From Intention to Behaviour: How Individual Entrepreneurial Orientation and Job Fit Influence Employee Intrapreneurship in SMEs

Köhn, Philipp; Wol , S en; Ru , PhilippJ.; Moog, Pe aM.; S ina, Giuseppe
A icle — Published Ve sion
F om In en ion o Beha iou : How Indi idual
En ep eneu ial O ien a ion and Job Fi In luence
Employee In ap eneu ship in SMEs
C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Köhn, Philipp; Wol , S en; Ru , PhilippJ.; Moog, Pe aM.; S ina, Giuseppe
(2025) : F om In en ion o Beha iou : How Indi idual En ep eneu ial O ien a ion and Job Fi
In luence Employee In ap eneu ship in SMEs, C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen , ISSN
1467-8691, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 34, Iss. 3, pp. 740-759,
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C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen , 2025; 34:740–759
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C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen
RESEARCH ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
F om In en ion o Beha iou : How Indi idual
En ep eneu ial O ien a ion and Job Fi In luence
Employee In ap eneu ship in SMEs
PhilippKöhn1 | S enWol 1 | PhilippJ.Ru 2 | Pe aM.Moog3 | GiuseppeS ina1
1Depa men o Economics, Uni e si y o Siegen, Siegen, Ge many | 2Depa men o Economics, Be n Uni e si y o Applied Sciences, Be n,
Swi ze land | 3Ins i u e o Inno a ion and En ep eneu ship, ZHAW School o Managemen and Law, Win e hu ,Swi ze land
Co espondence: Philipp Köhn ([email protected])
Recei ed: 17 Janua y 2024 | Re ised: 11 Ma ch 2025 | Accep ed: 24 Ap il 2025
Funding: The au ho s ecei ed no speci ic unding o his wo k.
Keywo ds: indi idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion| in ap eneu ship| job i | SMEs| heo y o planned beha iou
ABSTRACT
This s udy examines he in en ion–beha iou dynamics o in ap eneu ship a he indi idual le el, an a ea ha emains la gely
unde explo ed compa ed wi h he widely s udied domain o i m- le el in ap eneu ship. Based upon he heo y o planned
beha iou , we in es iga e he ela ionships be ween indi idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion (in en ion), job i (con ex ) and em-
ployee in ap eneu ship (beha iou ) in small- and medium- sized en e p ises (SMEs). We, he e o e, conduc ed mode a ed e-
g ession analyses using a sample o 649 employees om SMEs. Ou esul s indica e ha indi idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion
has a posi i e e ec on employee in ap eneu ship, whe eas su p isingly, job i has no signi ican e ec . Howe e , job i posi-
i ely mode a es he ela ionship be ween indi idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion and employee in ap eneu ship, especially i s
subdimensions pe son–o ganiza ion i and demands–abili ies i . Ou indings enhance he heo e ical comp ehension o in a-
p eneu ship, pa icula ly he connec ion be ween in en ion and beha iou , while also o e ing aluable p ac ical insigh s o he
con ex ual employmen se ings wi hin SMEs.
1 | In oduc ion
In oday's apidly e ol ing global economy, he p ospe i y o
small- and medium- sized en e p ises (SMEs) elies hea ily on
hei inno a i e capaci y (Denicolai e al.2021; Hock- Doepgen
e  al. 2021; Ku a ko and Aud e sch 2013; Saunila 2020).
Al hough SMEs gene ally ha e ewe esou ces han la ge o -
ganiza ions, many demons a e supe io inno a ion capabili ies
(Classen e al.2014). A key d i e o his inno a i eness is em-
ployee in ap eneu ship (EI)— he en ep eneu ial beha iou s
and ac i i ies o indi idual employees (Ahluwalia e al. 2017;
Eddles on e al.2012; He nández- Pe lines e al.2022; Opland
e al.2022). EI os e s i m g ow h, alue c ea ion and compe i-
i eness (Bie we h e al.2015; I eland e al.2009; Kea ney and
Meynha d 2016; Mo is e al.2011). Gi en i s signi icance, un-
de s anding he ac o s ha d i e EI in SMEs is c ucial o bo h
esea ch and p ac ice.
Consequen ly, p e ious esea ch has shed ligh on a ious in-
di idual ac o s in luencing EI, such as demog aphic back-
g ound (Camelo- O daz e  al. 2012; U bano and Tu ó 2013),
pe sonal cha ac e is ics (Rig e ing and Wei zel2013; Sinha and
S i as a a 2013; Williamson e  al. 2013), en ep eneu ial be-
ha iou (Ki by2006; Tie z and Pa ke 2012) o human capi al
(Bjo nali and Anne S ø en2012; Ma ia ena2013; Pa ke 2011).
Addi ionally, in ao ganiza ional an eceden s o EI such as o -
ganiza ional s uc u e (Boucha d and Basso 2011), manage-
ial suppo (Menzel e  al. 2007) and cul u e (Hagedo n and
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2025 The Au ho (s). C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
741
Jamieson2014) ha e been s udied in he pas . Howe e , much
o his esea ch has ocused on i m- le el de e minan s a he
han indi idual- le el mechanisms o in ap eneu ial beha iou
(Niemann e  al. 2022). This has led o a agmen ed unde -
s anding o how employees engage in in ap eneu ial ac i i ies
(Blanka2019; Gawke e al.2019).
Building on Ajzen's(1991) heo y o planned beha iou (TPB)
and Oldham and Cummings's(1996) in e ac ionis pe spec i e,
indi idual beha iou is a complex in e play be ween he in en-
ions and he con ex o an indi idual (Woodman e al.1993).
Based on his logic, we a gue ha EI esul s om he in e play
be ween an indi idual's en ep eneu ial in en ions and hei
job- ela ed con ex . Speci ically, we p opose ha indi idual en-
ep eneu ial o ien a ion (IEO)—a cons uc ha e lec s indi-
iduals' en ep eneu ial in en ions and endencies (Bol on and
Lane2012; San os e al.2020)—plays a c ucial ole in d i ing
in ap eneu ial beha iou . Howe e , indi idual en ep eneu -
ial endencies alone may no be su icien . The immedia e wo k
en i onmen also shapes whe he employees can ac upon hei
en ep eneu ial in en ions. Thus, job i , which encompasses
pe son–o ganiza ion i (PO- FIT) and demands–abili ies i
(DA- FIT) con ex (K is o  1996; Resick e  al. 2007; Saks and
Ash o h 1997), is expec ed o mode a e he ela ionship be-
ween IEO and EI.
