A study of the employment and earnings outcomes of secondgeneration migrants

Das, U so ee; Della e e a, Giulia; Ananian, Se ane
Wo king Pape
A s udy o he employmen and ea nings ou comes o
secondgene a ion mig an s
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 141
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Das, U so ee; Della e e a, Giulia; Ananian, Se ane (2025) : A s udy o he
employmen and ea nings ou comes o secondgene a ion mig an s, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 141,
ISBN 978-92-2-042172-7, In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/MTEQ0041
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XA s udy o he employmen and
ea nings ou comes o second-
gene a ion mig an s
Au ho s / U so ee Das, Giulia Della e e a, Se ane Ananian
May / 2025
ILO Wo king Pape 141
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MTEQ0041
01 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Abs ac
This s udy examines he labou ma ke ou comes o second-gene a ion mig an s in 32 coun ies
(30 Eu opean coun ies, Aus alia and he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica). D awing on da a om labou
o ce su eys and o he household su eys con ained in he ILO Mic oda a Reposi o y, i ocuses
on labou o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen , s a us in employmen , wages and sel -employmen
income. The esul s o he analysis e eal di e ences be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and
o he people bo n in he same coun y once he speci ic composi ion o ha popula ion g oup
in e ms o age and educa ional a ainmen is aken in o accoun . Second-gene a ion mig an s
gene ally exhibi lowe labou ma ke pa icipa ion and highe unemploymen a es, and hey
appea mo e likely o be employees han sel -employed in se e al o he coun ies s udied. Wi h
ega d o ea nings, on a e age ac oss he coun ies s udied, a small wage gap is obse ed be-
ween second-gene a ion mig an wo ke s and he es o na i e-bo n wo ke s, wi h wage p e-
miums exis ing only in a ew coun ies. The inal chap e discusses ele an legal amewo ks
dealing wi h non-disc imina ion and employmen ha a ec second-gene a ion mig an s.
Abou he au ho s
U so ee Das is a PhD candida e a he Ins i u e o Economics and Econome ics, Uni e si y o
Gene a. She is a esea che in applied mic oeconomics. He wo k ocuses on en i onmen al and
esou ce economics, clima e shocks, mig a ion, de elopmen , poli ical economy, and sus aina-
bili y and ans o ma i e change.
Giulia Della e e a wo ks o he p omo ion o domes ic wo ke s’ igh s in Tanzania wi h CVM,
a e ha ing analysed wo k- ela ed inequali ies a ILO Resea ch Depa men . P e iously, she
wo ked a UNHCR, ICRC and Genocide Wa ch. She is specialised in human igh s and in e na-
ional humani a ian law.
Se ane Ananian is an economis in he Resea ch Depa men o he In e na ional Labou
O ganiza ion (ILO), whe e he has wo ked since Sep embe 2021. His wo k ocuses on wages
and wo king condi ions, inequali y, and he ansi ion o a g een economy.

02 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
XIn oduc ion 07
X1 Li e a u e e iew 09
X2 Da a and me hodology 13
2.1. De ining second-gene a ion mig an s 13
2.2. A sample o household su eys om 32 coun ies 14
X3 Desc ip i e s a is ics 16
X4 Employmen o second-gene a ion mig an s 19
4.1. A me hodology o analysing he di e ences in employmen ou comes be ween sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s and o he na i e bo n people 19
4.2. Employmen ou comes o second-gene a ion mig an s 21
On a e age ac oss coun ies, second-gene a ion mig an s a e less likely o pa icipa e in he
labou o ce and mo e likely o be unemployed 21
Second-gene a ion mig an s end o wo k as employees 25
X5 Ea nings o second-gene a ion mig an s 27
5.1. A me hodology o analysing he di e ences in ea nings ou comes be ween sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s and o he na i e-bo n people 27
5.2. Wages o second-gene a ion mig an s 29
5.3. Sel -employmen income o second-gene a ion mig an s 31
X6 Legal amewo ks shaping he labou ma ke expe ience o second-gen-
e a ion mig an s 33
6.1. In e na ional legal s anda ds ensu ing equal employmen oppo uni ies and ea men 33
In e na ional labou s anda ds dealing wi h non-disc imina ion and equal ea men 35
The supe iso y p ac ice o he Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and
Recommenda ions 36
6.2. Na ional p ac ices ega ding non-disc imina ion and equal ea men o second-gene a-
ion mig an s 38
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XConclusion 43
Annex 44
Figu es 44
Tables 49
Re e ences 57
Acknowledgemen s 65
04 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 3.1. Sha e o second-gene a ion mig an s in he wo king-age popula ion in each o
he sampled coun ies 16
Figu e 3.2. Age composi ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s and he es o he
na i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion, by sex (pe cen age) 17
Figu e 3.3. Dis ibu ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s and he es o he na-
i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion by educa ion le el and sex (pe cen age) 17
Figu e 3.4. Dis ibu ion o second-gene a ion mig an wo ke s and o he na i e-bo n wo k-
e s in employmen by occupa ional ca ego y and sex (pe cen age) 18
Figu e A1. Sha e o second-gene a ion mig an s (based on al e na i e de ini ion) in he
wo king-age popula ion in each o he sampled coun ies 44
Figu e A2. Age composi ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s (based on al e na-
i e de ini ion) and he es o he na i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion, by sex (pe cen age) 45
Figu e A3. Dis ibu ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s (based on al e na i e
de ini ion) and he es o he na i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion by educa ion le el
and sex (pe cen age) 45
Figu e A4. Dis ibu ion o second-gene a ion mig an wo ke s (based on al e na i e de ini-
ion) and o he na i e-bo n wo ke s in employmen by occupa ional ca ego y and sex
(pe cen age) 46
Figu e A5. Ea nings dis ibu ion (based on hou ly wages) o second-gene a ion mig an
wage employees, by egion o coun y (pe cen age) 46
Figu e A6. Ea nings dis ibu ion (based on mon hly sel -employmen income) o sel -em-
ployed second-gene a ion mig an s, by egion o coun y (pe cen age) 47
Figu e A7. A e age numbe o weekly hou s wo ked by second-gene a ion mig an s who a e
wage employees e sus o he na i e bo n wage employees, by sex and coun y 48
05 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Lis o Tables
Table 4.1. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on he p obabili y o labou o ce pa -
icipa ion, unemploymen and wage employmen , by coun y (pe cen age poin s) 23
Table 5.1. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on hou ly wages (pe cen age) 30
Table 5.2. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on mon hly sel -employmen income
(pe cen age) 31
Table A1. Na ional da a sou ces used o analyse he employmen and ea nings ou comes o
second-gene a ion mig an s 49
Table A2. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an (based on al e na i e de ini ion) on
he p obabili y o labou o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen and wage employmen , by
coun y (pe cen age poin s) 50
Table A3. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on mon hly wages (pe cen age) 52
Table A4. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an (based on al e na i e de ini ion) on
hou ly wages (pe cen age) 53
Table A5. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an (based on al e na i e de ini ion) on
mon hly wages (pe cen age) 54
Table A6. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an (based on al e na i e de ini ion) on
mon hly sel -employmen income (pe cen age) 55
12 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Finally, he e is a di e gence be ween public pe cep ions and he ac ual ex en o economic and
social in eg a ion o mig an s. The gene al public end o hold nega i e iews abou he in eg a-
ion le el o mig an s ha a e no bo ne ou by s a is ics, especially when i comes o employ-
men , c ime a es and social assimila ion (Fe ig and Schmid 2001). On he o he hand, mo e
immig a ion- es ic i e policies can lead o educed assimila ion o second-gene a ion mig an s
by ein o cing cul u al iden i ies ha a e dis inc om mains eam socie y (Galli and Russo 2019).

13 ILO Wo king Pape 141
X2 Da a and me hodology
2.1. De ining second-gene a ion mig an s
The e is no uni e sally accep ed de ini ion o second-gene a ion mig an s. Howe e , he mos
common de ini ions a e hose widely used by o ganiza ions such as Eu os a and he OECD. As
de ined in he Eu opean Mig a ion Ne wo k’s Asylum and Mig a ion Glossa y, a second-gene -
a ion mig an is “a pe son who was bo n in and is esiding in a coun y ha a leas one o hei
pa en s p e iously en e ed as a mig an ”.
4
Pu sligh ly di e en ly, second-gene a ion mig an s a e
pe sons who a e na i e-bo n and who ei he ha e one o eign-bo n pa en and one na i e-bo n
pa en o ha e wo o eign-bo n pa en s (Eu os a 2011; Falcke, Meng and Nollen 2020). Wi hin
he amewo k o i s P og amme o In e na ional S uden Assessmen (PISA), he OECD (2023)
de ines a “second-gene a ion immig an s uden ” as a child bo n in he coun y o assessmen
wi h a leas one pa en bo n ou side ha coun y.
In a s udy dealing wi h Swi ze land, Ruspini (2010) poin s ou ha he no ion o “second-gene a-
ion mig an s” was i s in oduced in o Swiss poli ical discou se in he 1980s ollowing a epo
by he Fede al Commission o Fo eigne s ha s a ed: “The ‘second gene a ion o o eigne s’
shall be unde s ood o mean child en bo n in Swi ze land o o eign pa en s who came he e as
immig an s, and also child en who en e ed Swi ze land o he pu poses o amily euni ica ion,
inso a as hey ha e comple ed he g ea e pa o hei schooling in ou coun y.”5
Fo he pu poses o s a is ical iden i ica ion, wo de ini ions o “second-gene a ion mig an ” a e
used in his pape . Acco ding o he i s , an indi idual is conside ed a second-gene a ion mi-
g an i hei coun y o bi h ma ches he hos coun y, bu hei mo he ’s coun y o bi h is
di e en om he hos coun y. This is used as ou main speci ica ion in he a ious analyses,
and he co esponding esul s a e p esen ed in he main ex . The decision o ocus p ima ily on
ma e nal coun y o bi h is guided by he ac ha a mo he ’s iden i ica ion wi h he hos coun-
y was ound o signi ican ly in luence some o he li e ou comes o he child en, in pa icula
hose ela ed o educa ional a ainmen and e en ea nings (Schülle 2015; Ramak ishnan 2004).
