmogus malonės pagalba (plg. malonės padedamas, todėl, kad malonė padeda) nugali netyrąją dvasią, ši vėl nerimsta, spendžia savo pinkles ir stengiasi jį pavergti. Tai žinodamas apaštalas Petras perspėja: „Būkite blaivūs“35. DLKT (68) What has been established? It became clear that the baptism of Kievan Rus’ should be dated to 988–990. Vladimir, Prince of Kyiv, who with the help of baptism (cf. through baptism; by baptizing; baptism helped him to achieve this) sought to establish his rule in other lands of Rus’, was more interested in it than Byzantium was. DLKT (69) Raimundas Kapujietis manė, jog Angelo pilis buvo atgauta Kotrynos maldos pagalba (plg. aktyvo sakinį: Kotrynos malda [A₂] padėjo atgauti Angelo pilį; todėl, kad Kotryna meldėsi). Mūsų laikais (1962 m.) prie Angelo pilies Kotrynai pastatytas paminklas. Tiltas pereitas Neilgą savo gyvenimą Kotryna baigė Amžinajame Mieste. DLKT 34 Cf. the DLKT sentence: Then he says: I would like to touch the unbaked clay bricks of Babylon’s ruins. Thus, those unfamiliar with Luke’s nature might think that he himself, without the help of thoughts, would like to touch those stones. I could not say precisely whether, through such a pretended forgetfulness or bewilderment, Luke recognizes the objects of his own dreams. 35 Cf. the use of with the help of in the DLKT sentence Only when both individuals and their groups cultivate moral and social virtues within themselves and spread them throughout society, with the necessary grace of God becoming truly new people and creators of a new humanity. Straipsniai / Articles 27 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ In sentences (70)–(74), a desemanticized use of ‘help’ is evident, whereas in sentences (75)–(76) it is apparently used (also) for (morpho)syntactic reasons, i.e., to avoid two functionally distinct instrumentals or noun homophones. (70) Indeed, Shakespeare develops the theme of passing time through contrasts between youth and old age, life and death, with the help (cf. through contrasts), whereas Mačernis, by contrast, paints his own picture in half-tones—bluishness, gentle, “having found nothing,” “pulsating more lightly,” “the wind breathes a fragrant farewell.” DLKT (71) Simbolistai stengėsi poetinę temą filosofiškai pagrįsti, siekė garso ir minties harmonijos, teigė, kad yra spalvos klausa, kad garsų pagalba (plg. garsais) galima sukurti tam tikrą spalvų vaizdą (M. K. Čiurlionio kūryba, K. Šimonio paveikslas „Muzikos garsai“). DLKT (72) Therefore, the discussion of whether the state has regulatory methods with the help (cf. by regulatory methods) to influence the development process of SMEs in one way or another, with the aim of optimizing their economic and social benefits, is timely and significant. DLKT (73) Do not suggest applying any specific strategies. Note: learning words with the help of definitions (cf. with definitions) is not one of the most effective tasks. However, sometimes one has to memorize words listed at the end of a text or book. DLKT (74) COMMUNICATION 1. The communication process. By communicating with the help of language and nonverbal signals, a person can convey to others a message about their thoughts and feelings.help (cf. with language and nonverbal signals). DLKT (75) It is used not only in market research but also in scientific research (judging by the number of published articles relying on data collected with the help of this method (cf.?with this method)). Sociological research was once almost synonymous with the survey method. DLKT (76) A person can also express their feelings and experiences in certain ways through other means, e.g., music, painting, sculpture. With the help of language (cf.?language; while speaking), a person interacts with other people. Here, language serves as a means of communication. DLKT From what has been said, it is clear that ‘help’ constructions tend to be used in cases where they function (or can be interpreted as functioning) as adjuncts in a sentence. This is also confirmed by sentences (77)–(84), in which these constructions express cause in the broad sense, i.e., the actual cause of an action, a condition, a reason, a basis, and so on. Thus, both the desemanticized instrumental and the instrumental of the noun ‘help’, which retains its lexical semantics, are primarily associated with the expression of adjuncts. (77) – We published the first book with support from the Open Lithuania Fund about three years ago. We have been collaborating since then. This year, with their help (cf. 28 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalbą įnagininko desemantizacija with their help; because they helped) we published 9 books. Sometimes this fund purchases most of the print run and allocates it to schools; in other cases, it pays the