Despi e he ele ance o hese concep s, he ela ionship be ween
IEO, job i and EI emains unde explo ed. This gap aises he
ollowing esea ch ques ion: How does indi idual en ep eneu -
ial o ien a ion in luence employee in ap eneu ship in SMEs, and
o wha ex en does job i mode a e his ela ionship?
To add ess his ques ion, we conduc ed a s udy using a sample
o 649 employees in SMEs. We applied eg ession analyses wi h
mode a ion e ec s and used alida ed scales o measu e IEO
(Bol on and Lane2012; San os e al.2020), EI (Gawke e al.2019)
and job i (Cable and Judge1996; Resick e al.2007; Saks and
Ash o h1997). Ou indings un eiled a posi i e impac o IEO
on EI, sugges ing ha en ep eneu ial in en spa ks in ap e-
neu ial ac ion a he indi idual le el. In iguingly, no di ec
ela ionship was ound be ween job i and EI, indica ing ha
i ing in o an o ganiza ion, mee ing job demands o ecei ing
he supplies needed do no necessa ily ansla e in o employees'
in ap eneu ial ac i i ies. Howe e , as ou mode a ion analysis
shows, o employees wi h exis ing en ep eneu ial o ien a ion
(EO), a s ong job i in e ms o PO- FIT and DA- FIT signi i-
can ly enhanced hei likelihood o engaging in in ap eneu ial
ac i i ies. This sugges s ha con ex in luences he in e play be-
ween in en ion and beha iou .
Ou esul s o e no el insigh s on how SMEs can cul i a e EI
by iden i ying and ec ui ing employees wi h s ong en ep e-
neu ial in en ions, as hey end o be mo e in ap eneu ial.
Addi ionally, aligning o ganiza ional alues wi h hose o en-
ep eneu ially inclined employees, and ensu ing job demands
co espond wi h hei abili ies, can s imula e in ap eneu ship
and hus inno a ion in SMEs.
The ollowing sec ion p esen s he heo e ical backg ound and
hypo heses de elopmen . I de ines he key concep s such as EI,
IEO and job i . Sec ion2 also de elops ou h ee hypo heses
based on heo e ical insigh s. Sec ion 3 desc ibes he me h-
odological app oach employed and explains all a iables wi h
means, s anda d de ia ions and co ela ions. In Sec ion4, ou
esul s a e p esen ed. Sec ion 5 discusses ou indings, high-
ligh ing hei heo e ical and p ac ical implica ions, as well as
he s udy's limi a ions and di ec ions o u u e esea ch and
ends wi h ou conclusion.
2 | Theo e ical Backg ound and De elopmen o
Hypo heses
2.1 | EI
The dynamic and complex business en i onmen , along wi h he
p essu e o cons an ly pu sue inno a ion (Denicolai e al.2021;
Hock- Doepgen e  al. 2021; Ku a ko and Aud e sch 2013;
Saunila 2020), has led o inc eased in e es in he concep o
EI in bo h heo y and p ac ice (Blanka2019). EI e e s o en-
ep eneu ial ac i i ies ca ied ou by employees wi hin exis ing
o ganiza ions (Gawke e  al. 2019) and is conside ed an im-
po an aspec o SMEs' inno a i eness (Ahluwalia e al.2017;
Eddles on e al.2012) as i leads o g ow h and alue c ea ion
(Bie we h e al.2015; Kea ney and Meynha d 2016; Veenke
e al.2008). The concep o EI o igina es in he seminal wo k o
Pincho (1985) who concep ualized he idea o in ap eneu ship
as a p ocess o en ep eneu ship wi hin es ablished o ganiza-
ions, whe e employees play a decisi e ole in os e ing i m-
le el inno a ion (Pincho 1985).
Al hough he concep o in ap eneu ship has been he subjec
o ex ensi e esea ch, i s de ini ion is s ill unclea (Edú Valsania
e al.2016; He nández- Pe lines e al.2022; Tu o e al.2016).
Blanka(2019) has a ibu ed his ambigui y o he absence o
igid dis inc ions be ween in ap eneu ship and ela ed concep s
such as EO (Co in and Sle in1989; Lumpkin and Dess1996;
Mille 1983), co po a e en ep eneu ship (Bu gelman1983; Gu h
and Ginsbe g1990; Ku a ko e al. 1990; S op o d and Baden-
Fulle  1994; Zah a 1991) o co po a e en u ing (MacMillan
e al.1986; Sykes1986). To sol e his ‘puzzle o simila e ms
and synonyms’ (Blanka2019, 930), Blanka dis inguished in a-
p eneu ship om i s ela ed concep s by a guing ha al hough
EO e e s o a i m's s a egic alignmen owa ds en ep e-
neu ial ac i i ies (Co in and Wales 2012; Wales e  al. 2015),
co po a e en ep eneu ship e e s o a i m's s a egic enewal
beha iou (Ku a ko and Aud e sch2013), and co po a e en u -
ing e e s o a i m's new en u e c ea ion beha iou (An oncic
and His ich2003), in ap eneu ship cen es a ound he indi id-
ual's ole in ecognizing oppo uni ies and ac i ely de eloping
inno a ions (Camelo- O daz e al.2012). Thus, in ap eneu ship
is an indi idual- le el concep , whe eas he o he s a e i m- le el
concep s (Blanka2019).
Building upon his easoning, pas esea ch has linked indi id-
ual independen a iables such as demog aphic ac o s, pe sonal
alues (Camelo- O daz e al.2012; U bano and Tu ó2013), pe -
sonali y ai s (Sinha and S i as a a2013), unce ain y and isk
(Ma ia ena 2013; Ma hews e  al. 2009), o speci ic human
capi al like en ep eneu ial skills and educa ion (Bjo nali and
Anne S ø en 2012; Pa ke  2011) o a dependen , i m- le el
measu emen o in ap eneu ship. One o he easons o his
742 C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen , 2025
misalignmen s emmed om he lack o alid ools o assess in-
di idual EI (Gawke e al.2019).