The obus ness o he es ima es ob ained was checked by using a second de ini ion ha applies
he same c i e ion o he a he ’s coun y o bi h. The co esponding esul s, p esen ed in he
appendix, a e consis en wi h hose based on he de ini ion using he mo he ’s coun y o bi h.
In he quan i a i e analysis p esen ed in Chap e s 4 and 5, second-gene a ion mig an s a e com-
pa ed wi h he es o he popula ion bo n in he same coun y. This makes i easie o assess
he ela i e si ua ion o second-gene a ion mig an s, as people bo n ab oad a e likely o ha e
encoun e ed e y di e en expe iences and challenges in e ms o labou ma ke in eg a ion.
In addi ion o ha ing o o e come he legal hu dles associa ed wi h se ling in he coun y o
des ina ion, many o hose bo n ab oad may ha e ecei ed pa o hei educa ion in educa ion
4The Asylum and Mig a ion Glossa y includes he ollowing no e: “This e m is no de ined in legisla ion bu has a mo e sociological
con ex ; a b oad de ini ion encompassing he concep o a ‘second-gene a ion mig an ’ has been used.”
5Swi ze land, Fede al Commission o Fo eigne s, Les jeunes é ange s. La deuxième géné a ion. P oblèmes e solu ions possibles, 1980.
T ansla ed om he F ench o iginal quo ed in Ruspini (2010, 2): “Pa deuxième géné a ion d’é ange s, il au en end e les en an s
nés en Suisse de pa en s é ange s ayan immig é, de même que les en an s en és en Suisse dans le cad e du eg oupemen amil-
ial, dans la mesu e où ils on accompli dans no e pays la plus pa ie de leu scola i é.”
14 ILO Wo king Pape 141
sys ems ha a e di e en om hose in hei coun y o des ina ion, which gi es ise o u he
obs acles ( o example, wi h ega d o he ecogni ion o quali ica ions).
2.2. A sample o household su eys om 32 coun ies
Employing he c i e ia desc ibed in he p e ious sec ion, we iden i ied second-gene a ion mi-
g an s om 32 coun ies using da a om labou o ce su eys and o he household su eys
con ained in he ILO Mic oda a Reposi o y,6 which co e s mo e han 160 coun ies. The su eys
selec ed include in o ma ion on he employmen s a us and ea nings o household membe s,
in addi ion o he coun y o bi h o indi iduals and hei pa en s. Wi h ega d o job cha ac-
e is ics and ea nings, he es ima es epo ed in his pape a e o he main jobs o indi iduals.
Gi en ha second-gene a ion mig an s a e likely o also wo k pa - ime,7 he analysis ocuses
on g oss hou ly wages as well as mon hly wages in o de o elimina e a ia ion in ea nings due
o di e ences in wo king ime.
Ou inal wo king da abase comp ises 32 coun ies, d awn om di e en egions o he wo ld,
hough mos o hem a e de eloped and high-income coun ies. The e a e 30 Eu opean coun-
ies,
8
along wi h Aus alia and he Uni ed S a es, in he da abase. Among he coun ies included,
27 a e OECD membe coun ies, 3 a e OECD accession candida e coun ies and 2 a e non-OECD
coun ies.9 O e all, ou analysis co e s six non-membe s o he Eu opean Union. Table A1 in he
appendix p o ides a de ailed b eakdown o he coun ies selec ed and he co esponding su -
ey yea s.
The analysis o wages and income om sel -employmen is es ic ed o coun ies wi h su eys
ha include he ea nings o wo ke s and ea u e a su icien numbe o esponden s (speci ical-
ly wage employees and he sel -employed) who a e second-gene a ion mig an s o allow hese
dimensions o be s udied p ope ly.
When a e ages a e es ima ed o he whole sample, o by coun y income g oup, each coun y
is weigh ed equally. This makes i possible o ocus on he ole o na ional ins i u ions and poli-
cies. Weigh ing each coun y by i s wo king popula ion would ha e caused he esul s o be d i -
en mainly by he mo e populous coun ies.
In iew o ce ain sho - e m dis up ions linked o he COVID-19 pandemic, su eys conduc ed
in 2020 we e no conside ed o a oid possible disc epancies in da a collec ion p ocesses. Du ing
ha pe iod, many na ional s a is ical o ices adap ed hei me hods o con o m o he social dis-
ancing measu es implemen ed in hei coun ies. Acco dingly, mos o he su eys selec ed a e
om 2022 (28 coun ies), wi h only a ew om 2021 (3 coun ies) and 2023 (1 coun y).
Finally, i is wo h no ing ha he coun ies in he sample apply a ious policies based on ei he
jus soli (bi h igh ci izenship) o jus sanguinis (ci izenship by descen ). The di e en app oach-
es adop ed wi h ega d o hese wo p inciples may in luence he labou ma ke in eg a ion o
6Fo mo e in o ma ion, see he ILOSTAT websi e, h ps://ilos a .ilo.o g/abou /da a-collec ion-and-p oduc ion/.
7Fe nández-Reino, Radl and Ramos (2018) examine he deg ee o unde u iliza ion o human capi al among i s - and second-gene -
a ion mig an s in Spain by measu ing, in e alia, he incidence o in olun a y pa - ime employmen .
8
The ela i ely high co e age o Eu opean coun ies is possible hanks o he use o da a om he Eu opean Union S a is ics on Income
and Li ing Condi ions (EU-SILC) su ey, made a ailable by Eu os a , which co e s 28 coun ies in he sample (26 Membe S a es o
he Eu opean Union and 2 non-membe s).
9See he OECD web page on membe coun ies and pa ne s o u he in o ma ion: h ps://www.oecd.o g/en/abou /membe s-
pa ne s.h ml.
15 ILO Wo king Pape 141
second-gene a ion mig an s – in pa icula , h ough he impac ha ci izenship has on social in-
eg a ion and on access o employmen ( o example, some coun ies es ic access o public
employmen o na ional ci izens). In Eu ope, he p inciple o jus sanguinis is b oadly implemen ed.
Re iewing ci izenship policies in se e al Eu opean coun ies, Bauböck e al. (2013) ound ha jus
sanguinis ci izenship was a ailable in each coun y su eyed and was he main channel o acqui -
ing ci izenship. In con as , he au ho s obse ed signi ican di e ences in he applica ion o jus
soli ac oss Eu ope. Coun ies such as Belgium, F ance, Ge many, G eece, I eland, Luxembou g,
he Ne he lands, Po ugal and Spain we e ound o p o ide jus soli ci izenship ei he a bi h o
a e bi h o hose bo n on hei e i o y, while a he o he end o he spec um, Iceland, La ia,
Li huania, Mon eneg o, No h Macedonia, he Republic o Moldo a, Sweden and Tü kiye we e
ound o ha e no jus soli p o isions apa om hose o oundlings and s a eless child en. The
si ua ion in Eu ope s ands in s a k con as wi h ha in No h Ame ica, whe e Canada and he
Uni ed S a es o e ci izenship o all child en bo n on hei e i o y. In Aus alia, jus solis was he
p e ailing p inciple un il 1986, when amendmen s we e in oduced o quali y he acquisi ion o
bi h igh ci izenship (Thway es 2017).
16 ILO Wo king Pape 141
X3 Desc ip i e s a is ics
Ac oss he sampled coun ies, he a e age sha e o second-gene a ion mig an s in he wo k-
ing-age popula ion is 8.2 pe cen (8.5 pe cen when applying ou second wo king de ini ion om
sec ion 2.1, which uses pa e nal a he han ma e nal coun y o bi h), wi h sex-disagg ega ed
alues o 8.5 pe cen o men and 8.0 pe cen o women. Howe e , as can be seen om an “in-
ensi y map” showing he sha e o second-gene a ion mig an s in he wo king-age popula ion
in each coun y s udied ( igu e 3.1), he e a e no able di e ences be ween coun ies. Applying
he second wo king de ini ion gi es simila esul s (see igu e A1 in he appendix).
XFigu e 3.1. Sha e o second-gene a ion mig an s in he wo king-age popula ion in each o he sampled
coun ies
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
Figu e 3.2 compa es he age composi ion o second-gene a ion male and emale mig an s ac oss
all coun ies in he sample wi h ha o he es o he na i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion. As
can be seen, young people ( hose aged be ween 15 and 24 yea s) accoun o a la ge p opo -
ion o he popula ion g oup o second-gene a ion mig an s han o he es o he wo king-age
popula ion bo n in he same coun y.
Simila ly, igu e 3.3 compa es he dis ibu ion o second-gene a ion male and emale mig an s
by educa ion le el wi h ha o o he na i e-bo n people o wo king age. As can be seen, sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s end o exhibi lowe educa ional a ainmen han he es o he na-
i e-bo n popula ion. In pa icula , a la ge sha e o he second-gene a ion mig an popula ion
has a basic educa ion only.
17 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Figu es A2 and A3 in he appendix p esen he same compa isons using ou second wo king
de ini ion o “second-gene a ion mig an ”.
