E ec s o an ex eme hea e en on indoo condi ions o social he i age
housing in Medi e anean clima e
Rosana Ca o
a
,
*
, Juan Jos´
e Send a
b
a
Depa amen o de Cons ucci´
on y Tecnología A qui ec ´
onicas, Escuela T´
ecnica Supe io de A qui ec u a, Uni e sidad Poli ´
ecnica de Mad id, A enida Juan de He e a 4,
Mad id 28040, Spain
b
Ins i u o Uni e si a io de A qui ec u a y Ciencias de la Cons ucci´
on, Escuela T´
ecnica Supe io de A qui ec u a, Uni e sidad de Se illa, A . de Reina Me cedes 2, Se ille
41012, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Indoo en i onmen al quali y
O e hea ing
Hea wa e
The mal com o
Social housing
He i age housing
Medi e anean clima e
ABSTRACT
Social he i age housing in Medi e anean his o ic ci ies is pa icula ly ulne able o clima e change haza ds as
p o ec ion policies lead o i s exclusion om ene gy e o i ing p og ammes, lea ing hei esiden s - a highe
isk o uel po e y and he hea -island e ec –de enceless. Inc easingly equen hea wa es can po en ially
p oduce “o e hea ing”in hese buildings, a he mal s a e ha impedes people’s com o wi h ha m ul conse-
quences o hei heal h. O he indoo ai quali y ac o s, like humidi y and CO₂le els, also a ec esiden s’
heal h. The objec i e o his esea ch is o e alua e he ac ual indoo en i onmen al quali y o h ee occupied
dwellings in social buildings o high he i age alue loca ed in wo his o ic ci ies in Andalusia (Spain) du ing he
ex eme hea e en s ha occu ed in 2022. A moni o ing campaign was conduc ed and he da a collec ed o e
he summe was analysed and e alua ed using exis ing me ics. Ou esul s show ha he CO
2
concen a ion
a es gene ally emained below he uppe limi o 1000 ppm in all cases, p obably due o he high ai in il a ion
a es measu ed (5.83 h
−1
, 4.39 h
−1
and 14.65 h
−1
). On he con a y, he ela i e humidi y a es we e ou side he
accep able ange (45–60 %) o 90 % o he occupied hou s in all cases. In he wa mes ci y, o e hea ing was
con inuous and se e e in all ooms, acco ding o he me ic adop ed (CIBSE s anda ds TM52 and TM59 unde he
adap i e he mal com o model). The si ua ion was pa icula ly c i ical in he ee- unning bed oom, bu he
o e hea ing index alues in he li ing ooms, whe e ai condi ioning was ins alled and used abou 50 % o he
occupied ime, also de ia ed signi ican ly om he accep able limi s.
1. In oduc ion
1.1. Con ex and backg ound
In Spain abou 450,000 dwellings, 2.5 % o he o al exis ing s ock
(excluding seasonal/second homes), a e subsidised. This applies o bo h
p i a ely owned and en ed housing. Andalusia accumula es almos
75,000 dwellings (Minis e io de T anspo es and de Vi enda y Suelo,
2020), he majo i y o which p eda e 1979 when he i s ene gy-sa ing
legisla ion was pu in place. Thei esiden s a e he mos ulne able o
uel- ela ed po e y and o he e ec s o ex eme wea he e en s caused
by clima e change. As a esul he EU Commission has chosen o ocus on
hese dwellings as pa o he 2020 EU Reno a ion Wa e s a egy (Eu-
opean Comission, 2020), which aims o ackle ene gy po e y and
deca bonize hea ing and cooling, especially in he wo s -pe o ming
buildings. Among hese we ind many esiden ial buildings which a e
legally p o ec ed due o hei he i age alue. These a e pa icula ly
di icul o deca bonize, as compliance wi h ene gy-e iciency a ge s
can con lic wi h in e na ionally accep ed conse a ion p inciples (Pe -
ze , 2004) and na ional policies ( on Re be g and Rod iguez-Ma ibona,
2013). The he e ogenei y o cases, he unce ain y ega ding hei
pos - e o i pe o mance and he isk o ad e se e ec s on hei
Abb e ia ions: AEMET, S a e wea he agency o he Spanish Go e nmen ; B , Bed oom; EEH, Ex eme hea haza d; H
e
, Hou s o exceedance (%); H
occ
, Occupied
hou s (h); IAT, Indoo ai empe a u e (℃); IEQ, Indoo en i onmen al quali y.; IRH, Indoo ela i e humidi y (%); L , Li ing oom; NEC, Spanish ene gy code; NV,
Na u al en ila ion; (n50), Ai change a e a 50 Pa (h
−1
); OAT, Ou doo ai empe a u e (℃); ORH, Ou doo ela i e humidi y (%); SP, Summe peak indoo
empe a u e (h); T
ed
, Daily mean ex e nal empe a u e (ºC); T
o
, Op imal ope a i e empe a u e (ºC); T
o,
,
max
, Daily uppe limi accep able o op imal ope a i e
empe a u e (ºC); T
m
, P e ailing mean ou doo empe a u e (ºC); W
e
, Daily weigh ed exceedance (ºC⋅h); ΔT
upp
, Uppe limi empe a u e (ºC).
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (R. Ca o), [email p o ec ed] (J.J. Send a).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Ene gy Repo s
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .com/loca e/egy
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.egy .2024.08.037
Recei ed 6 May 2024; Recei ed in e ised o m 2 Augus 2024; Accep ed 12 Augus 2024
Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
A ailable online 22 Augus 2024
2352-4847/© 2024 The Au ho s. Published by Else ie L d. This is an open access a icle unde he CC BY-NC-ND license ( h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/ ).
cons uc i e in eg i y (Da ies and O eszczyn, 2012), (Lidel¨
ow e al.,
2018) also pose addi ional di icul ies. In iew o his, acco ding o he
cu en EU Di ec i e on Ene gy E iciency (The Eu opean Pa liamen
and he Council o he Eu opean Union, Di ec i e 2023/1791/EU on
ene gy e iciency and amending Regula ion (EU) 2023/955 ( ecas ), n.
d.) hey a e exemp om he mos demanding and s ingen e-
qui emen s o u ban ene gy- e o i plans, despi e he ac ha his
p oblem has been well-documen ed o o e a decade now (Ma í-
nez-Molina e al., 2016). Po en ial di e consequences o his excep ion
will no be limi ed o aspec s ela ing o he en i onmen o ene gy e -
iciency. Socio-economic complica ions can also be expec ed, wi h
heal h isks de i ed om uel po e y and ex eme wea he e en s
po en ially inc easing d ama ically o he low-income esiden s o so-
cial housing in he i age buildings.