To add ess his gap, Gawke e al.(2019) designed he employee
in ap eneu ship scale (EIS) o gauge he ac ual en ep eneu -
ial beha iou o employees, such as p omo ing change, inno a-
ion o new p oduc s. The concep ualiza ion o he EIS is based
on a beha iou - based app oach ha ocuses on he obse able
beha iou s o employees e lec ing in ap eneu ial cha ac e -
is ics, such as aking ini ia i e, being p oac i e, being c ea i e
and inno a i e (Ho nsby e  al. 2013; Ma hews e  al. 2009;
Pa ke 2011; Tie z and Pa ke 2012; U bano and Tu ó2013). By
emphasizing employee en u e beha iou and s a egic enewal
beha iou , he EIS p o ides supe io concep ual cla i y, dis in-
guishing i om ela ed beha iou s such as inno a i e wo k be-
ha iou s (Janssen2000) and championing beha iou s (Howell
e  al. 2005). This beha iou - based app oach also allows o a
b oade heo e ical explo a ion o ac o s ha can ei he hinde
o os e EI, including beha iou s beyond o icial manda es o
supe iso y con ol (Globocnik and Salomo2015). Fu he mo e,
adop ing a beha iou - based pe spec i e aligns in ap eneu ship
wi h he b oade ca ego y o s a egic p oac i e wo k beha iou s,
acili a ing in eg a ion in o es ablished job design heo ies on
employee mo i a ion, well- being and pe o mance (Bakke and
Deme ou i2017; Pa ke e al.2010). This alignmen enhances
esea che s' unde s anding o employees' beha iou s in pu su-
ing in ap eneu ial ac i i ies. Table1 p esen s key wo ks in in-
ap eneu ship esea ch, highligh ing he a ious de ini ions o
in ap eneu ship and hei con ibu ions o he li e a u e.
2.2 | IEO
One concep ha may explain employees' in ap eneu ial be-
ha iou is IEO (Basso e al.2009; Kollmann e al.2007). The
o igins o IEO can be aced o he EO amewo k p oposed
by Lumpkin and Dess(1996), which encompasses i e key di-
mensions: isk- aking, inno a i eness, au onomy, compe i i e
agg essi eness and p oac i eness. Bol on and Lane(2012) exam-
ined hese dimensions indi idually, highligh ing ha al hough
ai s, a i udes and beha iou s had been assessed o e alua e
en ep eneu ial cha ac e is ics, he indi idual aspec s o EO
had la gely been o e looked. To add ess his gap, Bol on and
Lane (2012) emphasized he signi icance o IEO, pa icula ly
in ela ion o en ep eneu ial in en ion. Thei app oach de ines
IEO based on h ee co e dimensions: indi idual isk- aking,
inno a i eness and p oac i eness. This concep ualiza ion was
u he expanded by San os e al.(2020) who in oduced wo
addi ional dimensions—passion and pe se e ance—bo h o
which a e closely associa ed wi h en ep eneu ial in en ion and
ac i i y (Ge schewski e al.2016). Conside ing hese i e dimen-
sions, IEO can be de ined ‘as a holis ic assessmen o indi idu-
als' endency owa ds en ep eneu ship’ (San os e al.2020, 193).
This de ini ion acknowledges ha indi iduals can ac en ep e-
neu ially and capi alize on business oppo uni ies when hei
en ep eneu ial ap i ude is ecognized (Kollmann e al.2007).
Mo eo e , IEO is concep ualized by a ious esea che s as a psy-
chological cons uc encompassing indi iduals' belie s, alues
and p ac ices in luencing hei decision- making and adap abil-
i y o change (Bol on and Lane2012; Taa ila and Down2012). As
such, IEO can se e as a eliable me ic o iden i ying po en ial
in ap eneu s wi hin a company's wo k o ce, which has been
emphasized by expe s o be encou aged on all le els o an o ga-
niza ion (Gup a e al.2016; Taa ila and Down2012).
Ne e heless, possessing IEO does no necessa ily ensu e i s
ansla ion in o in ap eneu ial beha iou . Psychological e-
sea ch dis inguishes be ween in en ion, a conscious decision o
pe o m a ce ain beha iou , and he ac ual beha iou . The con-
s uc s o in en ion and beha iou a e c i ical in psychology and
a e equen ly examined in ela ion o one ano he . In en ion
deno es a pe son's conscious decision o pe o m a ce ain be-
ha iou , whe eas beha iou signi ies he ac ual execu ion o
ha beha iou . Despi e a s ong co ela ion be ween he wo, he
ansi ion om in en ion o beha iou is no always linea , and a
my iad o ac o s can in luence his con e sion. This is demon-
s a ed by he TPB (Ajzen1991). A me a- analysis o 185 s udies
by Webb and Shee an(2006) ound ha ba ie s o obs acles may
impede he alignmen o in en ion and beha iou . Addi ionally,
subjec i e no ms, a i udes and pe cei ed beha iou al con ol
can signi ican ly impac he beha iou (Ajzen1991).
2.3 | Job Fi
To accoun o such ac o s and he wo king en i onmen , he job
i scale de eloped by Resick e al.(2007) based upon he wo k o
K is o (1996) and Saks and Ash o h(1997) can be u ilized. Job
i assesses he compa ibili y be ween an indi idual and hei
job. I de e mines i he indi idual's alues and pe sonali y align
wi h he o ganiza ional cul u e, alues and goals (pe son–o ga-
niza ion i o PO- FIT); whe he he indi idual's knowledge and
skills ul il he speci ic job equi emen s (demands–abili ies i
o DA- FIT); and i he job sa is ies he indi idual's needs and ex-
pec a ions, such as sala y, bene i s, au onomy, wo k–li e balance
and ca ee de elopmen oppo uni ies (needs–supplies i o NS-
FIT) (K is o 1996; Resick e al.2007; Saks and Ash o h1997).