XFigu e 3.2. Age composi ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s and he es o he na i e-bo n
wo king-age popula ion, by sex (pe cen age)
No e: The alues epo ed a e a e ages o he 32 coun ies in he sample.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
XFigu e 3.3. Dis ibu ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s and he es o he na i e-bo n wo k-
ing-age popula ion by educa ion le el and sex (pe cen age)
No e: The alues epo ed a e a e ages o he 32 coun ies in he sample.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
Las ly, igu e 3.4 compa es he dis ibu ion o second-gene a ion male and emale mig an s by
occupa ional ca ego y wi h ha o o he na i e-bo n people o wo king age. On a e age ac oss
he coun ies s udied, he e is a highe sha e o cle ical, se ice and sales wo ke s among sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s han among he es o na i e-bo n wo ke s. Manage s, p o ession-
als and echnicians also appea o be sligh ly o e - ep esen ed among second-gene a ion male
mig an s. The es ima es ob ained using he de ini ion o second-gene a ion mig an s based on
pa e nal coun y o bi h a e simila , as can be seen in igu e A4 in he appendix.

18 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XFigu e 3.4. Dis ibu ion o second-gene a ion mig an wo ke s and o he na i e-bo n wo ke s in employ-
men by occupa ional ca ego y and sex (pe cen age)
No e: The alues epo ed a e a e ages o he 32 coun ies in he sample.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
These simple desc ip i e s a is ics highligh he socio-demog aphic pa icula i ies o he pop-
ula ion g oup o second-gene a ion mig an s. Since labou ma ke ou comes a e likely o be
impac ed by speci ic cha ac e is ics, especially hose ela ed o age and educa ion, aking he
socio-demog aphic composi ion o second-gene a ion mig an s in o accoun is essen ial when
compa ing hei ou comes wi h hose o he es o he na i e-bo n popula ion. In sec ion 4.1, we
acco dingly discuss a me hodology o compa ing he labou ma ke ou comes o second-gen-
e a ion mig an s wi h hose o he es o he popula ion while con olling o ac o s ha could
po en ially skew he esul s.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 141
X4 Employmen o second-gene a ion mig an s
4.1. A me hodology o analysing he di e ences in employmen
ou comes be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and o he
na i e bo n people
The labou ma ke ou comes obse ed o second-gene a ion mig an s may di e om hose o
he es o he popula ion bo n in he same coun y because o di e ences in socio-demog aphic
cha ac e is ics be ween he wo popula ion g oups. Fo ins ance, lowe educa ional a ainmen
may educe hei chances o secu ing a job. On he o he hand, he o e - ep esen a ion o young
people among second-gene a ion mig an s could also ha e an impac on labou o ce pa ici-
pa ion a es. When analysing disc epancies in labou ma ke ou comes, i is he e o e c ucial o
ake in o accoun he socio-demog aphic s uc u e o he second-gene a ion mig an popula ion.
To ha end, he econome ic echnique o logis ic eg ession was applied o he da a se con-
s uc ed om he pooled coun y su eys selec ed o ou analysis (see box 4.1 o de ails o he
echnique). This makes i possible o assess how being a second-gene a ion mig an in luences
he likelihood o a ious labou ma ke ou comes, while simul aneously disen angling his e -
ec om o he obse ed ac o s such as educa ional a ainmen and age.10 In o he wo ds, he
analysis aims o assess he di e ences in labou ma ke ou comes be ween second-gene a ion
mig an s and he es o he na i e-bo n popula ion, con olling o educa ional a ainmen and
age. Such a me hodology is c i ical o p ope analysis, as exis ing s udies ha e emphasized he
ole played by human capi al a iables, such as educa ion, in he labou ma ke in eg a ion o
mig an s and hei descendan s.
While ce ain o he a iables a e also likely o d i e he labou ma ke ou comes o second-gen-
e a ion mig an s o some ex en , hey we e no included in he p esen eg ession analysis. In
pa icula , as no ed in ou li e a u e e iew (see Chap e 1), e hnici y and coun y o o igin may
help o explain some o he obse ed di e ences be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and he
es o he na i e-bo n popula ion. Howe e , such in o ma ion was no a ailable in e e y coun y
su ey included in he sample.11 The a e age alues p esen ed in his pape may he e o e no
necessa ily e lec he si ua ion o each subg oup o second-gene a ion mig an s when b o-
ken down by coun y o o igin. To ensu e maximum compa abili y ac oss coun ies, only a ia-
bles indica ing educa ion and expe ience we e used when es ima ing he eg essions.12 Thus,
i is impo an o emphasize ha he es ima es p esen ed he e do no ake in o accoun po en-
ial unobse able cha ac e is ics ha could in luence he labou ma ke pa icipa ion o sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s. A u he ca ea has o do wi h he issue o endogenei y due o selec-
ion bias. When es ima ing he p obabili y o unemploymen (o he p obabili y o being a wage
employee), we conside ed only people pa icipa ing in he labou ma ke (o hose employed
when es ima ing he p obabili y o being a wage employee), which may ha e skewed he esul s.
10
Con olling o educa ion is essen ial he e, as he exis ing li e a u e indica es ha second-gene a ion mig an s om low-skilled wa es
o mig a ion a e mo e likely o en e lowe oca ional acks and o ha e an ea ly ansi ion in o wo king-class occupa ions. This has,
in pa icula , been obse ed in Swi ze land (Laganà, Che illa d and Gau hie 2014).
11 Fo example, he in o ma ion a ailable o he ILO on he coun y o bi h o a esponden ’s mo he in he EU-SILC su eys e e s o
only wo op ions in he case o bi h ab oad: “Eu opean Union” and “O he coun ies”.
12 In he es ima ion o he p obabili y o wage employmen , howe e , he occupa ional ca ego y was also added o hese a iables.
20 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Consequen ly, we can only deduce con olled associa ion, bu no pu e causali y, be ween being
a second-gene a ion mig an and he a ious labou ma ke ou comes s udied.
XBox 4.1. Es ima ing he e ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on he p obabili y o selec ed labou
ou comes
To quan i y he e ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on he p obabili y o labou
o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen and wage employmen , a logis ic eg ession model is
es ima ed sepa a ely o he whole popula ion, o men and o women o each coun y
in he sample (lis ed in able A1 in he appendix). This econome ic app oach in ol es es-
ima ing he pa ame e s α, γ and β in he ollowing equa ion:
whe e P(Y) is he p obabili y ha Y happens, wi h Y e e ing, a iously, o labou o ce
pa icipa ion, unemploymen and being a wage employee (as opposed o being sel -em-
ployed). In equa ion (1), α is a cons an , SGM is a dummy indica ing whe he a su ey e-
sponden is a second-gene a ion mig an o no , and X deno es a se o con ol a iables.
Fo labou ma ke pa icipa ion and unemploymen , he con ol a iables a e educa ional
a ainmen (lowe seconda y le el o below = “basic”; uppe seconda y le el = “in e medi-
a e”; and abo e seconda y le el = “ad anced”) and age g oup (15–24 yea s, 25–55 yea s
and 55+ yea s).
When es ima ing he p obabili y o wage employmen , he con ol a iables also include
he esponden ’s occupa ion acco ding o he In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o
Occupa ions (ISCO 08), wi h he ISCO-08 majo g oups agg ega ed in o six ca ego ies
(“Manage s, p o essionals and echnicians”, “Cle ical suppo , se ices and sales wo k-
e s”, “Skilled ag icul u al, o es y, ishe y, c a and ela ed ades wo ke s”, “Plan and
machine ope a o s, and assemble s”, “Elemen a y occupa ions” and “A med o ces”). This
allows one o con ol o possible di e ences in employmen s a us ha could be due o
he ype o occupa ion pu sued.
The abo e model is used o es ima e he esul s epo ed in able 4.1 o each coun y,
which a e p esen ed in he o m o “a e age ma ginal e ec s”. They co espond o he
a e age inc ease (o dec ease) in he likelihood o he e en Y ( ha is, labou o ce pa -
icipa ion, unemploymen o wage employmen ) induced by he e en “SGM = 1” (being a
second-gene a ion mig an ).
We also pe o m a pooled analysis co e ing all he 32 coun ies in ou sample and ano he
pooled analysis co e ing jus he Eu opean coun ies. This es ima ion addi ionally uses a
coun y dummy o allow o coun y- ixed e ec s. These esul s a e p esen ed in he wo
ows wi h all alues in bold in able 4.1, again as a e age ma ginal e ec s.
21 ILO Wo king Pape 141
4.2. Employmen ou comes o second-gene a ion mig an s
On a e age ac oss coun ies, second-gene a ion mig an s a e less likely o
pa icipa e in he labou o ce and mo e likely o be unemployed
In mos coun ies, being a second-gene a ion mig an has a nega i e impac on he likelihood
o labou ma ke pa icipa ion compa ed wi h o he people bo n in he same coun y, e en a e
con olling o age and educa ional a ainmen . As may be seen in able 4.1, in all he 16 coun ies
wi h s a is ically signi ican es ima es, excep o Aus ia, Czechia, Sweden and Swi ze land, sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s a e less likely o pa icipa e in he labou o ce han o he na i e-bo n
people. This pa e n is also s ongly e lec ed in he sex-disagg ega ed es ima es.
On a e age ac oss coun ies, being a second-gene a ion mig an educes he likelihood o labou
ma ke pa icipa ion by 7.5 pe cen age poin s in he o e all popula ion, wi h a dec ease o 9.5
pe cen age poin s o men and 5.8 pe cen age poin s o women (see he e y las ow in able
4.1). This end can be obse ed bo h o Eu opean coun ies as a whole and in he Uni ed S a es.