One o he mos damaging wea he e en s, which has no ably
inc eased in equency and se e i y due o clima e change, is he
ex eme hea haza d (EEH) (Eu opean En i onmen Agency, 2021),
which di ec ly impac s mo bidi y and mo ali y (G een e al., 2019). In
addi ion o age and p e-exis ing medical condi ions, social dep i a ion
has been p o en as a key ac o which inc eases he likelihood o people
expe iencing mo e ad e se heal h ou comes ela ed o EEH (Wa s e al.,
2021). EEH can be iden i ied and measu ed acco ding o he hea wa e
index. A hea wa e is de ined as a pe iod o a leas wo consecu i e days
du ing summe (June o Augus ) wi h a maximum appa en empe a u e
and a minimum ai empe a u e exceeding a local e e ence h eshold
de i ed om he 90 h pe cen ile in a pa icula egion and a a pa ic-
ula ime o yea (Eu opean En i onmen Agency, 2021).
In summe 2022, unusually in ense and widesp ead hea wa es ook
place o e mos o he Eu asian con inen and No h Ame ica, and we e
pa icula ly long-las ing in Eu ope and China (Lu e al., 2022), wi h
se e al EU coun ies epo ing excess dea hs (Cope nicus). In Spain,
summe 2022 was he wa mes since eco ds began, wi h an a e age
empe a u e 2.2 ◦C abo e he his o ic eco d (Agencia Es a al de
Me eo ología AEMET, 2022) and h ee egis e ed hea wa es: he i s
om June 12 h o 18 h; he second, which was excep ionally long and
in ense, om July 9 h o 26 h; and he hi d om July 30 h o Augus
15 h. Consequen ly, excess mo ali y a ibu able o high empe a u es
was 4813 people, 9 % in Andalusia (Cen o Nacional de Epidemiología,
2022). This gene al ise in empe a u es and inc easingly equen
hea wa es a e, un o una ely, no longe excep ional, bu a he a e in
line wi h he global end p edic ed by he la es IPCC Assessmen
Repo (IPCC, 2022).
Hea wa es p omp hea accumula ion inside buildings: when his
p oduces an indoo ai empe a u e ha is oo high o com o , we say
ha o e hea ing occu s. Al hough o e hea ing is likely o occu in he
absence o mechanical cooling ( ee- unning buildings) (ISO 52016–1:
2017), i can also occu when he ai condi ioning capaci y is insu icien
o canno be a o ded. I s impac on people’s heal h depends no only on
i s occu ence, bu also on i s equency, du a ion and se e i y. Fo o e
a decade now, o e hea ing has been obse ed in bo h new and exis ing
homes (Lomas and Po i , 2016). This explains some o he mos
de as a ing mo ali y wa es o da e (Díaz e al., 2002), (Canouï-Poi ine
e al., 2006) and has he e o e been inco po a ed in o mo ali y isk
analysis in many coun ies (Dodoo and Gus a sson, 2016; Hamdy e al.,
2017; Sahani e al., 2022; Liu e al., 2017). Howe e , he e is s ill no
consensus on how o assess o e hea ing in buildings (Rahi e al., 2021)
and a li ely discussion on his opic has ecen ly been aised among he
scien i ic communi y (Sus ainable Building Design Lab, 2023), (Flo -
es-La sen e al., 2023). The e emains much unce ain y su ounding he
e alua ion o o e hea ing in exis ing buildings and i is conside ed ha
many o he p oposed indices and me ics canno be me ealis ically in
he ac ual con ex (Mou kos e al., 2020), (Kim e al., 2023). Equally,
lack o consensus and accep ance h esholds exis o o he indoo
en i onmen quali y (IEQ) ac o s, no di ec ly linked o EEH, such as ai
pollu an concen a ion, humidi y, noise, na u al ligh and isual com-
o (Psomas e al., 2021; Pe ei a e al., 2020; Rueda L´
opez e al., 2021,
2023).
Any building in which IEQ is e y low can lead o he Sick Building
Synd ome among i s occupan s (Ross e al., 1997). This synd ome is
de ined as “a se o symp oms ha a ec some numbe o building oc-
cupan s du ing he ime hey spend in he building and diminish o go
away du ing pe iods when hey lea e he building”. SBS has been e-
po ed wi h g owing equency since he 1970s and associa ed wi h he
poo quali y o cons uc ion and he inc eased ai igh ness o he en-
elope o he mode n ene gy-e icien o old e o i ed buildings, whe e
adequa e en ila ion sys ems a e no usually implemen ed (Uni ed
S a es En i onmen al P o ec ion Agency (EPA), (Sa khosh e al., 2020).
IEQ in buildings has been subjec ed o ex ensi e esea ch. I can be
succinc ly ca ego ised acco ding o he objec i e o he s udy and he
ype o buildings unde analysis.
A i s se o wo ks we e mo i a ed by he need o conse a ion o
collec ions o a e ac s housed in his o ic public buildings o ou s anding
he i age alue. Fo example, in 1999 Camu o e al (Camu o e al.,
1999). moni o ed he indoo mic oclima e and ai pollu ion in he
Co e Museum in Venice, I aly, o iden i y he p oblems caused by he
hea ing and ai condi ioning sys em and he p esence o ca pe s in he
conse a ion o he pain ings. Li i e al (Li i e al., 2017). moni o ed he
mic oclima e in he main exhibi ion hall o Vleeshuis museum in An -
we p o p opose a new me hodology o he e alua ion and ce i ica ion
o Indoo Mic oclima e Quali y (IMQ) in he i age public buildings
housing a collec ions, wi h he aim o ensu ing com o o people and
sa e y o he cul u al he i age. Mu˜
noz-Gonz´
alez e al. (2018) s udied
he use o en i onmen al condi ioning echniques (passi e, ac i e,
combined) in a his o ic building in Medi e anean clima e housing
mo able he i age and i s impac on he conse a ion o a wo ks. Sil a
e al. (2020) ocused in he imp o emen o he me hodology used o
moni o he i age buildings and de eloped da a-logge p o o ypes based
on A duino echnology o measu e empe a u e, ela i e humidi y and
en ila ion. The senso s we e used o moni o he indoo clima e o
Je ´
onimos Monas e y in Lisbon (Po ugal), included in he UNESCO
Wo ld He i age Lis . Bay e al. (2022) de eloped and alida ed a
Compu a ional Fluid Dynamics (CFD) ene gy model o a UNESCO Wo ld
He i age Si e in San An onio, Texas, using moni o ing da a, o de e mine
which na u al en ila ion scena io deli e s he mos adequa e indoo
en i onmen al condi ions o occupan s, a wo k, and building p ese -
a ion. E emad e al. (2024) cons uc ed an ene gy model o a 1933
museum in Teh an (I an) o s udy he p oblem o ai condi ioning
main enance and i s impac on occupan com o and conse a ion o
he building ’s his o ical ea u es.