O igina ing om a ious esea ch a eas like o ganiza ional
psychology and human esou ce managemen , job i elies
on he co ela ion be ween an indi idual's pe sonali y and
hei wo k en i onmen . This concep was i s in oduced
by Holland (1959) and la e examined by Hackman and
Oldham(1976) who linked job design o employee mo i a ion
and sa is ac ion. Schein (1983) emphasized he impo ance o
aligning employees' alues wi h o ganiza ional cul u e o op i-
mal job i . K is o (1996) enhanced his unde s anding by s ess-
ing he need o ma ch pe sonal compe encies and ai s wi h job
equi emen s o enhanced job sa is ac ion and pe o mance.
Gi en his knowledge, and al hough Niemann e al.(2022) in-
es iga ed how o ganiza ional and indi idual ac o s co po-
a e en ep eneu ship ( i m- le el analyses), i is impe a i e o
examine he ac o s ha enhance he success ul con e sion o
indi idual employees' in en ion o engage in en ep eneu ial ac-
i i ies (IEO) in o ac ual in ap eneu ial beha iou wi hin he
o ganiza ion (EI) o p omo e inno a ion. Howe e , despi e i s
signi icance, his aspec has been la gely o e looked in p e ious
esea ch. The e o e, we sugges explo ing he ela ionship be-
ween employees' IEO and hei in ap eneu ial beha iou scale
while accoun ing o he mode a ing in luence o job i , which
comp ises he dimensions o DA- FIT, PO- FIT and NS- FIT.
743
TABLE 1 | Seminal wo ks and de ini ions o in ap eneu ship.
Au ho (s) & yea Ti le Sou ce
De ini ion o
in ap eneu ship
Con ibu ion
o esea ch
Bu gelman(1983)Co po a e En ep eneu ship and
S a egic Managemen : Insigh s
F om a P ocess S udy
Managemen Science Co po a e en ep eneu ship
as an in e nal p ocess
o inno a ion wi hin
di e si ied i ms
In oduced he
concep o co po a e
en ep eneu ship,
explaining he
p ocess by which
i ms in e nally
c ea e new businesses
Pincho (1985) In ap eneu ing: Why You Do No
Ha e o Lea e he Co po a ion
o Become an En ep eneu
Ha pe & Row Publishe s En ep eneu ial ac i i ies
unde aken by employees
wi hin es ablished i ms
o os e inno a ion
In oduced
he concep o
in ap eneu ship,
emphasizing
employees' ole
in os e ing
inno a ion wi hin
es ablished i ms
MacMillan e al.(1986)Co po a e Ven u ing: Al e na i es,
Obs acles Encoun e ed, and
Expe ience E ec s
Jou nal o Business Ven u ing Co po a e en u ing as
c ea ing new businesses
wi hin he i m
P o ided ea ly
insigh s in o
co po a e en u ing,
highligh ing how
i ms can nu u e
inno a ion in e nally
Sykes(1986) The Ana omy o a Co po a e Ven u ing
P og am: Fac o s In luencing Success
Jou nal o Business Ven u ing New en u e c ea ion
wi hin he i m as pa o
in e nal inno a ion e o s
In es iga ed new
en u e c ea ion
wi hin i ms,
linking i o
s a egic inno a ion
and g ow h
Gu h and Ginsbe g(1990) Gues Edi o s' In oduc ion:
Co po a e En ep eneu ship
S a egic Managemen Jou nal Co po a e en ep eneu ship
as i m- le el s a egic
enewal and inno a ion
De ined co po a e
en ep eneu ship and
discussed i s impac
on s a egic enewal
and inno a ion
(Con inues)

744 C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen , 2025
Au ho (s) & yea Ti le Sou ce
De ini ion o
in ap eneu ship
Con ibu ion
o esea ch
Ku a ko e al.(1990) De eloping an In ap eneu ial Assessmen
Ins umen o an E ec i e Co po a e
En ep eneu ial En i onmen
S a egic Managemen Jou nal Co po a e en ep eneu ship
h ough in ap eneu ial ideas
in ol es he de elopmen
o new business ac i i ies
wi hin exis ing i ms.
Explo ed he
s a e o co po a e
en ep eneu ship and
in ap eneu ial ideas
in i ms, con ibu ing
o heo e ical
de elopmen
Zah a(1991)P edic o s and Financial Ou comes
o Co po a e En ep eneu ship:
An Explo a o y S udy
Jou nal o Business Ven u ing Co po a e en ep eneu ship
con ibu es o s a egic
enewal h ough inno a ion
Analysed he
ela ionship
be ween co po a e
en ep eneu ship and
i m pe o mance,
emphasizing
inancial ou comes
Lumpkin and Dess(1996) Cla i ying he En ep eneu ial O ien a ion
Cons uc and Linking I o Pe o mance
The Academy o Managemen Re iew En ep eneu ial o ien a ion
consis s o inno a i eness,
au onomy, isk- aking,
p oac i eness and
compe i i e agg essi eness
Cla i ica ion o
he concep o
en ep eneu ial
o ien a ion
An oncic and His ich(2003)Cla i ying he In ap eneu ship Concep :
A Mul idimensional F amewo k
Jou nal o Business Ven u ing In ap eneu ship as an
indi idual- le el concep
ocusing on oppo uni y
ecogni ion and inno a ion
P oposed a
mul idimensional
amewo k o
in ap eneu ship,
helping di e en ia e
i om co po a e
en ep eneu ship
Camelo- O daz e al.(2012)The In ap eneu and Inno a ion
in C ea i e Fi ms
In e na ional Small Business Jou nal In ap eneu ship as a
beha iou o employees ha
os e s change, inno a ion and
new p oduc de elopmen
Examined how
indi idual and
o ganiza ional
ac o s in luence
in ap eneu ship,
con ibu ing
o heo e ical
de elopmen
(Con inues)
TABLE 1 | (Con inued)
745
Au ho (s) & yea Ti le Sou ce
De ini ion o
in ap eneu ship
Con ibu ion
o esea ch
Co in and Wales(2012)The Measu emen o
En ep eneu ial O ien a ion
En ep eneu ship Theo y and P ac ice In ap eneu ship is a
mul idimensional concep
ha includes i m- le el and
indi idual- le el inno a ion
Ou lined
en ep eneu ial
o ien a ion as a
i m's s a egic
alignmen owa ds
en ep eneu ial
ac i i ies,
con as ing i wi h
in ap eneu ship
Ku a ko and Aud e sch(2013) Cla i ying he Domains o
Co po a e En ep eneu ship
In e na ional En ep eneu ship
and Managemen Jou nal
In ap eneu ship is
in luenced by indi idual and
o ganiza ional ac o s, shaping
employee- d i en inno a ion.