Conside able he e ogenei y is ne e heless obse able ac oss coun ies whe e second-gene a-
ion mig an s a e less likely o pa icipa e in he labou ma ke . Fo example, compa ed wi h o h-
e such coun ies, second-gene a ion mig an s in Poland, Iceland, No way and Denma k appea
much less likely o pa icipa e in he labou ma ke han o he na i e-bo n indi iduals. This ap-
pea s o be in line wi h p e ious analysis based on a sample o OECD coun ies, which showed,
in pa icula , ha Scandina ian coun ies (in his case including Sweden) had a ela i ely la ge
gap be ween he employmen a es o na i es and second-gene a ion mig an s, e en a e con-
olling o educa ional a ainmen (OECD 2007).
Se e al easons may be adduced o explain he lowe pa icipa ion a es o second-gene a ion
mig an s. In pa icula , labou ma ke ba ie s c ea ed by ac o s such as disc imina ion, ela-
i ely low e u ns o pa icipa ion in he wo k o ce and speci ic ins i u ional a angemen s could
all nega i ely a ec hei labou ma ke a achmen and de e some o hem om pa icipa ing,
analogously o he mechanisms ha ha e been desc ibed o g oups such as women and olde
wo ke s (Winkle 2016; Wa e mann, Fasbende and Klehe 2023). Au oma ic bi h igh ci izenship
in Aus alia and he Uni ed S a es could be one eason why being a second-gene a ion mig an
in hose wo coun ies is sligh ly less de imen al o he likelihood o pa icipa ing in he labou
ma ke han is he case in Eu ope on a e age, whe e such schemes a e a ely used.
Howe e , low labou o ce pa icipa ion may also be explained by addi ional ac o s. Fo ins ance,
he ac ha he likelihood o second-gene a ion mig an s in Denma k being unemployed is ela-
i ely simila o ha o o he na i e-bo n wo ke s (see he middle panel in able 4.1) despi e hei
being less likely o pa icipa e in he labou o ce could sugges ha he la e phenomenon is
pa ly due o ac o s such as hei en olmen in educa ion o aining. In ha ega d, ecen anal-
ysis has ound ha he descendan s o mig an s a e o e - ep esen ed in Danish uni e si ies and
business schools (Eu opean Commission 2021).
As a obus ness check, we pe o med a simila analysis using ou second de ini ion o “sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an ” ( ha is, whe e pa e nal coun y o o igin is used o iden i y mig an
backg ound). Table A2 in he appendix shows he esul s.
When i comes o unemploymen , being a second-gene a ion mig an appea s o ha e a posi i e
impac on unemploymen ou comes in mos coun ies. Indeed, he likelihood o being unem-
ployed inc eases in a s a is ically signi ican manne when he esponden is a second-gene a ion
28 ILO Wo king Pape 141
o examine he e ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on ea nings by inco po a ing age,
educa ional a ainmen and occupa ional ca ego y as con ols.
As wi h second-gene a ion mig an s’ employmen ou comes in Chap e 4, i is impo an o no e
ha he es ima es ela ed o hei ea nings ou comes p esen ed he e do no accoun o po en-
ial unobse able cha ac e is ics ha could in luence hose ou comes. The e o e, only con olled
associa ion and no pu e causali y can be es ablished h ough his analysis.
XBox 5.1. Es ima ing he e ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on he ea nings om wage employ-
men and sel -employmen
To u he explo e inequali ies in he labou ma ke , we es ima e he ela ionship be ween
being a second-gene a ion mig an and ea nings sepa a ely o he en i e popula ion o
employees (o sel -employed) and o he male and emale popula ions ac oss ou sub-
sample o coun ies (29 coun ies o wage employmen and 21 o sel -employmen ), us-
ing he ollowing Mince model:
This econome ic app oach in ol es es ima ing he pa ame e s α, γ and β, whe e γ is ou
pa ame e o in e es . The dependen a iable is ln Y, whe e Y s ands o he ou come ex-
amined:
●hou ly wages
●mon hly wages
●mon hly income om sel -employmen .1
In equa ion (2), α is a cons an ,
SG
Miis a dummy a iable equal o 1 i a su ey espond-
en is a second-gene a ion mig an , and
Xi′
deno es a ec o o obse able cha ac e is ics
ha a e used as con ol a iables.
In ou speci ica ion, he con ol a iables a e educa ional a ainmen (lowe seconda y
school o below = “basic”; uppe seconda y school = “in e media e”; and abo e second-
a y le el = “ad anced”), age and age squa ed, and he esponden ’s occupa ion acco ding
o he In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o Occupa ions (ISCO-08), wi h he ISCO-08
majo g oups agg ega ed in o six ca ego ies (“Manage s, p o essionals and echnicians”,
“Cle ical suppo , se ices and sales wo ke s”, “Skilled ag icul u al, o es y, ishe y, c a
and ela ed ades wo ke s”, “Plan and machine ope a o s, and assemble s”, “Elemen a y
occupa ions” and “A med o ces”). When es ima ing a e ages ac oss coun ies, we also
use coun y dummies o allow o coun y- ixed e ec s.
The model is es ima ed using he me hod o o dina y leas squa es.
2
As al eady men ioned,
he coe icien o in e es is γ, which p o ides an es ima e o he di e ence in ea nings

29 ILO Wo king Pape 141
be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and o he na i e-bo n wo ke s. I s es ima ed al-
ues a e epo ed in he ables o chap e 5.
1 Fo income om sel -employmen , we only look a mon hly income, as he quali y o he in o ma ion on hou s wo ked
is o en lowe o his subse o he popula ion. Howe e , analysis o hou ly income has also been unde aken and he
ends look e y simila . These esul s a e a ailable upon eques .
2 O dina y Leas Squa es (OLS) is an econome ic echnique ha allows he pa ame e s α, γ and β o equa ion (2) abo e
o be es ima ed.
5.2. Wages o second-gene a ion mig an s
The esul s o es ima ing equa ion (2) a e p esen ed in able 5.1 below o hou ly wages as he
ou come examined (see box 5.1).18 The es ima es in he able co espond o he e ec o being
a second-gene a ion mig an on hou ly wages. On a e age ac oss he coun ies s udied, a small
hou ly wage gap be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and o he na i e-bo n employees can be
obse ed, wi h he o me being paid sligh ly less han he la e once hei socio-demog aphic
cha ac e is ics a e aken in o accoun (speci ically 4.6 pe cen less on a e age). This esul is es-
sen ially d i en by he wage penal y obse ed ac oss he Eu opean coun ies in he sample (-5.1
pe cen on a e age). Howe e , a he coun y le el, he es ima es a e no s a is ically signi ican
in mos cases, which is p obably due in pa o he small numbe o obse a ions used in he
analysis. The wage penal y is ne e heless s a is ically signi ican in Belgium, Es onia, Po ugal
and Slo akia, as well as in Aus ia and I eland o men only, and in Cyp us o women only. In
he Uni ed S a es, a s a is ically signi ican wage p emium is obse ed, wi h second-gene a ion
mig an s ea ning 4.8 pe cen highe hou ly wages han o he na i e-bo n employees.
Thus, om he su ey da a analysed he e i eme ges ha he e is a wage penal y o ei he male
o emale second-gene a ion mig an s in se e al coun ies, while a wage p emium is obse ed
only in he Uni ed S a es and – wi h a lowe s a is ical signi icance – also in Hunga y.
Table A3 in he appendix p esen s he esul o he es ima ion o mon hly wages as he ou -
come examined ins ead o hou ly wages. As wi h hou ly wages, an a e age wage penal y is ob-
se ed o Eu ope, namely 4.4 pe cen , con as ing wi h a wage p emium o 4.9 pe cen o he
Uni ed S a es. The sligh di e ences be ween he alues in ables 5.1 and A3 may po en ially be
accoun ed o by ce ain speci ici ies in he wo king ime o second-gene a ion mig an s (see
box 4.2 in Chap e 4).
The pay gaps obse ed be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and hei pee s bo n in he same
coun y a e due o a ious ac o s no aken in o accoun in he analysis h ough he use o edu-
ca ional a ainmen , age and occupa ional ca ego y as con ol a iables. In pa icula , wage pen-
al ies among second-gene a ion mig an s may e lec he challenges aced by his g oup ha
a e o en highligh ed in he li e a u e on mig a ion, such as poo in eg a ion, lack o ne wo ks,
limi ed p o iciency in he majo i y language and disc imina ion (De os e al. 2025). As o he
wage p emium obse ed in he Uni ed S a es, he a ailable e idence poin s o how second-gen-
e a ion mig an s he e a e ela i ely well endowed in e ms o educa ion and skills. Indeed, a US
s udy based on longi udinal childhood da a indica es ha he ini ial gap in ma hema ics sco es
be ween second-gene a ion mig an s and na i es closes by he end o p ima y school, while o
18 Desc ip i e s a is ics ela ed o he ea nings dis ibu ion can be ound in wo igu es in he appendix. Figu e A5 shows he sha e o
second-gene a ion mig an wage employees in he di e en quin iles o hou ly wages. On a e age, second-gene a ion mig an s
end o be o e - ep esen ed a he bo om end o hei coun y’s wage dis ibu ion. Figu e A6 shows he co esponding dis ibu ion
o he mon hly sel -employmen income o sel -employed second-gene a ion mig an s. In Eu ope, an o e - ep esen a ion o he
sel -employed a he lowe end o he income dis ibu ion can also be obse ed.
30 ILO Wo king Pape 141
non-cogni i e, o “so ”, skills he e is a posi i e gap in a ou o second-gene a ion mig an s by
he hi d yea o p ima y school (Hull and No is 2020). This could help o explain he sligh ly
highe wages ea ned la e in li e by second-gene a ion mig an s, consis en wi h he es ima es
p esen ed in able 5.1. In ha ega d, he ela i ely high pe o mance o second-gene a ion mi-
g an s in he Uni ed S a es when i comes o educa ion and wages has been emphasized by a
numbe o p e ious s udies (Ca d 2005). As a obus ness check, we applied he same econome -
ic me hodology using ou second de ini ion o “second-gene a ion mig an ”. The esul s a e
p esen ed in ables A4 and A5 in he appendix.