A second se o wo ks ocused on IEQ o dwellings in gene al, no
speci ically loca ed in his o ic buildings. This ype o analysis is aimed a
in es iga e he ela ion be ween indoo ai condi ions and people’s
he mal com o and well-being. The e iews o Y. Al ho e al (Al ho
e al., 2016). and Abdalla e al (Abdalla and Peng, 2021). o e s a good
collec ion o such s udies up o 2020. The e iew o L´
opez e al. (2023)
desc ibed he heal h issues ela ed o poo IAQ in buildings, using he
CO
2
concen a ion as he main indica o because i is o en accompanied
by high concen a ion o o he pollu an s, as i uses. As an example o
such app oach, see he wo k o Huang e al. (2018) who moni o ed
empe a u e and concen a ions o o maldehyde, Vola ile O ganic
Compounds (VOC), CO
2
, and Fine Pa icle Ma e (PM2.5) in eigh
esiden ial buildings in wo ci ies loca ed in no heas China wi h
ins alled esh ai sys ems o e alua e he impac o hese mechanical
sys ems on he concen a ion o pa icles ha m ul o heal h. In cold
clima es, he ex ended use o he hea ing can p oduce e y low IRH. In
his line, Psomas e al., (2021) in es iga ed he co ela ions be ween IRH
a es and building cha ac e is ics, beha iou and heal h
symp oms-complain s in esiden ial buildings in Sweden. The issue has
ecen ly gained a en ion due o he COVID-19 pandemic, as shown by
he wo k o (Bik ashe a, (2020) who s udied he co ela ion o Co id-19
mo ali y wi h low ai humidi y using publicly a ailable da a om
Ge man ede al s a es. In he same ein, Fe n´
andez-Agüe a e al
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2329
(Fe n´
andez-Agüe a e al., 2023). analysed he e ec s o occupan s’
beha iou wi h ega d o home en ila ion on occupan s’heal h be o e
and du ing he Co id-induced lockdown, h ough moni o ing and su -
eys ca ied ou in a sample o homes in Mad id and Se ille (Spain).
A hi d se o wo ks had analyzed IEQ o low-income homes, whose
esiden s a e mo e ulne able o he ad e se heal h e ec s o poo IEQ
due o hei limi ed inancial esou ces o implemen imp o emen s. The
2018 e iew o Diaz Lozano Pa ino and Siegel, (2018) included 49 a -
icles documen ing IEQ condi ions in social housing and ocused on ai
pollu an concen a ions, he mal com o , o heal h e ec s associa ed
wi h li ing in social housing dwellings. They concluded ha g een e -
o i s ha e he po en ial o imp o e he IEQ condi ions, bu hese e -
o i s mus be ailo ed o he speci ic con ex o each building. Mo e
ecen ly, Cheung and Jim, (2019), e alua ed ai pollu an s in eigh
ypical low-income iny dwellings o Hong-Kong. The ield assessmen
indica ed ha his ype o dwelling is mo e suscep ible o indoo ai
pollu ion due o he lack o a mechanical en ila ion sys em, he di i-
cul y o in e nal ai mo emen and indoo /ou doo ai exchange p o-
duced by he addi ional in e nal pa i ions, and he lack o e icien
exhaus sys ems o ex ac cooking umes. Fe n´
andez-Agüe a e al.
(2019) analysed he he mal com o , CO
2
concen a ion and indoo
ela i e humidi y (IRH) o six social esiden ial buildings in wo clima es
in Spain, o e a yea , and s udied he impac o he occupan beha iou
and he ai igh ness o he en elope. The au ho s concluded ha
imp o ing IAQ would call o imp o ed en ila ion p ac ice (excep in
he summe mon hs) o he ins alla ion o mechanical ai enewal sys-
ems. Se ano-Jim´
enez e al. (2020) cha ac e ized empe a u e, ela i e
humidi y, and CO
2
concen a ion o h ee social dwellings in sou he n
Spain h ough moni o ing in di e en seasons o iden i y e o i op-
po uni ies. The o e hea ing isk in low-income dwellings has been
a ge ed by Game o-Salinas e al. (2020). who e alua ed i in wel e
dwellings in Tegucigalpa (Hondu as), wi h a wa m opical clima e,
based on 41-day ield s udy measu emen s o indoo ai empe a u es
and s udied i s ela ion o a chi ec u al ypology, and by Escand´
on e al.
(2022)) who de eloped a p edic i e model o o e hea ing isk o wa m
egions. In cold o empe a e clima es, when hea ing is no used o
economic es ic ions, a e age indoo empe a u es a e gene ally below
he accep able limi s, as Pigna a e al. (2017) ound when moni o ing
and e alua ing 38 low-income households in Nicosia, Cyp us, du ing
win e .
F om he li e a u e e iew, i is clea ha he numbe o IEQ ield
assessmen s o dwellings in he i age buildings is much lowe . Fo
example, Ca o and Send a, (2020a, 2021) examined he indoo condi-
ions o occupied dwellings in ep esen a i e p o ec ed buildings o he
conse a ion a ea o Se ille, Spain. Mangeli e al. (2023) moni o ed he
he mal s a us o ou selec ed buildings in he Wo ld He i age Si e o
ock-cu a chi ec u e in Meymand, I an, and s udied he he mal com-
o using ques ionnai es and he P edic ed Mean Vo e index du ing he
pe iods o Decembe –Feb ua y and June–Augus . Cos a-Ca apiço e al.
(2022) e alua ed he he mal com o o e nacula dwellings in Alen-
ejo, Po ugal, based on a Po uguese con ex -adap ed com o model
(PTC) p oposed by he au ho s. Eskola e al. (2015) s udied he ela ion
be ween a chi ec u al ypology and ai igh ness o 68 adi ional u al
houses in Es onia and sou he n Finland, using on-si e measu emen s,
dynamic simula ion and ques ionnai es. Li e al. (2013) ca ied ou an
IEQ ield in es iga ion on he adi ional Chinese u al buildings named
“Tulou”(ea hen houses) and compa ed hem wi h o he u al buildings
in sou heas China.