Discussed he
u u e di ec ions o
en ep eneu ship
esea ch,
inco po a ing
co po a e
en ep eneu ship as
a key a ea o s udy
Blanka(2019) An Indi idual- Le el Pe spec i e
on In ap eneu ship: A Re iew
and Ways Fo wa d
Re iew o Manage ial Science In ap eneu ship is de ined as
an indi idual- le el concep .
Dis inguished
in ap eneu ship
om ela ed
cons uc s, cla i ying
i s indi idual-
le el na u e and
concep ual ambigui y
Gawke e al.(2019) Measu ing In ap eneu ship a
he Indi idual Le el: De elopmen
and Valida ion o he Employee
In ap eneu ship Scale (EIS)
Eu opean Managemen Jou nal Fu u e di ec ions o
en ep eneu ship esea ch
inco po a e in ap eneu ship
as a key elemen .
De eloped
and alida ed
he employee
in ap eneu ship
scale (EIS), p o iding
a beha iou - based
measu emen
app oach
TABLE 1 | (Con inued)
746 C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen , 2025
2.4 | The Rela ionship Be ween IEO and EI
In he li e a u e, he IEO dimensions concep ualized by San os
e al.(2020) including he dimension o isk- aking, p oac i eness,
inno a i eness, passion and pe se e ance a e conside ed o be key
componen s o indi idual en ep eneu ial beha iou . Fo example,
s udies ha e al eady shown ha isk ole ance, he pu sui o inde-
pendence and ecogni ion (Ki by2006; Tie z and Pa ke 2012) and
pe cep ions o unce ain y and isks (Ma ia ena2013; Ma hews
e  al. 2009) impac indi idual in ap eneu ial beha iou .
Mo eo e , ecognizing business oppo uni ies (Ma ia ena2013;
Solymossy and G oss2015; U bano and Tu ó2013) and en ep e-
neu ial sel - e icacy (Douglas and Fi zsimmons2013; Globocnik
and Salomo2015; Johnson and Wu2012), which a e closely ela ed
o p oac i eness, ha e been iden i ied as c i ical de e minan s o
in ap eneu ship. Las ly, he inno a i eness dimension o he IEO
scale consis s o ques ions dealing wi h c ea i i y and explo a ion.
Fo example, Sa ooghi e al.(2015) o Sinha and S i as a a(2013)
showed ha he e is a s ong posi i e ela ionship be ween
c ea i i y and inno a ions, especially a he indi idual le el.
Fu he mo e, people wi h a s onge endency owa ds aking he
ini ia i e a e mo e likely o be in ap eneu s (Amo2010; Rig e ing
and Wei zel2013), which is also e lec ed in he ques ions abou
inno a i eness.
Mo eo e , in he ealm o en ep eneu ship, pe se e ance is ecog-
nized as an essen ial ai o success. Baum and Locke(2004) de-
ine pe se e ance as main aining goal- di ec ed ac ion and ene gy,
e en when con on ed wi h obs acles. They a gue ha his quali y
is indispensable o bo h ini ia ing and unning a success ul en-
ep eneu ial en u e. Ma kman e al.(2005) u he sugges ha
indi idual eac ions o simila ad e si ies can di e signi ican ly,
implying ha he abili y o pe se e e could be a key de e minan o
a new en u e's success. Addi ionally, Ga ewood e al.(1995) ound
ha en ep eneu s wi h s able in e nal easons o es ablishing
hei businesses end o pe sis mo e in hei ac ions, which can
lead o success ul en u e c ea ion. Las ly, Ba on(2000) demon-
s a ed ha en ep eneu s a e less inclined o engage in coun-
e ac ual hinking (‘Wha migh ha e been?’) and expe ience
signi ican ly less eg e o e pas ac ions han nonen ep eneu s.
En ep eneu ial passion, as ou lined in academic li e a u e, is
a collec i e se o in ense posi i e eelings consciously accessi-
ble and expe ienced by indi iduals engaged in en ep eneu ial
ac i i ies. These eelings a e pa icula ly associa ed wi h oles
ha en ep eneu s deem signi ican (Ca don e al.2009) and a e
linked wi h a obus inclina ion owa ds ac i i ies ha indi id-
uals ind enjoyable, signi ican and wo hy o hei ime and en-
e gy (Valle and e al.2003). This in ense posi i e emo ion se es
as a po en mo i a ional o ce, inspi ing en ep eneu s o su -
moun challenges and emain commi ed o hei business en-
dea ou s (Ca don e al.2009). Smilo (1997) e en obse ed ha
passion is equen ly iden i ied as a cen al phenomenon in he
en ep eneu ial p ocess. Smi h e al.(2001) highligh ha pas-
sion has an indi ec posi i e ela ionship wi h business g ow h,
media ed by ac o s like ision, goals, sel - e icacy, compe ence,
mo i a ion and compe i i e s a egy. Fu he mo e, passion has
been linked o b oade ecogni ion and exploi a ion o oppo -
uni ies, he gene a ion o new ideas (Ba on and Wa d 2004;
Shane e al.2003), imp o ed pe o mance (Ho and Pollack2014;
Iyo suun e al.2019) and en ep eneu ial in en ion i sel (De
Cle cq e al.2013). Thus, passion is no only a cen al emo ional
expe ience in en ep eneu ship bu also a d i ing o ce behind
en u e success and g ow h.
In addi ion o he abo e- men ioned connec ions o he com-
ponen s o IEO and en ep eneu ial beha iou , he TPB
(Ajzen1991) and subsequen s udies, also wi hin he ield o en-
ep eneu ship (Engle e al.2010; Kau onen e al.2015), ha e
shown ha a posi i e connec ion be ween in en and beha iou
exis s. Fo example, Kau onen e al.(2015) showed ha business
s a - up in en ions s ongly and posi i ely co ela e wi h ac i i-
ies, ime and money in es ed in s a - up ac i i ies. Conside ing
he a o emen ioned ela ionships, we p opose he ollowing
hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 1. Indi idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion posi-
i ely in luences employee in ap eneu ship.