XTable 5.1. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on hou ly wages (pe cen age)
Coun y All Men Women
Eu ope
Aus ia -3.3 -4.5* -1.0
Belgium -8.7** -7.3 -11.0**
Bulga ia -18.2 25.1 -33.3
C oa ia 2.1 -2.6 3.8
Cyp us -7.1 6.4 -30.5*
Czechia 1.5 2.7 -0.6
Denma k 0.1 2.3 -3.1
Es onia -11.0** -8.0 -13.6**
Finland 11.4 -0.5 21.2
F ance 4.0 5.8 2.2
Ge many 1.3 2.6 -1.7
G eece -1.9 -6.7 4.7
Hunga y 18.0* 10.3 25.6*
I eland -6.1 -16.7* 5.0
I aly -1.1 5.1 -8.8
La ia -1.7 -3.2 -0.3
Li huania 9.5 11.2 9.5
Luxembou g -6.9 -9.3 -3.0
Ne he lands -1.9 -4.1 -0.4
Poland 3.5 1.5 5.7
Po ugal -5.2* -0.7 -11.1**
Se bia 3.0 0.6 3.2
Slo akia -9.1** -18.0*** 1.1
Slo enia -1.1 -5.9 5.8
Spain -7.1 -10.0 -3.9
Sweden -1.6 -2.5 -1.7
Swi ze land 2.2 -0.8 2.8
Eu ope -5.1*** -6.5*** -3.8***
Res o he wo ld
31 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Coun y All Men Women
Aus alia 2.3 1.3 2.1
Uni ed S a es 4.8*** 2.0** 7.3***
All coun ies -4.6*** -6.0*** -3.4***
No e: ***, ** and * indica e ha he esul is s a is ically di e en om ze o a he 1%, 5% and 10% le el o signi icance, espec i ely.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea . See able A1 in he
appendix o mo e de ails.
5.3. Sel -employmen income o second-gene a ion mig an s
Es ima es o he e ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on mon hly sel -employmen in-
come (ob ained using equa ion (2) om box 5.1 wi h mon hly sel -employmen income as he
ou come examined) a e p esen ed in able 5.2 o a subsample o coun ies o which ele an
da a a e a ailable.19 I appea s ha almos all he s a is ically signi ican es ima es poin o an
ea nings penal y o second-gene a ion mig an s who a e sel -employed. Fo Eu opean coun-
ies, we obse e an a e age penal y o 22.3 pe cen o second-gene a ion mig an s (16.5 pe
cen among male en ep eneu s and 27.5 pe cen among hei emale coun e pa s). O e all,
hese esul s end o con i m he po en ial challenges ha second-gene a ion mig an s ace in
se ing hemsel es up as sel -employed, as discussed in Chap e 4.20
A obus ness check was pe o med by applying he same me hodology o ou second de ini ion
o “second-gene a ion mig an ”. Table A6 in he appendix shows he esul s.
XTable 5.2. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on mon hly sel -employmen income (pe cen age)
Coun y All Men Women
Eu ope
Aus ia -14.6 8.1 -54.5**
Belgium -10.7 -27.1 42.7
Czechia 6.7 2.5 15.5
Denma k -21.2 -32.8 -3.8
F ance -9.4 -6.7 -18.0
Ge many -20.1** -23.9** -15.6
Hunga y -79.1 50.6 -281.7*
I eland -24.3 -33.4 -7.2
I aly -36.2 -3.0 -142.2***
La ia -7.1 -22.1 7.6
Li huania -16 -15.7 1.6
19 No all na ional su eys con ain eliable da a on sel -employmen income on a mon hly/hou ly basis. Some coun ies we e he e o e
excluded om his analysis, especially i he sample size was oo small.
20 In line wi h hese esul s, Bijedić and Pipe (2018), using da a om he Ge man Socio-Economic Panel, ound ha i s -gene a ion mi-
g an en ep eneu s had lowe a es o job sa is ac ion han he na i e popula ion. A simila pa e n was obse ed o second-gen-
e a ion male mig an en ep eneu s.
32 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Coun y All Men Women
Luxembou g -33.1 -15.9 -144.8
Ne he lands -100.3* -74.2 -141.4
Poland -5.2 -1.5 -24.1
Po ugal -29.4** -23.6 -34.5
Se bia 22.5 8.8 102.3***
Slo enia -30.8 -57.7 -14.8
Spain -27.3 8.7 -59.4
Sweden 8.8 -1.6 19.0
Swi ze land -0.3 3.3 -6.2
Eu ope -22.3*** -16.5* -27.5**
Res o he wo ld
Aus alia 13.7 11.1 6.1
All coun ies -20.0*** -14.6* -25.7**
No e: ***, ** and * indica e ha he esul is s a is ically di e en om ze o a he 1%, 5% and 10% le el o signi icance, espec i ely.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea . See able A1 in he
appendix o mo e de ails.
33 ILO Wo king Pape 141
X6 Legal amewo ks shaping he labou ma ke
expe ience o second-gene a ion mig an s
In he p e ious chap e we analysed he labou ma ke ou comes o second-gene a ion mig an s
in a la ge numbe o coun ies, ocusing on labou o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen , s a us in
employmen , wages and sel -employmen income. Al hough we canno asse a di ec causal e-
la ionship be ween being a second-gene a ion mig an and hese ou comes, he con olled asso-
cia ions ha we ha e es ablished p o ide a pic u e o hei labou ma ke expe ience. Speci ically,
a lowe a e o labou o ce pa icipa ion compa ed wi h he es o he na i e-bo n popula ion
has been highligh ed. Simila ly, second-gene a ion mig an s seem, on a e age, o be mo e likely
o be unemployed. Fu he mo e, excep in a ew coun ies, second-gene a ion mig an s end o
be wage employees a he han sel -employed when hey a e in employmen , which is p obably
due o a lack o in eg a ion and limi ed access o he ne wo ks ha a e necessa y o ope a e as
an en ep eneu . Wi h ega d o ea nings, s a is ically signi ican wage penal ies we e obse ed
o second-gene a ion mig an s in a numbe o Eu opean coun ies, whe eas a wage p emium
was no ed in he Uni ed S a es.
Building on his analysis, i is essen ial o unde s and how legal amewo ks can ac as a u he
in luence on he labou ma ke expe ience o second-gene a ion mig an s. Such amewo ks,
which include in e na ional labou s anda ds21 and na ional laws, play a c ucial ole in es ab-
lishing he igh s and p o ec ions a o ded o wo ke s, he eby shaping hei oppo uni ies and
ea men in he job ma ke . This chap e will explo e key s anda ds ha lay he ounda ion o
inclusi e labou ma ke s which can bene i bo h second-gene a ion mig an s and he es o he
popula ion. Sec ion 6.1 i s ou lines he a ious se s o in e na ional labou s anda ds ele an
o p omo ing equali y o oppo uni y and ai labou ma ke ou comes. These ins umen s a e
hen analysed in de ail, oge he wi h he ela ed supe iso y wo k o he Commi ee o Expe s
on he Applica ion o Con en ions and Recommenda ions (CEACR).22 Finally, na ional p ac ices
aimed a ensu ing equal employmen oppo uni ies and ea men a e examined in sec ion 6.2,
which p o ides a b ie o e iew o how in e na ional s anda ds a e applied in di e en coun ies.
6.1. In e na ional legal s anda ds ensu ing equal employmen
oppo uni ies and ea men
Be o e emba king on ou analysis o ele an legal amewo ks, i is impo an o cla i y ha sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s a e no conside ed o be mig an wo ke s. Indeed, hey do no mee
he de ini ion o “mig an wo ke ” con ained in he Mig an Wo ke s (Supplemen a y P o isions)
21 Con en ions, oge he wi h any P o ocols he e o, a e legally binding in e na ional ea ies ha may be a i ied by Membe S a es,
while Recommenda ions se e as non-binding guidelines. In many cases, a Con en ion lays down he basic p inciples o be imple-
men ed by a i ying coun ies, and he ela ed Recommenda ion supplemen s he Con en ion by p o iding mo e de ails on how i
could be applied. Howe e , Recommenda ions can also be au onomous – ha is, no linked o a Con en ion.
22 The CEACR is one o he wo bodies comp ising he egula sys em o supe ision de eloped by he ILO o help ensu e ha coun ies
implemen he Con en ions hey a i y. I examines he epo s ha go e nmen s a e equi ed o submi egula ly on he implemen-
a ion o a i ied Con en ions, along wi h he commen s o employe s’ and wo ke s’ o ganiza ions on hese epo s. The Commi ee
makes wo kinds o commen s on he epo s ecei ed – “obse a ions” and “di ec eques s” – and issues an annual epo , which
includes a Gene al Su ey on a speci ic subjec selec ed by he Go e ning Body o he In e na ional Labou O ice. The commen s o
he CEACR a e non-binding, being in ended o guide he ac ions o na ional au ho i ies. They de i e hei pe suasi e alue om he
legi imacy and a ionali y o he Commi ee’s wo k based on i s impa iali y, expe ience and expe ise. Fo mo e in o ma ion, see he
web page en i led “ILO supe iso y sys em/mechanism”.