Too li le e idence has been collec ed on he IEQ o he i age housing
despi e he ac ha hey ep esen he mos nume ous building ype in
ou his o ic ci ies and ha hei hyg o he mal pe o mance has a majo
impac on people’s heal h and well-being. In he Medi e anean egion,
one o he mos ulne able o clima e change, he e is ha dly any da a,
apa om he h ee pape s ci ed abo e. The sca ci y o speci ic s udies
in wa m clima es is linked o an o e - eliance on he a ou able e ec s
o hei cha ac e is ic high he mal ine ia and on he ex ended p ac ice
o na u al en ila ion o ensu e good ai quali y and also o he ac ha
hey a e usually excluded om ene gy e o i ing plans, in applica ion
o he successi e ene gy e iciency di ec i es (Eu opean Pa liamen ,
2012), (Eu opean Pa liamen , 2018), (The Eu opean Pa liamen and he
Council o he Eu opean Union, Di ec i e 2023/1791/EU on ene gy
e iciency and amending Regula ion (EU) 2023/955 ( ecas ), n.d.).
Howe e , he mal ine ia is only bene icial when sha p empe a u e
leaps be ween day and nigh occu (Ve beke and Audenae , 2018).
T opical nigh s, wi h ou doo empe a u es abo e 26 o 28 ºC, a e
becoming inc easingly equen in he Medi e anean egion (Olcina
Campos, J. e al. (2019)): mo e han 40 a e p edic ed o la ge a eas in
Sou he n Eu ope (Eu opean En i onmen Agency, 2011). In his
con ex , na u al en ila ion would be un easible du ing much o he yea
and he mal ine ia would wo sen com o condi ions ins ead o
imp o ing hem, as hea dissipa ion will be se e ely educed (Alessan-
d ini e al., 2019), (Sun e al., 2022). The lack o ac ual moni o ing da a
on his ype o dwelling in his o ic buildings esul s in a e y limi ed
accumula ed knowledge o hei ac ual indoo condi ions. Howe e , his
knowledge is needed o making co ec diagnoses aimed a d a ing and
implemen ing eno a ion p ojec s ha do no jeopa dise he conse a-
ion o he i age alues and/o people’s heal h. In p ac ice, he ene gy
e o i ing o he i age housing in he Medi e anean conse a ion a eas
is o en ca ied ou acco ding o s anda dised o mulae, which end o
inc ease he ai igh ness o he en elope and hus wo sen hei indoo
en i onmen al condi ions (Unde hill e al., 2020), inc easing he isk o
Sick Building Synd ome, o comp omise he physical in eg i y o his o ic
buildings. This will be exace ba ed by clima e change (Bla ie e al.,
2023).
This pape aims o con ibu e o ill his esea ch gap. I p esen s
e idence on he ac ual beha iou o indoo en i onmen al a iables in
social he i age housing s ock unde he ex eme hea e en s ha
occu ed in Spain in he summe o 2022. These ex eme hea e en s will
no longe be a a i y as hey a e p edic ed o occu wi h inc easing
equency in he Medi e anean egion. The cases p esen ed in his pape
a e o pa icula ulne abili y: low-income esiden s, es ic ions on
ene gy e o i ing imposed by he he i age p o ec ion egula ions and
he mos se e e summe in he egion so a . Despi e he abundance o
his ype o dwelling in he conse a ion a eas o Medi e anean ci ies
and i s impo ance in e ms o u ban sus ainabili y, o ou knowledge no
o he publica ions ha e add essed he subjec .
1.2. Objec i e
As hings s and, he aim o his a icle is o assess he ac ual indoo
condi ions o low-income dwellings loca ed in he i age buildings in
Andalusia (Spain) unde he se e e hea haza d o summe 2022.
The case s udies used we e h ee occupied dwellings wi hin wo
his o ic buildings in he conse a ion a eas o C´
o doba and G anada.
Bo h he u ban a eas and he buildings a e o ou s anding he i age alue
and a e p o ec ed a he highes le el exis ing in Spain. The e o e, in-
e en ions on he en elope, as well as he implemen a ion o enewable
ene gy sys ems which could esul in isual pollu ion in he his o ic
landscape (Lucchi e al., 2023) o damage a chaeological emains, a e
se e ely limi ed. The wo buildings belong o he social housing s ock
subsidised by he Andalusian Agency o Housing and Rehabili a ion
(AVRA), he public adminis a ion o he Regional Go e nmen o
Andalusia de o ed o he cons uc ion, ehabili a ion and managemen
o a o dable housing o low-income people (Jun a de Andalucía).
AVRA p o ided he in es iga ion wi h he necessa y human esou ces o
acili a e access o he dwellings and con ac wi h he esiden s. I s eam
also p o ided he documen a ion o he ehabili a ion p ojec s, which
con ained aluable cons uc i e in o ma ion ha was la e con as ed
on si e h ough isual inspec ions. Occupan s’consen was ob ained and
all e hical equi emen s we e me o conduc pe sonal in e iews and
w i en ques ionnai es in ela ion o hei habi s ega ding ene gy use,
occupancy and en ila ion. Quan i a i e da a we e ob ained h ough
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2330
moni o ing and ai igh ness es s o he en elopes. Ac ual beha iou
pa e ns we e es ablished based on he CO
2
concen a ion measu ed
a es and he decla ed habi s by he esiden s. In addi ion o CO2, IRH
and o e hea ing we e e alua ed acco ding o exis ing selec ed s an-
da ds. Rega ding o e hea ing e alua ion, wo sys ems p oposed by he
Cha e ed Ins i u ion o Building Se ices Enginee s (CIBSE) (Cha e ed
Ins i u ion o Building Se ices Enginee s (CIBSE)), whose applicabili y
emains unce ain, we e applied o he measu ed da a.
2. Me hods
The me hod used in his esea ch is o gene al applica ion o he
e alua ion o IEQ o esiden ial buildings. I consis s o : (1) Case s udy
desc ip ion, (2) Moni o ing campaign, (3) Use pa e n analysis and (4)
Indoo condi ions assessmen .
2.1. Case s udy desc ip ion
The h ee dwellings selec ed (iden i ied as C1, C2 and G1) a e loca ed
in wo he i age buildings in he conse a ion a eas o C´
o doba and
G anada (Andalusia, Spain), p o ec ed a he highes le el exis ing in
Spain and included on he UNESCO Wo ld He i age Lis (UNESCO). This
means ha hey a e subjec o in e na ional, na ional, egional and local
egula ions ha p ohibi isual pollu ion, and p e en exca a ions and
changes in building olume and cons uc i e elemen s on açades.
The wo ci ies belong o a Medi e anean clima e egion, co e-
sponding o zone Csa (wa m empe a e, d y and ho summe s) acco ding
o he K¨
oppen-Geige clima e classi ica ion (Peel e al., 2007). The
Spanish Na ional Ene gy Code (NEC) (Minis e io de Fomen o del
Gobie no de Espa˜
na, 2017) es ablishes ou le els o clima e se e i y o
summe , om 1 o 4 in inc easing o de . C´
o doba is classi ied unde he
mos se e e ca ego y (4), while G anada alls unde ca ego y 3 (Fig. 1).