2.5 | The Rela ionship Be ween Job Fi and EI
Mo eo e , we an icipa e ha besides an indi idual's endency
owa ds EO, he job i o an employee also in luences hei in-
ap eneu ial beha iou . This assump ion can be based on a -
ious indings wi hin he li e a u e. Fo example, Hackman and
Oldham(1976) highligh ed ha wo kplace cha ac e is ics and
job design signi ican ly impac employee mo i a ion and sa is-
ac ion. This inding has ecei ed consis en suppo o se e al
subsequen s udies (K is o  1996; Peng and Mao 2015; Wang
e al.2020; Wa and Inceoglu2012). In eg a ed wi h insigh s
om he in ap eneu ship li e a u e, pa icula ly ega ding ac-
o s ha s imula e in ap eneu ial beha iou , i is obse ed ha
mo i a ed and sa is ied employees a e mo e inclined o engage
in in ap eneu ial ac ions (Aue An oncic and An oncic2011;
Bae 2012; Bammens e al.2013, 2015; Zhang and Ba ol2010).
Addi ionally, he li e a u e e eals nume ous s udies ha sc u-
inize how speci ic job cha ac e is ics—pe aining o ce ain
job i subdimensions—di ec ly a ec in ap eneu ship. Fo in-
s ance, se e al s udies ha e explo ed he ela ionship be ween
pe sonal alues, o ganiza ional cul u e and in ap eneu ship.
Sinha and S i as a a (2013) in es iga ed how he compa ibil-
i y be ween o ganiza ional and indi idual alues d i es in a-
p eneu ship, concluding ha aligning o ganiza ional alues
wi h employee alues enhances in ap eneu ship. Simila ly,
Chandle and K ajcsák(2021) examined how he o ganiza ional
cul u e a ec s in ap eneu ship and ound ha speci ic o gani-
za ional cul u e ypes e ilize in ap eneu ial beha iou among
employees. These indings sugges ha a s ong PO- FIT os e s
in ap eneu ial beha iou among employees.
Fu he mo e, U bano e al.(2013) examined he impac o in-
di idual capabili ies on in ap eneu ship. They showed, o ex-
ample, ha en ep eneu ial compe ences such as being able o
ecognize oppo uni ies o o design he en i onmen so ha op-
po uni ies occu (Ensley e al.2000) and ha ing he con idence
o decide whe he o exploi such oppo uni ies o no (Da and
Weick1984) os e in ap eneu ship. Howe e , hey also a gue
ha such en ep eneu ial compe ences canno be un olded
when he job equi es o plan o o con ol as main ask, bu
a he i he job p o ides a ce ain deg ee o au onomy (U bano
747
e al.2013). The e o e, i can be an icipa ed ha a i be ween an
indi idual's abili ies and he equi emen s o he job (DA- FIT)
has a posi i e e ec on EI.
In pa allel, nume ous s udies ha e assessed he e ec o a i-
ous o ganiza ional de e minan s such as manage ial suppo ,
ewa ds and esou ce p o ision and job sa is ac ion on in-
ap eneu ship and en ep eneu ial in en ion (Li e  al. 2022;
Neessen e al. 2019; Opland e al. 2022). These de e minan s
align wi h he job i subdimension o NS- FIT. Fo ins ance,
manage ial suppo (Chouchane and S - Jean2022; DiLiello and
Hough on2006; Ho nsby e al.2002, 2009; Ku a ko e al.1990;
U ban and Wood2015) and us (Rig e ing and Wei zel2013)
has been iden i ied as a c ucial an eceden o in ap eneu ial be-
ha iou among employees. Addi ionally, ewa ds such as mon-
e a y incen i es o p omo ions (Ku a ko and Mon agno1989;
U ban and Nikolo  2014) and esou ce p o ision like inan-
cial suppo and a ailabili y o ime and esou ces (Alpkan
e al.2010; B inkhu s e al.2011; Ma el e al.2007; Puech and
Du and2017) ha e been ound o posi i ely in luence in ap e-
neu ship. Conside ing he indings o he ela ionship be ween
o ganiza ional ac o s and in ap eneu ship, i is easonable o
p opose ha a s ong NS- FIT posi i ely in luences EI.
Howe e , despi e indica ions o a posi i e ela ionship be ween
ce ain job i subdimensions and in ap eneu ship, no s udy o
da e has examined he associa ion be ween job i cons uc and
EI. This esea ch gap has led us o hypo hesize ha
Hypo hesis 2. Job i posi i ely in luences employee
in ap eneu ship.
2.6 | The Rela ionship Be ween Job Fi , IEO and EI
We p opose wo hypo heses sugges ing ha bo h an indi idual's
EO and he o ganiza ional en i onmen independen ly in lu-
ence EI. Ye , conside ing he in e ac ionis pe spec i e (Oldham
and Cummings1996; Woodman e al.1993), he impac o em-
ployees' beha iou s on he o ganiza ion is a he a complex
in e play be ween he indi idual's pe sonali y and he o gani-
za ional con ex .
Fo ins ance, c ea i i y, de ined as egula gene a ion o ideas
(Ande son e al.2014) and closely connec ed o in ap eneu ship,
shows ha employees wi h high c ea i e endencies exhibi en-
hanced c ea i i y when he o ganiza ional con ex p o ides mo-
i a ional and sense- making ac o s (Amabile1983; Fo d1996).
Howe e , ou ine asks, lack o suppo , nega i e leade -
ship and incompe en colleagues can hinde hei c ea i i y
(Choi e  al. 2009). Chang and Teng (2017) disco e ed ha a
p e en ion- ocused o ganiza ional en i onmen , which empha-
sizes sa e y and esponsibili y (Higgins1997, 1998; Higgins and
Silbe man1998), encou ages c ea i ely inclined indi iduals o
apply hei c ea i i y o hei job, he eby inc easing hei o ga-
niza ional alue. Simila pa e ns can be obse ed in esea ch
on in insic mo i a ion. Fo example, Joo and Lim(2009) ound
ha o ganiza ional lea ning and pe cei ed job complexi y en-
hanced he in insic mo i a ion o employees. They epo ed
ha in insically mo i a ed employees become e en mo e mo-
i a ed when job complexi y is high, which, in u n, inc eases
hei p oac i i y (Joo and Lim2009).