royalties. DLKT (78) We are waiting for information about wrongdoing in the forests around Kaunas. Write to us or call tel. 265505, 265510, 265503. Only with Your, dear readers’, help (cf. only with You helping; if only You help) will foresters swiftly put a stop to timber thieves, poachers, and those who litter the forests. DLKT (79) The other women wept, too. Even Jonas shed a few tears. For three days and three nights he played and sang, almost without sleep, with the little glasses poured by the men help (cf. because he drank) – sober, he surely would have faltered. I remember Luka almost dozing, his head resting on my wood, his eyes closed as he played and played. DLKT (80) Current liabilities can also be determined with the helpof Table 22.2 (cf. from the table, according to the table, if you refer to Table 22.2), and they amount to the total sum of 33,600 Lt. The existing long-term debt is 192,000 Lt, while ordinary shares amount to 128,000 Lt. DLKT (81) The results of the study conducted using our “F-test” methodology with the helpof the “F-test” methodology (cf. according to the “F-test” methodology) show that it is suitable and should be widely used to optimize the choice of professions in Lithuania. DLKT (82) The important point is that, regardless of whether that influence was real, an attempt is made to identify and characterize people’s actual way of thinking with the helpof philosophers’ opinions (cf. from philosophers’ opinions; according to philosophers’ opinions; based on philosophers’ opinions). Admittedly, the possibility of a distinctive limitation of high culture remains. DLKT (83) Three types of scales were used: value-ranking scales, semantic differential scales, and the Likert scale. With the helpof value-ranking scales (cf. using the scales), the respondent compares individual characteristics or groups of characteristics of a phenomenon or object with others and ranks them by priority of evaluation. DLKT (84) The cognitive component consists of opinions and beliefs that we hold about certain people and things. With their help (cf. relying on them; according to them), we judge what is true, what is likely, and what something resembles. The affective dimension encompasses pleasant or unpleasant emotions associated with beliefs. DLKT Finally, let us briefly return to the expression of instrumentality and compare sentences (85)–(87) (see also sentences (31), (58)). As Hentschel and Menzel (2000: 15ff.) argue, in precisely this type of sentence, it is expressed implicitly through a proposition Straipsniai / Articles 29 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ the indirect instrument36 acquires (has) its own means of expression—a desemanticized means, functionally distinct from the expression of a direct instrument—the instrumental case. (85) Prieštarauja. Dėl antrojo punkto reikalaujate kas nors balsuoti? Reikalauja. Gerai, prašau balsuoti. Kadangi čia antrasis punktas, balsuosime mygtukų pagalba (plg.?mygtukais; paspausdami mygtukus). Kas už tai, kad būtų priimtas antrasis... Dėl pirmojo niekas neprieštaravo. V. LANDSBERGIS. Ar yra prieštaraujančių?37 DLKT (86) „Artimedos“ manikiūrininkė Irma Isevičienė papasakojo, kad naujų, intensyvių spalvų „Tofair“ firmos nagų lako pagalba (plg. lakuojant „Tofair“ firmos nagų laku) galima sukurti įdomius, efektingus derinius. Pavyzdžiui, juodai nulakuotus nagus antrąkart patepti auksu blizgančiu laku. DLKT (87) P vz., Dž. van Lavik-Gudol nurodytas atvejis, kaip Maikas sugebėjo užimti vedlio padėtį tuščių skardinių dėžių pagalba (plg. *tuščiomis skardinėmis dėžėmis; pasinaudojęs tuščiomis skardinėmis dėžėmis); arba kaip pairo elgsenos santykiai, įvedus papildomą beždžionių šėrimą bananais. DLKT 4. GENERALIZATION AND CONCLUSIONS 4.1. The use of the instrumental case of the noun assistance should be explained and substantiated by the animacy criterion, i.e., person > thing. This is related to Michael Silverstein’s (1976) 36 “While prepositional phrases are blocked, owing to their property of focusing instrumentality, in usually prototypical verb–patient–instrument configurations and with direct instrumentality in the sense outlined above, the instrumental case cannot be used, or can be used only to a very limited extent, when the referent of the ‘instrumental’ noun is indirectly instrumental, or when that referent functions as a direct instrument only in an implicit proposition. Accordingly, the explicit (higher-level) proposition contains an atypical verb–patient–(indirect) instrument configuration” (Hentschel, Menzel 2000: 19). Cf. Russian: “(i) S pomošč’ju fonarja / *fonarem ja bez truda razyskal dver’ v sklad; (ii) Osveščaja ste nu fonarem, ja bez truda razyskal dver’ v sklad. The indirect instrument in (i) stands, as it were, metonymically for a proposition in which it itself functions as a direct instrument, as is clear from the paraphrases in (ii). A prerequisite for indirect instrumentality in the above sense is the embedding of the indirect instrument in an implicit proposition, in which it functions as a direct instrument” (Hentschel, Menzel 2000: 15, 18). 