Ex e nal empe a u es in C´
o doba ange be ween 4 ºC and 36 ºC and
a ely go below −1ºC o abo e 40 ºC. The summe s a e long and ha sh.
Al hough G anada has a sho e summe , i is also ho and a id, while
win e s a e long and cold. Du ing he yea , ex e nal empe a u es in
G anada ange be ween 0 ºC o 34 ºC and a ely go below −4ºC o abo e
38 ºC.
The wo case s udy buildings a e loca ed in he cen e o hei
espec i e conse a ion a eas. The one in C´
o doba (Plaza de la Co e-
de a, 43, Fig. 2) da es om 1683 and is a ep esen a i e example o a
common mul i- amily his o ic ypology in Andalusia, in which he
dwellings su ound a pa io ha is accessed om he s ee , p o iding
ligh and en ila ion while also se ing as a semi-public space o social
in e ac ions. I is owned by he Regional Go e nmen (AVRA), who
ca ied ou i s comple e eno a ion in 1991 o make en al housing
a ailable o low-income people.
The ehabili a ion p ojec p ese ed he mos solid sec ion o he
building o e looking he squa e, wi h h ee s o eys buil be ween hick
load-bea ing walls abo e a cades. As he pa su ounding he inne
communal pa io was in uins a ha poin i was demolished and
eplaced by a new cons uc ion occupying he same olume and
espec ing he his o ic alignmen s. Two dwellings we e moni o ed in
his building: C1, on he second loo o he conse ed pa , and C2 on
he i s loo o he newly cons uc ed pa (Figs. 3 and 4).
The mul i- amily building in G anada, in he medie al “Albayzín”, is
h ee-s o eys high and occupies a cha ac e is ically elonga ed na ow
plo be ween wo s ee s (Calle El i a and Calle Be e a), which di e in
le el by almos 7 m (Fig. 5). I s dwellings su ound a communal pa io
wi h a galle y ha is used as common access. The moni o ed dwelling
(G1) is loca ed on he g ound loo , on he limi wi h Calle Be e a, so ha
a signi ican pa o i s walls a e below s ee le el. As a esul , i displays
e y poo na u al ligh and en ila ion condi ions, a ea u e inhe i ed
om he medie al land plo ype, no in equen in he his o ic ci ies o
sou he n Spain.
A o al o i e ooms in he h ee dwellings we e moni o ed. The
ooms we e selec ed aking in o accoun he compliance o he enan s
( he bed oom o C1 had o be excluded). Thei main in o ma ion is
summa ized in Table 1 and dwellings a e desc ibed below (Fig. 6).
Case C1 has a usable su ace o 50 m
2
consis ing o a li ing oom,
Fig. 1. Map o Spain showing he loca ion o C´
o doba and G anada in he sou h o Spain. The di e en clima e zones es ablished by he NEC a e also ep esen ed in
di e en colou s.
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2331
ki chen, ba h oom and wo bed ooms. I is accessed h ough he galle y
ha connec s dwellings a ound he pa io (Fig. 6, on he le ). C oss-
en ila ion is acili a ed h ough he windows in he li ing oom, ac-
ing sou h, and he wo no h- acing bed ooms. A smalle cou ya d
p o ides addi ional ligh and en ila ion. The apa men was buil in
1991 ollowing egula o y minimum s anda ds. Case C2 occupies a us-
able su ace o 80 m
2
wi h a hall, li ing oom, independen ki chen,
ba h oom and h ee bed ooms. The li ing oom and pa en s’bed oom
a e on he main açade acing eas . The ki chen and he o he wo
bed ooms a e loca ed on he opposi e açade, acing wes (Fig. 6, on he
cen e). The las eno a ion, ca ied ou in 1991, included he comple e
eplacemen o wa e and elec ici y acili ies as well as a window
eplacemen . Nei he o he wo dwellings, C1 and C2, has mechanical
en ila ion, apa om he ki chen exhaus an. No window ames ha e
he mal-b idge b eaks and he glazing has no sola o he mal con ol. In
bo h cases he ai condi ioning is an ai -ai hea pump wi h only one
ou le o he li ing oom. Bo h C1 and C2 a e occupied by wo amilies o
ou , each wi h wo king pa en s (one pa - ime and one ull- ime) and
wo high-school age kids. Case G1 is a 37 m
2
g ound- loo apa men
wi h a single bed oom, ba h oom, li ing oom and ki chen in he same
olume. I is accessed om he pa io, o e looked by he wo li ing oom
windows (see Fig. 6 on he igh ). The bed oom has only one window a
a heigh o 1.70 m om he loo while he es o he wall is in con ac
wi h he g ound below s ee le el. G1 is occupied by a single pe son
who wo ks ou side on weekday mo nings and spends mos a e noons
ou side he home. The en elopes o he h ee dwellings lack he mal
insula ion and p esen low ai igh ness le els (see Sec ion 2.2). The
he mal ansmi ance alues o oo and walls, calcula ed om he
cons uc i e cha ac e isa ion h ough isual inspec ions and s udy o he
documen a ion o he eno a ion p ojec s, a exceed he cu en uppe
limi s es ablished by NEC o newly cons uc ed o ully eno a ed es-
iden ial buildings.
2.2. Moni o ing campaign
The moni o ing campaign las ed one ull yea , om Ma ch 2022 o
Ma ch 2023. Ne a mo®Sma Home Wea he S a ions we e used o
eco d da a a 30-minu e in e als. As shown in Fig. 6, ex e nal senso s
(Se) we e placed on balconies o windowsills o eco d ou doo ai
empe a u e and humidi y; in e nal senso s (Si) we e placed in non-
dis up i e loca ions (on shel es) in he li ing ooms and bed ooms,
away om windows and hea /cold sou ces. The six physical pa ame e s
moni o ed, and hei ange and accu acy a e shown in Table 2.
In o de o de e mine he ai igh ness o he en elopes (n50, in h
−1
),
which ha e a majo impac on many Indoo En i onmen al Quali y
(IEQ) ac o s o buildings, dep essu iza ion and p essu iza ion es s we e
also ca ied ou in he h ee dwellings on speci ic days in Ap il and May
2022, using he Blowe Doo and ollowing EN ISO 9972 (AENOR CTN
92, 2019). I was i ed o he en ance doo o each o he h ee
dwellings and con olled om he inside (Fig. 7). Acco ding o he
Fig. 2. Top, plan o Plaza de la Co ede a in C´
o doba, showing he posi ion o
dwellings C1 and C2. Bo om, iew o he squa e om a balcony o dwelling C2.