F om he pe spec i e o in ap eneu ship esea ch, Badoiu
e al.(2020) examined how op managemen suppo , wo k dis-
c e ion, ewa ds, ime a ailabili y and o ganiza ional bound-
a ies a ec in ap eneu s and he in ap eneu ial beha iou
wi hin a new echnology- based i m. Thei indings e eal ha
employees al eady engaged in in ap eneu ial ac ions become
mo e in ap eneu ial in inno a ion- ocused and suppo i e
managemen se ings, wi h au onomy in decision- making and a
mo i a ing ewa d sys em (Badoiu e al.2020).
Conside ing he in e ac ionis pe spec i e (Oldham and
Cummings1996; Woodman e  al.1993) and indings on c e-
a i i y (Amabile1983; Chang and Teng2017; Fo d1996; Choi
e al.2009), in insic mo i a ion (Joo and Lim2009) and in a-
p eneu ship (Badoiu e al.2020), i becomes clea ha job- ela ed
con ex ual ac o s mode a e indi idual in insic endencies and
beha iou s. Consequen ly, we p opose ha job i mode a es he
ela ionship be ween IEO and EI, such ha highe job i en-
hances EI beha iou , whe eas lowe job i diminishes i :
Hypo hesis 3. Job i posi i ely mode a es he ela ionship
be ween indi idual en ep eneu ial o ien a ion and employee
in ap eneu ship.
Ou h ee de eloped hypo heses and he ela ionships be ween
he heo e ical concep s used in his s udy a e displayed in
Figu e1.
3 | Me hodology and Da a
3.1 | Resea ch Design
To examine he ela ionship be ween IEO, job i and EI by
es ing ou hypo heses, we employed mul iple o dina y leas
squa es (OLS) eg ession analysis in a su ey conduc ed among
employees o SMEs in Ge many in 2021. We selec ed Ge many
FIGURE 1 | Hypo hesis. [Colou igu e can be iewed a wileyonlinelib a y.com]
754 C ea i i y and Inno a ion Managemen , 2025
Liñán2014). Wi hou such alignmen , he mo i a ion o pu sue
in ap eneu ial ini ia i es may diminish. Finally, a good job i
o en g an s a highe deg ee o au onomy and empowe men , al-
lowing employees o ake ini ia i e and explo e new oppo uni ies
wi hin hei oles (Ku a ko and Mon agno1989). This au onomy
suppo s en ep eneu ial employees in na iga ing hei job con-
ex e ec i ely and implemen ing inno a i e ideas (DiLiello and
Hough on2006).
5.1 | Theo e ical Implica ions
Ou manusc ip en iches he academic discou se in se -
e al ways. Fi s ly, we enhance he domain o en ep eneu -
ship s udies by emphasizing he signi icance o indi idual
componen s in d i ing employees' in ap eneu ial conduc .
His o ically, in es iga ions ha e p ima ily concen a ed on
pe sonal de e minan s such as demog aphic p o ile (Camelo-
O daz e al.2012; U bano and Tu ó2013), indi idual a i-
bu es (Rig e ing and Wei zel2013; Sinha and S i as a a2013;
Williamson e al.2013) o ce ain in e nal o ganiza ional ele-
men s such as co po a e s uc u e (Boucha d and Basso2011),
leade ship suppo (Menzel e al.2007) and company cul u e
(Hagedo n and Jamieson2014). Ou wo k b idges en ep e-
neu ial in en ion wi h in ap eneu ial beha iou , demons a -
ing ha indi idual psychological aspec s conside ably a ec
employee ac i i ies wi hin an o ganiza ion. We e eal ha
in en ion is a mo e po en p edic o o in ap eneu ial con-
duc han job i , wi h no signi ican co ela ion iden i ied be-
ween he con ex o he job and en ep eneu ial beha iou .
Consequen ly, he dis inc indi iduali y o employees should
no be o e looked in esea ch aimed a p omo ing in ap e-
neu ial ini ia i es wi hin co po a ions. We, he e o e, align
wi h Blanka's(2019) sugges ion o esea ch o place g ea e
emphasis on he indi idual le el when examining in ap e-
neu ship and i s mo i a o s.
Secondly, ou wo k adds o he g owing li e a u e employing he
TPB in an en ep eneu ial con ex . Un il now, TPB has p ima ily
been u ilized in ela ion o en ep eneu s ini ia ing o expand-
ing hei own en e p ises (Lo ie and Cas ogio anni2015). Ou
in es iga ion demons a es ha TPB is also ins umen al in p e-
dic ing in ap eneu ial ac i i ies o employees in exis ing i ms,
hus c ea ing new a enues o iden i ying p ospec i e in ap e-
neu s wi hin es ablished o ganiza ions and d i ing inno a ion.
Las ly, we assis in he de elopmen and alida ion o mul iple
scales. As pe San os e al.(2020), hei scale ca ies ce ain lim-
i a ions, some o which ou s udy add essed. We ha e alida ed
he scale in a dis inc geog aphical and cul u al en i onmen
(Po ugal s. Ge many), encompassing all indus y sec o s, and
ha e expanded i s ep esen a i eness by inco po a ing a da ase
o 649 cases. We conduc ed and applied a con i ma o y ac o
analysis and only elimina ed a single a iable, as opposed o he
se en a iables omi ed by San os e al.(2020). We also alida e he
ele ance o en ep eneu ial pe se e ance and passion, which a e
ela i ely new inclusions in he IEO scale. Consequen ly, we ha e
app o ed he obus ness o he p oposed cons uc , endo sing i s
con inued applica ion in de e mining IEO. Fu he mo e, we also
bols e he in eg i y o he EIS de eloped by Gawke e al.(2017), by
alida ing i wi hin a di e en na ional and cul u al con ex .