34 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Con en ion, 1975 (No. 143), namely “a pe son who mig a es o who has mig a ed om one
coun y o ano he wi h a iew o being employed o he wise han on his own accoun ”, which
“includes any pe son egula ly admi ed as a mig an wo ke ” (A . 11(1)). Howe e , second-gen-
e a ion mig an s ha e a mig a ion backg ound and hey a e o en pe cei ed as “ o eigne s” by
a as majo i y o he popula ion, as a consequence o hei belonging o e hnic mino i ies and,
in some cases, no possessing he na ionali y o he coun y whe e hey li e and wo k (Bhimji
2008; Beaman 2017). These ac o s can lead o disc imina o y ea men , c ea ing challenges o
second-gene a ion mig an s when i comes o bo h social in eg a ion and labou ma ke pa ic-
ipa ion, as ou lined in he quan i a i e analysis in Chap e s 4 and 5. As discussed u he down,
he Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion (No. 111) and Recommenda ion
(No. 111), 1958,23 p o ide c ucial o ien a ion on how o ackle disc imina ion and imp o e in e-
g a ion in o he labou ma ke .
O he in e na ional labou s anda ds a e ele an in add essing he disc imina ion and ine-
quali ies ha second-gene a ion mig an s may ace a wo k – o ins ance, he Employmen
Policy Con en ion (No. 122) and Recommenda ion (No. 122), 1964,24 and he Human Resou ces
De elopmen Con en ion, 1975 (No. 142).
Alongside he abo e-men ioned ins umen s, in e na ional labou s anda ds dealing wi h wages
a e key o ensu ing equali y o ea men in employmen o second-gene a ion mig an s. These
include he Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y Con en ion, 1928 (No. 26), he Minimum Wage
Fixing Con en ion (No. 131) and Recommenda ion (No. 135), 1970, and he P o ec ion o Wages
Con en ion, 1949 (No. 95) (see box 6.1).25
The ocus o his sec ion will be mainly on s anda ds ela ed o non-disc imina ion and equal
ea men , gi en he ole ha hey play in shaping he employmen ou comes o second-gen-
e a ion mig an s.
Finally, i is impo an o look a he supe iso y wo k o he CEACR as i suppo s he implemen-
a ion o in e na ional labou s anda ds a he na ional le el. The ca ego y o wo ke s conside ed
in his s udy alls wi hin he scope o he Commi ee’s commen s conce ning wo ke s in gene al.
On some occasions, he CEACR has explici ly e e ed o second-gene a ion mig an s and wo k-
e s wi h a mig a ion backg ound in i s obse a ions and di ec eques s. Such e e ences ha e
occu ed mainly when he Commi ee is e iewing he applica ion o p o isions on non-disc im-
ina ion and equali y o oppo uni y and ea men .
23 In e na ional labou s anda ds o gene al applica ion conce n second-gene a ion mig an s as well as he es o he popula ion.
Among hese s anda ds, a cen al ole is played by he 11 “ undamen al” ins umen s, which co e subjec s conside ed o be unda-
men al p inciples and igh s a wo k. Con en ion No. 111 is one such ins umen .
24 Con en ion No. 122 is one o he ou Con en ions designa ed by he Go e ning Body o he In e na ional Labou O ice as “go e n-
ance” (o “p io i y”) ins umen s. Consequen ly, Membe S a es a e encou aged o a i y i because o i s impo ance o he unc ion-
ing o he in e na ional labou s anda ds sys em.
25 Minimum wages ha e been an impo an opic a he ILO e e since i s incep ion. Indeed, he o iginal ILO Cons i u ion o 1919 called
in i s P eamble o an u gen imp o emen o condi ions o labou , including “ he p o ision o an adequa e li ing wage”. In 1944, he
Decla a ion o Philadelphia e e ed o he impo ance o ensu ing “a minimum li ing wage o all employed and in need o such p o-
ec ion”. This was ei e a ed in he ILO Decla a ion on Social Jus ice o a Fai Globaliza ion (2008). In addi ion o in e na ional labou
s anda ds, a ele an ool o he design, implemen a ion and e iew o minimum wages is he Minimum Wage Policy Guide (ILO 2016),
which emphasizes key p inciples o good p ac ice and p o ides examples o illus a e he p os and cons o di e en policy op ions.
35 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XBox 6.1. In e na ional labou s anda ds dealing wi h non-disc imina ion, equal ea men and wages
Non-disc imina ion and equal ea men
Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111)
Employmen Policy Con en ion, 1964 (No. 122)
Human Resou ces De elopmen Con en ion, 1975 (No. 142)
Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 111)
Employmen Policy Recommenda ion, 1964 (No. 122)
Wages
Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y Con en ion, 1928 (No. 26)*
Minimum Wage Fixing Con en ion, 1970 (No. 131)
P o ec ion o Wages Con en ion, 1949 (No. 95)
Minimum Wage Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1951 (No. 99)*
Minimum Wage Fixing Recommenda ion, 1970 (No. 135)
Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Recommenda ion, 1951 (No. 89)*
* Ins umen wi h in e im s a us.
Sou ce: ILO NORMLEX da abase.
In e na ional labou s anda ds dealing wi h non-disc imina ion and equal
ea men
Second-gene a ion mig an s end o expe ience poo in eg a ion and ace disc imina o y ea -
men , which may pa ly explain hei lowe labou ma ke pa icipa ion and sligh ly highe unem-
ploymen a es on a e age, al hough ou comes a y subs an ially ac oss coun ies, as desc ibed
in sec ion 4.2. In e na ional labou s anda ds aimed a coun e ing disc imina ion on he g ounds
o ace, colou and na ional ex ac ion play a c ucial ole in enabling he pa icipa ion and equal
ea men o second-gene a ion mig an s in he labou ma ke , pa icula ly in coun ies wi h a
pa e n o e hnic disc imina ion and ci izenship schemes based on descen .
The Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111), p o ides signi i-
can guidance on his sco e. I seeks o elimina e any disc imina ion in espec o employmen
and occupa ion and o p omo e equali y o oppo uni y and ea men (A . 2). Disc imina ion
on he basis o “ ace, colou , sex, eligion, poli ical opinion, na ional ex ac ion o social o igin” is
co e ed (A . 1(1)(a)). Con en ion No. 111 also s ipula es ha special measu es designed o mee
he pa icula needs o pe sons who, o easons such as social o cul u al s a us, equi e special
p o ec ion o assis ance shall no be ega ded as disc imina ion (A . 5(2)). The accompanying
Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 111), ecommends
ha all pe sons should, wi hou disc imina ion, enjoy equali y o oppo uni y and ea men in
espec o , in e alia, emune a ion o wo k o equal alue (pa a. 2(b)( )).
The same p inciples a e ei e a ed in he Employmen Policy Con en ion (No. 122) and
Recommenda ion (No. 122), 1964. These ins umen s call upon Membe S a es o pu sue an ac-
i e policy aimed a ensu ing “ eedom o choice o employmen and he ulles possible oppo -
uni y o each wo ke o quali y o , and o use his skills and endowmen s in, a job o which he is
well sui ed, i espec i e o ace, colou , sex, eligion, poli ical opinion, na ional ex ac ion o social
o igin” (A s 1(1) and 1(2)(c) o he Con en ion and pa as 1(1) and 1(2)(c) o he Recommenda ion).
36 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Finally, he Human Resou ces De elopmen Con en ion, 1975 (No. 142), p omo es non-disc im-
ina ion in he ield o oca ional guidance and aining. I speci ically equi es Membe S a es o
adop oca ional guidance and aining policies and p og ammes ha “encou age and enable
all pe sons, on an equal basis and wi hou any disc imina ion wha soe e , o de elop and use
hei capabili ies o wo k” (A . 1(5)). Mo eo e , i s ipula es ha comp ehensi e employmen
in o ma ion and guidance a e o be made a ailable o e e yone (A . 3).
The supe iso y p ac ice o he Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o
Con en ions and Recommenda ions
The CEACR has deal wi h inequali ies a wo k a ec ing second-gene a ion mig an s mainly in
he con ex o Con en ion No. 111, when conside ing disc imina ion agains indi iduals wi h a
mig a ion backg ound26 on he g ounds o ace, colou o na ional ex ac ion (see box 6.2). The
selec ion o commen s ela ed o Con en ion No. 111 o e ed he e is based on he esul s p e-
sen ed in sec ion 4.2, wi h a pa icula ocus on commen s add essed o hose coun ies whe e
being a second-gene a ion mig an was associa ed wi h a educ ion in he likelihood o labou
ma ke pa icipa ion ( able 4.1). Among hese, ele an commen s exp essly men ioning sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s o indi iduals wi h a mig a ion backg ound we e ound, in pa icula ,
o Denma k, Ge many and he Ne he lands.
XBox 6.2. How “ ace, colou and na ional ex ac ion” a e unde s ood in he supe iso y p ac ice o
he Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and Recommenda ions ela ed o he
Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111)
In a gene al obse a ion on disc imina ion based on ace, colou and na ional ex ac-
ion adop ed in 2018, he Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and
Recommenda ions (CEACR) explained he meaning o he g ounds o “ ace, colou and
na ional ex ac ion” in he con ex o he Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion)
Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111). Fu he mo e, i p o ided examples o people a ec ed by dis-
c imina ion in employmen on g ounds ha all wi hin he scope o he Con en ion.
In pa icula , he CEACR ecalled ha , unde Con en ion No. 111, “ he e m ‘ ace’ includes
any disc imina ion agains linguis ic communi ies o mino i y g oups whose iden i y is
based on eligious o cul u al cha ac e is ics o na ional o e hnic o igin.” Addi ionally, i
speci ied ha disc imina ion on he basis o ace and colou we e gene ally examined o-
ge he , as “colou ” was one o he e hnic cha ac e is ics o human beings. The Commi ee
also ei e a ed ha na ional ex ac ion co e ed “dis inc ions made on he basis o a pe -
son’s place o bi h, ances y o o eign o igin”.