Fig. 3. Ex e io iews o he açades o dwellings in Co doba. On he le , he i e balconies o C2, on he second loo , a e ma ked wi h a hick whi e line. The
pho og aph on he igh shows he açade o C1, on he i s loo , o e looking he pa io galle y.
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2332
esul s, all en elopes display low ai igh ness: 5.83 h
−1
was measu ed in
dwelling C1, 4.39 h
−1
in C2 and 14.65 h
−1
in G1, al hough C1 and C2
a e below he a e age o 7 h
−1
ob ained o he housing s ock in
sou he n Eu ope (Fe n´
andez-Agüe a e al., 2018).
2.3. De ini ion o use p o iles
Residen s’beha iou in ela ion o occupancy, cooling use and na -
u al en ila ion we e deduced h ough he analysis o quali a i e and
quan i a i e in o ma ion, ollowing a Mixed Mode App oach (Zou e al.,
2018). Quan i a i e da a, ob ained h ough moni o ing, was used o
check he subjec i e in o ma ion, collec ed h ough in e iews and
w i en ques ionnai es handed ou o he esiden s. These included as-
pec s such as household composi ion, p esence schedules, daily ou ines
ega ding clo hing, na u al en ila ion (NV) and cooking habi s, as well
as he use o echnical sys ems and cooling se -poin empe a u es. CO
2
concen a ion a es measu ed we e s udied o deduce p esence and/o
NV cycles ( he la e combining OAT, IAT and IRH a es). Ab up
Fig. 4. Plans o he building in Plaza de la Co ede a in C´
o doba, he posi ions o he moni o ed dwellings C1 (le , i s loo ) and C2 ( igh , second loo ) a e ma ked
in colou .
Fig. 5. On he le , plan o building in G anada (g ey) wi hin he u ban plo showing he loca ion o he moni o ed dwelling G1 ( hick black ou line) wi hin i . On he
igh , iew o he pa io accessed om Calle El i a (pho og aph by Fe nando Alda).
Table 1
Gene al in o ma ion and iden i ica ion code o case s udies.
Ci y Clima e zone NEC Building Dwelling Floo Room moni o ed Room moni o ed ID
C´
o doba B4 Co ede a, 43 C1 Fi s loo , below la oo Li ing oom C1_L
C2 Second loo , below gable oo Li ing oom C2_L
Bed oom C2_B
G anada C3 El i a, 78 G1 G ound loo Li ing oom G1_L
Bed oom G1_B
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2333
changes o IAT a es helped in e cooling ope a ion. Fi s ly, gene al
ends o measu ed da a om 1s June o 31s Augus (2208 hou s) we e
s a is ically analysed and compa ed o he in o ma ion decla ed. Occu-
pancy (H
occ
) and cooling ope a ion hou s we e hen de e mined o each
oom. Secondly, a sho e pe iod o wo speci ic days ( he wa mes in
summe 2022) was s udied in de ail o he ooms in C´
o doba in o de o
iden i y beha iou al pa e ns unde hea wa e condi ions.
The quali a i e in o ma ion collec ed in he in e iews and ques-
ionnai es se ed o ind ou he disc epancies be ween wha was e-
po ed by he esiden s and wha he IAT and CO
2
a es indica ed abou
p esence, occupancy densi y and cooling use. The in e nal hea gains
de i ed by human occupancy and he numbe o hou s o cooling ha e a
majo impac on o e hea ing in buildings, and signi ican disc epancies
we e obse ed by he au ho s in o he in es iga ions (Ca o and Send a,
2021), showing ha he s anda d use p o iles, commonly used in en-
e gy e u bishmen p ojec s, mus be ea ed wi h cau ion as hey can
lead o widely a ying assessmen s o he mal com o .
2.4. Indoo condi ions assessmen
CO
2
concen a ion and IRH we e e alua ed om 1s June o 31s
Augus (92 days) o he i e ooms. O e hea ing was e alua ed in wo
di e en pe iods depending on he du a ion o he summe season o
each loca ion: om 1s May o 30 h Sep embe in C´
o doba, and om 1s
June o 31s Augus in G anada. As desc ibed in he In oduc ion, he e
is no ye consensus on he accep able h esholds and accep able expo-
su e ime o he indices o CO
2
and IRH. The same applies o o e -
hea ing, o which se e al me ics a e included in di e en s anda ds.
The e e ences and h esholds adop ed o his esea ch a e summa ized
in Table 3 and explained in u he de ail below.
2.4.1. CO
2
and IRH
CO
2
concen a ion is one o mos commonly s udied o ganic pollu -
an s in buildings as i is easy o measu e and is a good indica o o o he
an h opogenic bio-e luen s ( espi a o y ae osols om b ea hing and
alking), which a e ansmission ou es o i uses (Kappel e al., 2021).
CO
2
is also conside ed a pollu an i sel (Sa ish e al., 2012), (E dmann
Fig. 6. Plans o he case s udy dwellings (K: ki chen, B: ba h oom, B : bed oom, L : li ing oom, P: pa io). Moni o ed ooms a e ou lined in ed dashed lines, he
posi ions o he indoo (S
i
) and ou doo (S
e
) senso s a e indica ed.
Table 2
Range and accu acy o moni o ing senso s NETATMO®.
Range Accu ay
Tempe a u e (indoo ) 0 ºC o 50 ºC±0,3 ºC
Tempe a u e
(ou doo )
−40 ºC o 65 ºC±0,3 ºC
Humidi y (indoo and
ou doo )
0–100 % ±3 %
Ba ome e 260–1260 mba ±1 mba
CO
2
(Indoo ) 0–5.000 ppm ±50 ppm (0–1.000 ppm) o ±5 %
( om 1.000 ppm o 5.000 ppm)
Sound me e 35 dB o 120 dB
Fig. 7. Blowe Doo es in dwelling C2.
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2334
and Ap e, 2004) and g ea ly in luences he sleep quali y o indi iduals in
summe (Pe sily and Building, 1997), al hough consensus has no ye
been eached on hese issues. Di e en s anda ds se sligh ly di e en
admissible uppe limi s o CO
2
concen a ion in indoo spaces, whe e
he mos widely accep ed concen a ion o non-indus ial buildings is
1000 ppm (Azuma e al., 2018). Mos o he s anda ds se admissible
indoo CO
2
concen a ion alues depending on ou doo concen a ions.
Since hese we e no eco ded, he h esholds se in (Finnish Socie y o
Indoo Ai Quali y and Clima e FiSIAQ, 2008), which a e independen
om ou doo condi ions, we e chosen o his esea ch (Table 4).