37 Cf. the DLKT sentence You can do this with the help of just one key (= using just one key; by pressing just one key), where the corrections given in parentheses are clearly semantically distinct. 30 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija ar Roberto Dixono (1979: 85) (i) gyvumo hierarchija38, kurioje skiriami gyvumo požymiai koreliuoja su (ii) semantinių39, (iii) gramatinių funkcijų ir jų (iv) morfosintaksinio žymėjimo hierarchijomis (Hentschel 1992; plg. Dik 1989: 269t; Givón 1984: 239tt). (i) Person > animate being (non-person) > inanimate concrete object > abstract object. (ii) A > P > Rec40 > Ben > I > L > T (iii) Subject (agent) > object (complement) > supplement (adjunct). (iv) Nom > Acc > Dat > Instr > prepositional constructions. Grammatical (or structural) cases—the nominative and accusative—are selected to mark the most prominent members of the sentence from a syntactic and semantic point of view (Eng. salient): the agent subject and the patient direct object (Jonas [A] builds a house [P]); other cases mark less prominent (grammatical and semantic) functions. The instrument and manner instrumental examined in this article, typically used to express inanimate (concrete or abstract) objects, correlate with less prominent functions of the sentence core or of free sentence elements—supplements (so-called satellites, i.e. predicate or sentence adjuncts). These hierarchies are also reflected in the use of the instrumental of pagalba examined here. More specifically, inanimate concrete objects, typically expressed in a sentence as the instrument object, are marked by the instrumental. Alongside it, the instrument instrumental also uses the synsemantic postposition pagalba, which requires the genitive. In some cases, it apparently competes with the instrumental as a free variant; in others, it forms an opposition to it. The postposition pagalba, used with names of concrete objects, 38 In later works, the animacy hierarchy is divided into (i) person (speech-act participants), (ii) animacy (in the narrower sense), and (iii) definiteness hierarchies (cf. Croft 1990: 111; 127; Comrie 1989: 128, 185). Alan Timberlake (1986), based on features such as animacy (in the narrower sense), definiteness, number, concreteness, and others, distinguishes an individuality (Eng. individuation) hierarchy. 39 Kritišką nuomonę semantinių funkcijų hierarchijos skyrimo klausimu žr. Croft (2012: 175tt) ir ten aptariamą literatūrą. 40 “The morphosyntactic marking of the semantic role Recipient is the prototypical dative function. [...] A typical Recipient is involved in a transfer event. An object changes owner, from the pre-Possessor to the post-Possessor. The Recipient is the post-Possessor after a successful transfer event. The verbs of the ‘give / take’ field form the background for this prototypical definition of Recipienthood: Klaus gave his brother a book” (Bartels 2005: 105; cf. Hentschel 2001: 181ff., 196f.). Cf. Valekienė (1998: 36): “Recipient [Rec] is the function of the receiver or taker of something. It is most often expressed by the nominative. A person is usually understood as a recipient, e.g.: The child [Rec] received a gift [Con] (cf.: To the child [B] gave a gift [Con]).” Straipsniai / Articles 31 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ (instead of the polysemous instrumental) there is a tendency to choose a form less typical for expressing an indirect or non-prototypical means. The postposition pagalba, with a complement denoting abstract things, is often used to express an adverbial of manner. The choice of Pagalba constructions can be justified by the principles of linguistic economy and clarity: the tendency to say what one intends as briefly as possible, that is, in a reduced form, and clearly. In accordance with the principles of economy and clarity, the synsemantic pagalba is also used to avoid identical forms with different meanings—the instrumental (as in vaikas prašė tėtį / tėčio pinigų, for example, in sentence (57)). The use of the postposition pagalba is also justified by the principle of clarity, in view of its position in the sentence⁴¹: as the examples showed, it often occurs in positions for sentence-level adverbials (Ger. VP-externe), or in marked predicate adverbial⁴² (Ger. VP-interne) and instrument-object positions⁴³. Such pagalba pushes the polysemous instrumental out of the domain of adverbial expression; moreover, because it has fewer meanings, that