When e iewing he applica ion o Con en ion No. 111, he Commi ee has he e o e been
seeking o add ess disc imina ion in he wo kplace expe ienced, in e alia, by “e hnic mi-
no i ies, indigenous and ibal peoples, mig an wo ke s, including mig an domes ic wo k-
e s, a o-descendan s, na ional mino i ies and Roma people” (CEACR 2019a).
26
The exp ession “pe son wi h a mig a ion backg ound” is being used wi h g owing equency, especially in Ge man-speaking Eu opean
coun ies (Kup sch and Mie es 2021). This no ion encompasses i s - and second-gene a ion mig an s. As a esul , na ional legal
amewo ks o en do no di ec ly add ess he si ua ion o second-gene a ion mig an s a wo k and he CEACR, oo, has mainly con-
side ed ha issue indi ec ly, h ough he p ism o he b oade ca ego y o “indi iduals wi h a mig a ion backg ound”, wi h speci ic
e e ences o second-gene a ion mig an s being a e.
37 ILO Wo king Pape 141
In i s obse a ions and di ec eques s ela ed o Con en ion No. 111 ha exp essly men ion sec-
ond-gene a ion mig an s o indi iduals wi h a mig a ion backg ound, he CEACR has called upon
S a es o s eng hen hei e o s o e ec i ely add ess disc imina ion and ensu e equali y o op-
po uni y and ea men . In an obse a ion, i no ably u ged he Go e nmen o he Ne he lands
o p o ide in o ma ion on he measu es implemen ed o ha end (CEACR 2024a). In a di ec e-
ques add essed o he same Go e nmen , he Commi ee no ed ha a ious s eps needed o
be aken,27 including posi i e ac ion measu es (CEACR 2024b). In he same ein, he CEACR e-
ques ed he Ge man Go e nmen o p o ide in o ma ion on he speci ic a i ma i e measu es
aken o ensu e imp o ed access o employmen oppo uni ies o “pe sons wi h a mino i y o
mig an backg ound”, including in o ma ion on he impac o such measu es (CEACR 2019b).
Among he conc e e measu es o be adop ed by Ge many o ackle disc imina ion based on e h-
nic o igin o na ional ex ac ion a ec ing second-gene a ion mig an s, he Commi ee e e ed
o ec ui men and selec ion p ocesses. In pa icula , i acknowledged he in oduc ion o pilo
p ojec s on depe sonalized job applica ions in p i a e en e p ises and public adminis a ion wi h
a iew o educing disc imina ion in ec ui men , and no ed he Go e nmen ’s s a emen ha ,
compa ed o he adi ional p ocess, depe sonalized applica ions ensu ed ha applican s wi h a
mig a ion backg ound had a be e chance o being in i ed o an in e iew. The Commi ee e-
ques ed u he in o ma ion on hese anonymous applica ion me hods and hei esul s (CEACR
2019c, 2021a).
Taking up ano he aspec ela ed o labou ma ke ou comes, he CEACR inqui ed abou equal-
i y o oppo uni y in aining, skills de elopmen and ca ee guidance when conside ing he
si ua ion o indi iduals wi h a mig a ion backg ound in Denma k and he Ne he lands (CEACR
2018, 2016). In ha ega d, i has welcomed ini ia i es aken o imp o e he quali ica ions and
skills o ha popula ion g oup, such as he es ablishmen o egional skilled wo ke ne wo ks in
Ge many (CEACR 2021b).
In i s mos ecen di ec eques on Con en ion No. 111 add essed o he Ne he lands, he
Commi ee also e e ed o he conce n exp essed by he Uni ed Na ions Commi ee on he
Elimina ion o Racial Disc imina ion abou he s igma iza ion o people o A ican descen and
he lack o disagg ega ed da a on hei social and economic si ua ion. Subsequen ly, i asked o
in o ma ion on any assessmen made o he impac o he measu es unde aken o p omo e
equali y o oppo uni y and ea men o pe sons o A ican descen , and on cases o disc imina-
ion in employmen and occupa ion agains hem deal wi h by he na ional au ho i ies (CEACR
2024b). Fu he mo e, o add ess disc imina ion in employmen and occupa ion e ec i ely, he
Commi ee has eques ed o welcomed on se e al occasions he ga he ing o in o ma ion on
wo ke s wi h a mig a ion backg ound in Denma k, pa icula ly h ough he collec ion o employ-
men and unemploymen s a is ics disagg ega ed by o igin (CEACR 2016, 2013a).
In addi ion o calling o speci ic measu es o ad ance equali y in he wo kplace, when assess-
ing he si ua ion o wo ke s wi h a mig a ion backg ound in he ligh o Con en ion No. 111,
he Commi ee has also add essed he oo causes o disc imina ion. I hus encou aged he
Ge man and Du ch Go e nmen s o ake ac ion o comba acial s e eo ypes and p ejudices and
ackle sys emic and s uc u al disc imina ion agains mino i y g oups (CEACR 2021b, 2018). In
pa icula , he Commi ee has no ed he adop ion o na ional p og ammes in Ge many seeking
o aise awa eness o xenophobia and acism in he labou ma ke and in socie y mo e b oadly
(CEACR 2013b).
27 In i s 2012 Gene al Su ey, he CEACR emphasized ha a ange o measu es had o be adop ed o e ec i ely espond o “ he com-
plex eali ies and a ie ies o ways in which disc imina ion occu s” (ILO 2012, pa a. 731).
44 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Annex
Figu es
XFigu e A1. Sha e o second-gene a ion mig an s (based on al e na i e de ini ion) in he wo king-age popu-
la ion in each o he sampled coun ies
No e: This igu e was p epa ed using ou second wo king de ini ion o a “second gene a ion mig an ”, ha is, whe e a na i e-bo n
indi idual has a o eign-bo n a he (see sec ion 2.1).
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .

45 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XFigu e A2. Age composi ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s (based on al e na i e de ini ion)
and he es o he na i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion, by sex (pe cen age)
No e: This igu e was p epa ed using ou second wo king de ini ion o a “second-gene a ion mig an ”, ha is, whe e a na i e-bo n
indi idual has a o eign-bo n a he (see sec ion 2.1). The alues epo ed a e a e ages o he 32 coun ies in he sample.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
XFigu e A3. Dis ibu ion o wo king-age second-gene a ion mig an s (based on al e na i e de ini ion) and
he es o he na i e-bo n wo king-age popula ion by educa ion le el and sex (pe cen age)
No e: This igu e was p epa ed using ou second wo king de ini ion o a “second gene a ion mig an ”, ha is, whe e a na i e-bo n
indi idual has a o eign-bo n a he (see sec ion 2.1). The alues epo ed a e a e ages o he 32 coun ies in he sample.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
46 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XFigu e A4. Dis ibu ion o second-gene a ion mig an wo ke s (based on al e na i e de ini ion) and o he
na i e-bo n wo ke s in employmen by occupa ional ca ego y and sex (pe cen age)
No e: This igu e was p epa ed using ou second wo king de ini ion o a “second gene a ion mig an ”, ha is, whe e a na i e-bo n
indi idual has a o eign-bo n a he (see sec ion 2.1). The alues epo ed a e a e ages o he 32 coun ies in he sample.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
XFigu e A5. Ea nings dis ibu ion (based on hou ly wages) o second-gene a ion mig an wage employees,
by egion o coun y (pe cen age)
No e: The Eu opean a e age e e s o he ollowing coun ies: Aus ia, Belgium, Bulga ia, C oa ia, Cyp us, Czechia, Denma k,
Es onia, Finland, F ance, Ge many, G eece, Hunga y, I eland, I aly, La ia, Li huania, Luxembou g, Ne he lands, Poland, Po ugal,
Se bia, Slo akia, Slo enia, Spain, Sweden, Swi ze land.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
47 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XFigu e A6. Ea nings dis ibu ion (based on mon hly sel -employmen income) o sel -employed second-gen-
e a ion mig an s, by egion o coun y (pe cen age)
No e: The Eu opean a e age e e s o he ollowing coun ies: Aus ia, Belgium, Czechia, Denma k, F ance, Ge many, Hunga y,
I eland, I aly, La ia, Li huania, Luxembou g, Ne he lands, Poland, Po ugal, Se bia, Slo enia, Spain, Sweden, Swi ze land.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
48 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XFigu e A7. A e age numbe o weekly hou s wo ked by second-gene a ion mig an s who a e wage employees e sus o he na i e bo n wage em-
ployees, by sex and coun y
No e: Only coun ies a e shown o which he e a e su icien obse a ions o es ima e he mean numbe o weekly hou s wo ked by second-gene a ion mig an s (acco ding
o ou main wo king de ini ion, ha is, whe e a na i e-bo n indi idual has a o eign-bo n mo he – see sec ion 2.1).
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .
49 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Tables
XTable A1. Na ional da a sou ces used o analyse he employmen and ea nings ou comes o second-gene -
a ion mig an s
Coun y Su ey Yea OECD s a us EU s a us
Aus alia HILDA 2021 OECD membe Non-EU
Aus ia EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Belgium EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Bulga ia EU-SILC 2022 OECD candida e EU membe
C oa ia EU-SILC 2022 OECD candida e EU membe
Cyp us EU-SILC 2022 Non-OECD EU membe
Czechia EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Denma k EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Es onia EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Finland EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
F ance EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Ge many EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
G eece EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Hunga y EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Iceland EU-LFS 2022 OECD membe Non-EU
I eland EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
I aly EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
La ia EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Li huania EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Luxembou g EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Ne he lands EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
No way EU-LFS 2022 OECD membe Non-EU
Poland EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Po ugal EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Romania EU-SILC 2022 OECD candida e EU membe
Se bia EU-SILC 2021 Non-OECD Non-EU
Slo akia EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Slo enia EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Spain EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Sweden EU-SILC 2022 OECD membe EU membe
Swi ze land EU-SILC 2021 OECD membe Non-EU
Uni ed S a es CPS 2023 OECD membe Non-EU
CPS = Cu en Popula ion Su ey. EU-LFS = Eu opean Union Labou Fo ce Su ey. EU-SILC = Eu opean Union S a is ics on Income
and Li ing Condi ions. HILDA = Household, Income and Labou Dynamics in Aus alia.