Humidi y in he indoo ai is he esul o human p esence, ex e io
ai and wa e p esen in he building elemen s due o en i onmen al/
ou doo condi ions and/o ainwa e in il a ion (Gines e e al., 2019).
Humidi y is epo ed as ela i e (IRH in %) o absolu e (g/m
3
). IRH a es
e e o a speci ic condi ion o empe a u e and ai p essu e and ha e a
di ec impac on he pe cep ion o com o . Excessi ely d y indoo ai
has been linked o espi a o y in ec ions, d yness o nasal and la yngeal
ai ways, d y hands and eye i i a ions (A undel e al., 1986). Excessi ely
high IRH p omp s he p oli e a ion o mould, which also has se e e
medical epe cussions (Bush e al., 2006), (B ambilla and Sangio gio,
2020). Due o i s dependence on IAT o he pe cep ion o com o , NEC
(Minis e io de Indus ia, 2021) es ablishes a dis inc ion o accep able
h esholds o IRH depending on he season; hose se o summe ha e
been adop ed in his esea ch (Table 3).
2.4.2. O e hea ing
Two di e en app oaches can be used o e alua e he indoo he mal
condi ions in buildings, which esul in wo di e en ma hema ical
models: s eady and adap i e. The o me (Fange , 1970), (ISO
7730:2005) is sui able o spaces whe e people ha e li le scope o
in e ac ion wi h he ope able elemen s o he building (such as opening
o closing windows), o o clo hing changes in esponse o a ia ions in
he indoo en i onmen , so ha hey ha e o be mechanically cooled o
hea ed in a con inuous pa e n. I is now widely accep ed ha s eady
models a e oo in lexible and no app op ia e o e alua ions, as hey
p oduce un ealis ic discom o scena ios (Nicol e al., 2009), (Ca o e al.,
2024). Adap i e models we e designed conside ing ha he mal com o
is in luenced by he mos ecen clima e condi ions by he so-called
“adap a ion”(Nicol and Humph eys, 1973). Adap a ion is possible
only when people ca y ou seden a y ac i i ies (abou 1.0–1.3 me ), can
eely open o close windows, o change hei clo hes (wi hin a ange a
leas as 0.5–1.0 clo acco ding o (ANSI/ASHRAE, 2020)), a common
si ua ion in dwellings. Adap i e models a e he e o e sui able o
ee- unning buildings wi hou mechanical ai condi ioning.
Acco ding o he use p o ile analysis ca ied ou in his s udy (Sec-
ion 3.1), wo ou o he i e spaces moni o ed (li ing ooms in C1 and
C2) ha e ai condi ioning and a e “hyb id”o “mixed-mode”ope a ion
ype, whe e na u al condi ioning ( h ough he opening o windows) and
mechanical condi ioning a e p ac ised equally, swi ching om one o
he o he as needed (Ba badilla-Ma ín e al., 2017). The o he h ee
(li ing ooms o G1 and bed ooms o C2 and G2), wi h no ai condi-
ioning, espond o he ee- unning ype. All dwellings a e ep esen a-
i e o he mos widesp ead cooling ope a ion pa e n in he empe a e
clima es o sou he n Eu ope, especially in dwellings (Ca o and Send a,
2020b) whe e mechanical sys ems a e con olled manually and used
in e mi en ly oom by oom.
Gi en he conside able ambigui y abou he applica ion o he mos
commonly used adap i e models (EN 16798–1: 2019 (CTN100
Clima izaci´
on, 2020) and ASHRAE S anda d 55 (ANSI/ASHRAE, 2020))
o hyb id buildings (Ca lucci e al., 2018), (Yao e al., 2022), hei use in
he e alua ion o C1_L and C2_L leads o a deg ee o unce ain y. In
o de o educe hese ambigui ies, an al e na i e adap i e model, MM
( o “Mix-Mode”buildings) especially sui ed o he Medi e anean
clima e condi ions, was used (Ba badilla-Ma ín e al., 2017).In he MM
model, he op imal ope a i e empe a u e (T
o
) o each day o he pe iod
Table 3
Adop ed me ics and e e ences o IEQ e alua ion.
Fac o Index Re e ence Th esholds
CO
2
concen a ion
Indoo CO
2
concen a ion
(ppm)
Finnish Classi ica ion o Indoo En i onmen (Finnish Socie y o Indoo Ai Quali y
and Clima e FiSIAQ, 2008)
<750 (bes ); <900 (good); <1200
(accep able)
Humidi y Indoo Rela i e Humidi y
(IRH) (%)
NEC (summe ) (Minis e io de Indus ia, 2021) 45–60 %
The mal com o Indoo Ai Tempe a u e (IAT)
(ºC)
MM adap i e model (Ba badilla-Ma ín e al., 2017) 26–30.3 ºC (C´
o doba); 27.4–29.2 ºC
(G anada)
Table 4
O e hea ing indices and accep ance h esholds applied in he esea ch.
ID Index name Uni s Desc ip ion Applied
o
Accep ance
limi
I measu es Com o
model
SP Summe peak indoo
empe a u e
h Numbe o H
occ
pe pe iod in which IATs exceed a ixed
benchma k
Bed ooms ≤1 % o H
occ
o e 26 ºC
Occu ence;
equency
S eady
H
e
Hou s o exceedance % Numbe o H
occ
in which ΔT≥1ºC om May o Sep embe
inclusi e ela ed o he o al numbe o H
occ
in pe cen age
All ooms <3 % Occu ence;
equency
Adap i e
W
e
Daily weigh ed
exceedance
ºC⋅h Numbe o H
occ
in any day in which IAT alls ou side he com o
zone bounda y, weigh ed by he ex en o exceedance beyond he
bounda y
All ooms <6ºC⋅h on any
day
Se e i y;
du a ion
Adap i e
T
upp
Uppe limi
empe a u e
ºC Maximum alue o ΔT All ooms <4ºC Se e i y Adap i e
Table 5
O e hea ing e alua ion c i e ia applied in he esea ch.
Sys em C i e ia Compliance condi ion (no
o e hea ing)
Applicable o
TM52 H
e
, W
e
,ΔT
upp
Two ou o h ee c i e ia a e me L and B
TM59 H
e
The c i e ion is me L
H
e
, SP Bo h c i e ia a e me B
Table 6
Pe cen age o occupied and cooling ope a ion hou s o e he en i e pe iod o
he i e ooms.