is, is more transparent (Eng. transparent), it becomes more likely to be used to express an instrument-object. More specifically, the more an inanimate thing (concrete or abstract) is (potentially) perceived as an adverbial rather than an object, the more typically it is expressed by means used to express adverbials—in this case, the synsemantic pagalba; or, in other words: INSTR > PAGALBA (writes a letter [WITH WHAT? / *HOW?] with a pen / *with the help of a pen > transported [WITH WHAT? / HOW?] with a special tow truck / with the help of a special tow truck > made [*WITH WHAT? / HOW?] move *with a restored gas generator / with the help of a restored gas generator). This also correlates with hierarchical differences between complements > modifiers and objects > adverbials (cf. also: waved a handkerchief / *with the help of a handkerchief > took up the guide’s position *with empty boxes / with the help of empty tin cans). The functions of instrument and adverbial are not typical for animate entities⁴⁴: the postposition pagalba is unlikely to occur with them. Hierarchical differences are also evident in cases where the instrumental of pagalba is associated with the lexical meanings of this noun or of the verb pagelbėti (cf.: Jonas returned home with a friend’s help / with a friend; Jonas recovered with the help of Prozac / with Prozac; We will protect ourselves from illnesses with the help of garlic /?with garlic; I will check my actions with the help of your critical mind / *(with) your critical mind). Here 41 Plg. lenkų kalboje: Hentschel 1998: 191. 42 Plačiau apie aplinkybių (modifikatorių) lygmenis žr. Dik (1989: 192t, 206tt; 1997: 225t, 243t). Siūlomą aplinkybių (modifikatorių) skirstymą lietuvių kalboje žr. Holvoet, Pajėdienė (2005), ten pat žr. ir kituose lietuvių gramatikos darbuose pristatomą nuomonių apžvalgą. 43 On the neutral and marked order of sentence constituents (indirect object and adverbials) in the sentence, see Ambrazas (2006a: 651ff.). 44 “This typicality [i.e. that of instrumental use] can, in turn, be generally explained by two factors: the availability and manipulability of the potential instrument by the Agent, and the obviousness and directness of the instrument’s effect on the Patient” (Hentschel, Menzel 2000: 5). 32 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija the genitive complement of the noun pagalba denotes an animate or inanimate entity that fulfils the Agent function. A correlation is evident between the hierarchies animate > inanimate and SUPAGALBA > PAGALBA: constructions with the preposition su are generally used when the instrumental of the noun pagalba governs the genitive of an animate noun; the instrumental of pagalba without the preposition su is more often chosen with the genitive of an inanimate noun. Functionally, these constructions are related to prepositional constructions with per ar su, which express an intermediary or comitative. Semantically, they cannot always replace one another—they are oppositional, although cases of neutralization are presumably possible. In other words, the more pagalba loses its concrete—primary, specific, and clear—meaning and becomes (or is) semantically more capacious, that is, several meanings become intertwined, the more semantically motivated and justified its use is in that context. In sentences, constructions with the instrumental of the noun pagalba generally express a predicate adverbial—a manner; this interpretation is often also supported by the manner-related kaip ‘how’ used in the context. They also express other, sentence-level adverbials (cause). Thus, in some cases the instrumental of pagalba is used as a form of an autosemantic noun, and in others as a synsemantic postposition. This is shown in Diagram 1. 4.2. Based on this scheme and Christian Lehmann’s (A; 2002) notion of grammaticalization46, which is graded, as well as his cross-classification of grammaticalization parameters (Ger. cross-classification)47 (Table 3), there is reason to speak of the postposition with the help of apparently following the path of grammaticalization in contemporary Lithuanian. More specifically, the possibility that the instrumental of pagalba is moving along a path of grammaticalization is supported by the lower degree of meaning of the word in question (or a greater degree of semantic erosion (Ger. semantische Erosion, cf. Eng. semantic bleaching, attrition), desemanticization), decategorization (following Heine (2003: 579)), and a higher degree of cohesion, or syntagmatic dependency (Ger. Kohäsion bzw. 45 „The initial meaning is richer, more specific, it is also more palpable, more accessible to the imagination („anschaulich“) and, in this sense, more concrete“ (Lehmann 2002: 115). 