Sou ce: ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea .

50 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XTable A2. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an (based on al e na i e de ini ion) on he p obabili y o labou o ce pa icipa ion, unemploy-
men and wage employmen , by coun y (pe cen age poin s)
Coun y
Labou o ce pa icipa ion Unemploymen Wage employmen
All Men Women All Men Women All Men Women
Eu ope
Aus ia 1.2 0.1 2.5* -0.8 -0.9 -0.7 14.0*** 13.5*** 14.6***
Belgium -3.5** -2.5 -4.3* 4.3*** 2.5** 6.1*** 3.6* 5.1* 1.7
Bulga ia -0.2 2.4 -6.2 -1.8 -9.8 3.7 4.5 0*** -7.3
C oa ia 0.5 -0.5 1.1 7.1** 9.7** 3.3 -2.6 -1.6 -3.9
Cyp us 0.7 4.2 -1.3 -2.1 -4.3 0.8 6.2 9.3 5.3
Czechia 3.9** 1.1 6.3** 1.6 0.9 2.5 1.9 1.2 2.0
Denma k -12.0*** -13.0*** -10.1*** 0.3 2.0 -1.7 -1.3 -1.9 -0.8
Es onia -10.2*** -14.7*** -4.9** 1.2 2.5 -0.1 -0.9 2.3 -3.6*
Finland -10.4** -10.3* -9.8 3.3 2.1 4.1 -5.6 -0.6 -9.1*
F ance -0.6 0.7 -1.6 4.5*** 5.9*** 3.0*** 0.1 2.1 -1.7
Ge many -2.5*** -2.7*** -2.7*** 1.1*** 1.1** 1.0* 0.7 2.1** -0.8
G eece -3.8 -5.7 -1.3 5.7 1.1 10.7* 13.0* 25.8** -0.8
Hunga y -5.3* -9.9** -0.3 -3.3 -2.8 -4.1 -9.2*** -11.2** -7.4*
Iceland -27.2*** -26.0*** -27.2*** -0.2 -1.0 0.5 -5.7*** -9.2*** -0.3
I eland -7.2*** -9.6*** -6.3* 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.7 7.9** -2.1
I aly -0.1 2.7 -4.2 -1.2 3.0 -9.1 30.5*** 48.6*** 16.1**
La ia -5.0*** -0.9 -6.5*** 1.8* 2.0 1.6 -0.8 -1.7 -0.1
Li huania -2.0 3.7 -4.9 4.1 2.1 5.4 -7.1** -11.8** -3.2
Luxembou g -0.6 1.2 -1.6 0.8 0.3 1.3 -0.7 1.8 -2.6
Ne he lands -0.4 -1.9 1.0 1.8* 0.8 2.6** 0.6 -2.9 3.7
No way -25.1*** -26.3*** -23.2*** -0.3 0-0.8 1.5 3.2 0
Poland -35.4*** -39.8*** -28*** -3.5** -2.9* -4.4 -1.2 -4.0 2.4
Po ugal -7.7*** -7.4*** -8.0*** 2.8*** 5.6*** 0.1 0.5 0.5 0.6
Romania 0.7 -14.5 22.0 0*** 0*** 0*** -1.2 0*** -8.4
Se bia -3.1* -2.3 -3.9* -0.8 -0.7 0.1 -0.7 -0.3 0.8
Slo akia 10.7* 8.1 13.4 01.7 -4.3 13.5* 40.0** -4.2
Slo enia 1.9 -5.1* 9.3*** 1.7* -0.2 2.9** -2.0 -2.9 -1.9
Spain -1.5 -4.1 1.2 1.1 2.5 -1.0 -1.7 -1.3 -1.6
Sweden 5.3*** 4.5** 5.8*** 0.6 1.7 -0.8 1.9 2.7 0.5
Swi ze land 6.3*** 8.2*** 4.7** 1.4* 1.6 1.2 0.3 3.6* -2.5
Eu ope -7.1*** -9.0*** -5.4*** 1.5*** 1.8** 1.1** 1.8*** 2.7*** 0.8
Res o he wo ld
51 ILO Wo king Pape 141
Coun y
Labou o ce pa icipa ion Unemploymen Wage employmen
All Men Women All Men Women All Men Women
Aus alia -0.7 0.1 -1.6 -0.5 0.7 -2.2** 0 0 0.4
Uni ed S a es -2.6*** -2.3*** -2.9*** 0.8*** 1.1*** 0.5*** 0.9*** 0.6*** 1.2***
All coun ies -6.7*** -8.3*** -5.2*** 1.4*** 1.8** 0.9** 1.6*** 2.4*** 0.8*
No e 1: This able was p epa ed using ou second wo king de ini ion o a “second-gene a ion mig an ”, ha is, whe e a na i e-bo n indi idual has a o eign-bo n a he (see
sec ion 2.1).
No e 2: ***, ** and * indica e ha he esul is s a is ically di e en om ze o a he 1%, 5% and 10% le el o signi icance, espec i ely.
No e 3: The esul s o labou o ce pa icipa ion e e o he whole wo king-age popula ion. Those o unemploymen e e o he popula ion in he labou o ce. Those o
s a us in employmen (wage employmen e sus sel -employmen ) e e o he employed popula ion.
No e 4: The labou o ce pa icipa ion and unemploymen models con ol o age and educa ion. The model used o analyse s a us in employmen (wage employmen e sus
sel employmen ) ea u es occupa ional ca ego y as an addi ional con ol.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea . See able A1 o mo e de ails.
52 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XTable A3. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an on mon hly wages (pe cen age)
Coun y All Men Women
Eu ope
Aus ia -1.2 -0.4 0.2
Belgium -9.3** -9.2 -11.5*
Bulga ia -16.9 26.5 -31.9
C oa ia 3.9 -0.2 4.6
Cyp us -3.0 10.4 -26.5
Czechia -3.2 -1.3 -6.4
Denma k 2.3 3.3 -0.3
Es onia -10.5** -7.3 -13.3**
Finland 1.6 0.6 -2.5
F ance 2.6 5.1 0.1
Ge many 2.0 1.9 -0.8
G eece 2.0 -8.1 15.3
Hunga y 6.5 -1.6 16.2
I eland -5.2 -20.8** 9.2
I aly 2.9 12.4 -9.7
La ia -2.6 -2.0 -2.5
Li huania 7.4 9.7 6.5
Luxembou g -6.4 -9.9 -3.0
Ne he lands 0.1 -5.3 4.5
Poland 3.7 -0.5 8.1*
Po ugal -5.3* -1.1 -11.4**
Se bia 4.6 2.5 4.4
Slo akia -5.7 -13.1** 2.2
Slo enia -0.7 -4.8 5.6
Spain -6.0 -8.3 -3.5
Sweden -0.6 -1.3 -1.5
Swi ze land 9.1*** 0.1 10.1**
Eu ope -4.4*** -6.6*** -2.8**
Res o he wo ld
Aus alia -0.1 -4.0 1.9
Uni ed S a es 4.9*** 1.0 8.0***
All coun ies -3.7*** -6.0*** -2.0
No e: ***, ** and * indica e ha he esul is s a is ically di e en om ze o a he 1%, 5% and 10% le el o signi icance, espec i ely.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o he la es a ailable yea . See able A1 o
mo e de ails.
53 ILO Wo king Pape 141
XTable A4. E ec o being a second-gene a ion mig an (based on al e na i e de ini ion) on hou ly wages
(pe cen age)
Coun y All Men Women
Eu ope
Aus ia -3.2 -4.6* -0.4
Belgium -6.6** -4.6 -9.5***
Bulga ia 36.6*** 39.5*** 15.5
C oa ia -4.4 -21.7*** 13.9***
Cyp us -1.4 -6.5 -3.5
Czechia 1.1 -4.2 7.0*
Denma k -4.9* -8.6** -1.1
Es onia -9.8** -8.0 -10.9**
Finland 11.3 -9.6 44.1
F ance 0.9 1.0 1.4
Ge many 0.9 2.8 -2.0
G eece 4.9 8.1 -3.4
Hunga y 3.3 -2.6 10.3
I eland -4.1 -9.0 0.9
I aly -12.0 10.9 -37.1
La ia -2.7 2.1 -7.9***
Li huania 3.9 -8.3 13.4*
Luxembou g -10.9** -16.0** -2.6
Ne he lands -1.4 -2.0 0.2
Poland 1.1 4.3 -1.6
Po ugal -3.6 1.2 -8.2
Se bia 8.2** 6.0 6.4
Slo akia 2.3 3.6 -17.2*
Slo enia 2.6 4.1 2.9
Spain 6.2 8.5 1.5
Sweden -5.7** -9.6*** -2.0
Swi ze land 1.4 1.1 0
Eu ope -4.7*** -5.6*** -3.6***
Res o he wo ld
Aus alia -0.4 -1.5 0.1
Uni ed S a es 3.7*** 1.0 6.5***
60 ILO Wo king Pape 141
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Acknowledgemen s
We a e g a e ul o Fabiola Mie es, Anil Duman, Tahmina Ka imo a, Ca he ine Sage , and Ca oline
F ed ickson o hei hough ul commen s and aluable insigh s, which signi ican ly en iched
his pape .

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