5.2 | P ac ical Implica ions
The p ac ical implica ions o ou esea ch a e mani old and o
di ec ele ance o SMEs aiming o ap in o he in ap eneu ial
capaci ies o hei employees. Fi s ly, SMEs should p oac i ely
iden i y employees who demons a e a s ong inclina ion owa ds
en ep eneu ship by implemen ing a s uc u ed iden i ica ion p o-
cess, including egula assessmen s and eedback sessions o high-
ligh inno a i e con ibu ions and isk- aking beha iou s. Du ing
ec ui men , in eg a ing he IEO scale wi hin job in e iews can
help pinpoin candida es likely o become aluable in ap eneu s.
Secondly, SMEs should design he job con ex o i indi idual pe -
sonali ies, aligning job equi emen s wi h compe encies and p o-
iding necessa y esou ces. Managemen should ensu e ha oles
and esponsibili ies align wi h employees' compe encies and pe -
sonal alues, o e ing lexible job oles and egula ly e iewing job
desc ip ions. Speci ic aining p og ams, such as inno a ion boo -
camps, en ep eneu ial mindse aining and p ojec managemen
and leade ship cou ses, can enhance in ap eneu ial skills.
Policy ini ia i es like in ap eneu ship g an p og ams, a ‘Time
o Inno a ion’ policy allowing employees o dedica e a po -
ion o hei wo k ime o pe sonal p ojec s, and ecogni ion
and ewa d sys ems o inno a i e ideas can u he os e in-
ap eneu ial beha iou . C ea ing a suppo i e o ganiza ional
cul u e by p omo ing open communica ion, encou aging expe -
imen a ion and ewa ding inno a ion is essen ial. Es ablishing
‘inno a ion days’ and p o iding esou ces o in ap eneu ial
ac i i ies can bols e his cul u e.
Fu he mo e, ensu ing alignmen be ween he company's al-
ues and hose o i s employees h ough pe iodic su eys and
onboa ding p og ams can help os e in ap eneu ial beha iou .
Ma ching job demands wi h he unique capabili ies o en e-
p eneu ially inclined employees h ough skills assessmen s
and ailo ed job esponsibili ies is also pa amoun . Con inuous
p o essional de elopmen p og ams, o e ing access o online
cou ses, indus y con e ences and in e nal knowledge- sha ing
sessions, can enhance employees' skills and mo i a e hem o
le e age hei po en ial ully.
In conclusion, SMEs aiming o augmen hei in ap eneu ial ca-
paci y should s a egically ec ui pe sonnel wi h en ep eneu -
ial inclina ions, ensu e alue cong uence be ween employees
and he o ganiza ion and ma ch job complexi y wi h indi idual
abili ies. By implemen ing hese s uc u ed p ocesses, a ge ed
aining p og ams, suppo i e o ganiza ional p ac ices, alue
alignmen ini ia i es and ailo ed job oles, SMEs can signi i-
can ly boos in ap eneu ial beha iou and consequen ly am-
pli y i m- le el inno a ion ou pu s.
5.3 | Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
Ou s udy acknowledges se e al limi a ions. Fi s ly, despi e
eaching ou o o e 30,000 i ms, ou sample exhibi s geog aph-
ical and cul u al limi a ions as we solely collec ed da a om
Ge man SMEs. Ex ending he scope o ou s udy o an in e na-
ional con ex could po en ially en ich he indings and u he
p opel esea ch in he domain by in es iga ing he in luence o

755
IEO and job i in a ious egions. Fu he mo e, because o he
ocus on Ge man SMEs, he in luence o cul u al ac o s was no
e alua ed. Gi en he po en ial a ia ions in EO and job i ac oss
di e en cul u es, u u e esea ch could in es iga e c oss-
cul u al compa isons. Secondly, ou s udy is inhe en ly biased
owa ds SMEs, o en cons ained by esou ce sca ci y. The ield
o in ap eneu ship, howe e , sugges s ha ce ain esou ces
such as ime, money and acili ies play a pi o al ole in os e -
ing in ap eneu ial ac i i ies. As such, an examina ion o he
ela ionship be ween IEO, job i and EI wi hin a b oade co po-
a e con ex may yield in iguing and aluable insigh s, he eby
con ibu ing o s a egies aimed a p omo ing EI. Thi dly, ou
s udy was based p ima ily on quan i a i e da a. Fu u e esea ch
could inco po a e quali a i e me hods, such as in e iews o
case s udies, o gain a deepe , mo e nuanced unde s anding o
he ela ionship be ween IEO, job i and EI. This could p o ide
aluable con ex and complemen he indings o quan i a i e
s udies. Las ly, he e may be o he ac o s no examined in his
s udy ha could in luence he ela ionship be ween IEO, job i
and EI. Fu u e esea ch could conside po en ial mode a ing
o media ing a iables, such as leade ship s yle, o ganiza ional
cul u e o economic clima e. We in i e esea che s seeking o
add ess hese limi a ions in he u u e, hus b oadening ou un-
de s anding o he opic.
6 | Conclusion
This s udy in es iga ed he ela ionship be ween IEO, job i and EI
h ough a eg ession analysis wi h mode a ion e ec s using a sam-
ple o 649 employees om SMEs. The esul s unde sco e a signi -
ican posi i e e ec o IEO on EI. This ou come suppo s he TPB,
which asse s ha in en ions a e pi o al in moulding beha iou .
Fu he mo e, i could be shown ha job i has no signi ican im-
pac on EI, implying ha con ex i sel does no a ec en ep e-
neu ial beha iou . Howe e , he job i dimensions o PO- FIT
and DA- FIT enhance he posi i e ela ionship be ween IEO and
EI. This endo ses he in e ac ion pe spec i e ha posi s employee
beha iou as a complex syne gy o indi idual in insic endencies
and in en ions, and he job- ela ed con ex s. Beyond i s heo e ical
implica ions, his s udy also p o ides p omising implica ions o
manage ial p ac ice by shedding ligh on po en ial app oaches o
os e EI, he eby pa ing he way o inno a ion in SMEs.
Acknowledgemen s
Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek DEAL.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable on eques
om he co esponding au ho . The da a a e no publicly a ailable due
o p i acy o e hical es ic ions.
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