46 „Grammaticalization is a process leading from lexemes to grammatical formatives. A number of semantic, syntactic and phonological processes interact in the grammaticalization of morphemes ans whole constructions. A sign is grammaticalized to the extent that it is devoid of concrete lexical meaning and takes part in obligatory grammatical rules“ (Lehmann 2002: vii). „Grammaticalization is a process of gradual change, and its product may have different degrees of grammaticality“ (t. p.: 11). 47 Plg.: „Grammaticalization is a vector whose variables are six magnitudes which we have here been calling parameters“ (Lehmann 2002: 145). Straipsniai / Articles 33 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ SCHEMA 1. Hierarchical differences of the noun pagalba Binding to other signs, i. e., an increase in syntactic dependence) (postposition pagalba with inanimate objects), a lower degree of syntagmatic flexibility (fixed pagalba in the postpositional position), condensation of structural scope (cf. condensation (restriction) of its scope) (cf. with the sincere help of my best friend; with the intellectual assistance of Šiauliai University; with the effective help of garlic vs. *(with) the effective help of Margos (cf. (29)); *(with) the effective help of ropes (cf. (57)); *(with) the effective help of definitions (cf. (73)), a greater degree of obligatoriness⁴⁸ (cf. obligatorification or restriction of substitution possibilities) (cf. the discourse-determined and obligatory use of the postposition pagalba), and extension, i. e. use in new contexts (following Heine (2003: 579)⁴⁹, English extension). On the basis of extension, it is possible to speak of the expansion of means of expressing manner (circumstances) into the expression of means (instrument). 48 „Nothing can become obligatory in a grammar which is not also grammaticalized to a certain degree according to the other parameters“ (Lehmann 2002: 127t). 49 „Thus, to the extent, that extension, decategorization, and erosion are components of a grammaticalization process, they presuppose desemantization“ (Heine 2003: 580). 34 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXX XIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija 3 LENTELĖ. Gramatikalizacijos parametrai (pagal Lehmann A; dar žr. 2002: 110, 146) Relational axis (cf. Relationenachse) Autonomy aspect (Autonomieaspekt)50 / Paradigmatic Syntagmatic Semantic weight (Gewicht) Integrity (Integrität) Structural scope51 (struktureller Skopus) Cohesion (Kohäsion) Paradigmaticity (Paradigmatizität) Binding (Bindung)52 Flexibility (variability or mobility) Paradigmatic flexibility (paradigmatische Variabilität) Syntagmatic flexibility (syntagmatische Variabilität; Stellungsfreiheit)53 4.3. Examination of actual usage shows that in certain cases the norm could probably be extended and refined. The instrumental case of the noun pagalba with animate or inanimate complements and the preposition su should be recognized as normative in cases where the instrumental is associated with the lexical meanings of this noun or of the verb pagelbėti. Given that instrumental constructions of the noun pagalba generally express adjuncts of manner, it seems appropriate to reconsider and reassess the use of the postposition pagalba to express manner. 50“So far we have three aspects of grammaticalization, namely the decrease in weight and variability and the increase in cohesion” (Lehmann 2002: 109). “The weight of the sign, i.e., its scope, which enables it to enter into opposition and contrast with other signs. To the extent that the cohesion of a sign increases, its variability and weight decrease.” (Lehmann A). 51 “The syntagmatic weight or structural scope of a grammatical means is the structural size of the construction which it helps to form. [...] The structural scope of a sign decreases with increasing grammaticalization” (Lehmann 2002: 128). 52 „The syntagmatic cohesion or bondedness of a sign is the intimacy with which it is connected with another sign to which it bears a syntagmatic relation“ (Lehmann 2002: 131). 53 „The syntagmatic variability of a sign is the ease with which it can be shifted around in its context. In the case of grammaticalized sign, this concerns mainly its positional mutability with respect to those constituents with which it enters into construction. Syntagmatic variability decreases with increasing grammaticalization“ (Lehmann 2002: 140). Straipsniai / Articles 35 LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ ŠALTINIAI DLKT – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos tekstynas, sud. Kauno Vytauto Didžiojo universiteto Kompiuterinės lingvistikos centras (prieiga internete http://donelaitis.vdu.lt). LKŽe – Lietuvių kalbos žodynas, elektroninis variantas. Redaktorių kolegija: Gertrūda Naktinienė (vyr. red.), Jonas Paulauskas, Ritutė Petrokienė, Vytautas Vitkauskas, Jolanta Zabarskaitė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2005 (prieiga internete http://www.lkz.lt). DLKŽe – Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos žodynas: elektroninis variantas, vyr. red. Stasys Keinys. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas, 2011 (prieiga internete http://dz.lki.lt). LITERATŪRA Ambrazas Vytautas 2006: Lietuvių kalbos istorinė sintaksė. Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos institutas. Ambrazas Vytautas, red., 2006a: Dabartinės lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidykla. Bartels Hauke 2005: Dativ oder Präposition: Zur Markierungsvariation im Kontext adjektivischer Prädikate im Deutschen, Russischen und Polnischen. Oldenburg [= Studia Slavica Oldenburgensia 12]. Comrie Bernd 1989: Language Universals and Linguistic Typology. Syntax and Morphology, 2 edition. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Basil Blackwell. Croft William 1990: Typology and Universals. 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Sližienė Nijolė 2004: Lietuvių kalbos veiksmažodžių junglumo žodynas 2(2). Vilnius: Lietuvių kalbos instituto leidykla. Šukys Jonas 1998: Lietuvių kalbos linksniai ir prielinksniai: vartosena ir normos. Kaunas: Šviesa. Timberlake Alan 1986: Hierarchies in the Genitive of Negation. – Case in Slavic, eds. Richard D. Brecht, James S. Levine. 339–359. Valeckienė Adelė 1998: Funkcinė lietuvių kalbos gramatika. Vilnius: Mokslo ir enciklopedijų leidybos institutas. Valiulytė Elena 1991: Iš sintaksinės sinonimikos (galininkas / įnagininkas). – Lietuvių kalbotyros klausimai 29, 148–158. Desemantization of the Instrumental of the Noun Pagalba SUMMARY Based on the material from the Corpus of the Contemporary Lithuanian Language (CCLL), the article addresses the instrumental of the noun pagalba. Its aim is to discuss the semantics of the instrumental of the noun pagalba and its desemantization features.The research shows the correlation of hierarchies animate > inanimate and su PAGALBA > PAGALBA. In cases where the instrumental of the noun pagalba is associated with the lexical meanings of the noun or the verb pagelbėti and the noun expressing an animate thing 38 Acta Linguistica Lithuanica LXXIV Daiktavardžio pagalba įnagininko desemantizacija ([Hum], [+Anim]) is used as its complement, the constructions of the preposition su are usually applied. The instrumental case of pagalba without the preposition su is usually used with the complement genitive of names denoting inanimate things ([–Anim], [Abstr]) (cf. Jonas namo grįžo su draugo pagalba / su draugu; Jonas išsigydė su prozako pagalba / su prozaku; Nuo ligų ginamės su česnakų pagalba /?su česnakais; Savo veiksmus tikrinsiu tavo kritiško proto pagalba / *(su) tavo kritišku protu). There is a tendency to choose a synsemantic postposition pagalba requiring the genitive case, which is used with the names of specific things ([–Anim]), (in place of polysemous instrumental) to denote a less typical or indirect instrument. The postposition pagalba is often used with the governed word denoting abstract things ([Abstr]) to express the adverbial modifier of manner. The more inanimate (concrete or abstract) thing is (may be) perceived as an adverbial modifier rather than an object, the more commonly it is expressed by means of expression of adverbial modifiers – in the case concerned by means of synsemantic pagalba or otherwise: INSTR > PAGALBA (rašo laišką [KUO?/*KAIP?] rašikliu / *rašiklio pagalba > transportavo [KUO? / KAIP?] specialiu vilkiku / specialaus vilkiko pagalba > privertė judėti [*KUO? / KAIP?] *restauruotu dujų generatoriumi / restauruoto dujų generatoriaus pagalba). It correlates with hierarchical differences governed word > modifier and object > adverbial modifier (cf. mojavo skarele / *skarelės pagalba > užėmė vedlio padėtį *tuščiomis dėžėmis / tuščių skardinių dėžių pagalba). The function of an instrument and an adverbial modifier is not typical of animate things: the postposition pagalba is little likely with them. The choice of constructions with pagalba can be explained by the principles of language economy and clarity: a tendency to express oneself as briefly and clearly as possible, i.e. in a reduced manner. Based on the graded concept of grammaticalization and the cross-classification of grammaticalization parameters (German Kreuzklassifikation) proposed by Christian Lehmann (2002), there is a reason to speak about the postposition pagalba shifting towards grammaticalization in the contemporary Lithuanian language. Įteikta 2016 m. kovo 15 d. LORETA VAIČIULYTĖ-SEMĖNIENĖ Lietuvių kalbos institutas Petro Vileišio g. 5., LT-10308 Vilnius, Lietuva [email protected] Straipsniai / Articles 39