C1_L C2_L C2_B G1_L G1_B
Occupancy (*) 39 % 45 % 21 % 1 % 48 %
Cooling ope a ion (**) 44 % 52 % 0 % 0 % 0 %
(*) Ra io o occupied hou s (H
occ
) o he o al numbe o hou s (2208 h)
(**) Ra io o cooling ope a ion hou s o H
occ
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2335
unde e alua ion and i s accep able uppe limi T
o,max
(bo h in Celsius) is
calcula ed wi h o mulae 2 and 3 below:
To=0.24⋅T m +19.3 (1)
To,max =0.24⋅T m +22.3 (2)
whe e:
T
o
: op imal ope a i e empe a u e (ºC)
T
o,max
: daily uppe limi accep able o T
o
T
m
: p e ailing mean ou doo empe a u e o he conside ed day
(ºC).
T
m
is a daily ou doo e e ence empe a u e calcula ed on he basis
o he daily mean ex e nal empe a u es co esponding o “no ewe
han se en and no mo e han 30 sequen ial days p io o he day in
ques ion”(ANSI/ASHRAE, 2020). The applicabili y ange o MM model
is 10 ºC<T
m
<33.5 ºC. Acco ding o he OAT moni o ing esul s, i can
be applied 83 % o he ime in C´
o doba and 100 % o he ime in
G anada. Fo hose e y wa m days in C´
o doba in which MM model was
no applicable, cons an alues o T
o,max
we e adop ed: 28 ºC o li ing
ooms and 26 ºC o bed ooms, ollowing (CIBSE, 2006a).
A wide a ie y o indices and me ics o e alua ing o e hea ing a e
included in a ious s anda ds. Howe e , in many cases, no accep able
de ia ions a e se . Some a e be e -sui ed o mechanically cooled ooms,
whe e s eady models should be applied (as in he case o bed ooms),
while o he s a e mo e app op ia e o ee- unning o mixed-mode
ooms unde he adap i e com o app oach. O e he las decade, he
Cha e ed Ins i u ion o Building Se ices Enginee s (CIBSE) (Cha e ed
Ins i u ion o Building Se ices Enginee s (CIBSE)) has de eloped
se e al indices and me ics o assess o e hea ing in bo h na u ally and
mechanically condi ioned buildings. Howe e , hei applica ion o eal
Fig. 8. Daily p o ile in C1_L unde hea wa e condi ions in summe 2022:
occupancy and cooling ope a ion. The pic u e abo e (a) co esponds o 15 h
June, he wa mes day o he i s hea wa e. The pic u e below (b) o 25 h July,
he wa mes o he second, when he MM model was no applicable.
Fig. 9. Daily p o ile in C2_L unde hea wa e condi ions in summe 2022:
occupancy and cooling ope a ion. The pic u e abo e (a) co esponds o 15 h
June, he wa mes day o he i s hea wa e. The pic u e below (b) co esponds
o 25 h July, he wa mes o he second, when he MM model was
no applicable.
R. Ca o and J.J. Send a Ene gy Repo s 12 (2024) 2328–2345
2336
5.83 h
−1
), 37 % o he occupied hou s had CO
2
a es abo e 1200 ppm,
he accep able uppe limi , indica ing a possible lack o na u al en i-
la ion due o high ou doo empe a u es.
2. Indoo humidi y. Indoo ai in dwellings in C´
o doba was gene -
ally oo d y (IRH a es we e below 45 % o 90 % o he occupied ime),
while in G anada i was oo humid, wi h he same pe cen age o hou s
wi h IRH abo e 60 %.
3. O e hea ing and cooling use pa e ns. Ai condi ioning use
mi o ed ha obse ed in non-low income dwellings in he same egion
(Ca o and Send a, 2020b), sugges ing ha social housing is no always
linked o ene gy po e y. Da a show ha in ense ai condi ioning use did
no p e en o e hea ing. In he li ing ooms C1_L and C2_L , cooling
ope a ed du ing 44 % and 52 % o he occupied hou s espec i ely,
keeping he Uppe Limi Tempe a u e (ΔT
upp
) below he accep able
limi o 4◦C. Howe e , o e hea ing was ex emely equen , wi h 18 %
and 15 % o he occupied hou s being Hou s o exceedance (H
e
), agains
an uppe limi o 3 %. The se e i y o he o e hea ing was also high: in
C1_L o 25 days and in C2_L o 24 days, he Daily weigh ed exceed-
ance (W
e
) was abo e 6 ºC⋅h, al hough his should no happen any day o
a oom o a oid se e e o e hea ing acco ding o TM52. The bed oom o
C2, wi hou ai condi ioning, had ex emely high indoo empe a u es,
ques ioning he habi abili y o he space: 50 % o hem we e be ween
32◦C and 34◦C, occasionally eaching 40◦C, posing a heal h h ea .
4. Failu e o mee o e hea ing c i e ia: None o he ooms in
C´
o doba me he o e hea ing condi ions se by TM52 and TM59 du ing
he summe o 2022. O e hea ing occu ed con inuously in all ooms
wi h la ge de ia ions om he accep ance h esholds. The mal condi-
ions we e wo se in he eas - acing, high he mal mass dwelling (C2)
han in he sou h- acing, ligh e bu be e p o ec ed agains adia ion
dwelling (C1). The MM model and he TM52 and TM59 c i e ia accu-
a ely cap u ed he he mal condi ions in he dwellings, alida ing hei
applica ion o such buildings and clima es.
5. Risk o Sick Building Synd ome (SBS). He i age buildings a e a
high isk o SBS due o ex eme hea , exace ba ed by he hea island
e ec , and o he addi ional dys unc ions, as e idenced in he g ound
loo dwelling G1, wi h poo access o na u al ligh and en ila ion and
high IRH le els, he la e caused by mois u e om he hick, po ous
g ound-con ac ing en elope.
Resea ch da a
Ca o, Rosana (2024), “Moni o ing_He i ageHousing_Andalusia
2022”, Mendeley Da a, V1, doi: 10.17632/5n5dhh2ym .1
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Juan Jos´
e Send a: W i ing – e iew &edi ing, Valida ion, Supe -
ision, Me hodology. Rosana Ca o: W i ing – e iew &edi ing, W i ing
–o iginal d a , Visualiza ion, Valida ion, Supe ision, So wa e, Re-
sou ces, P ojec adminis a ion, Me hodology, In es iga ion, Funding
acquisi ion, Fo mal analysis, Da a cu a ion, Concep ualiza ion.
Decla a ion o Compe ing In e es
The au ho s decla e he ollowing inancial in e es s/pe sonal e-
la ionships which may be conside ed as po en ial compe ing in e es s:
Rosana Ca o epo s inancial suppo , adminis a i e suppo , and
equipmen , d ugs, o supplies we e p o ided by Agencia de Vi ienda y
Rehabili aci´
on de Andalucía (AVRA). Regional Go e nmen o Anda-
lusia, Spain. Rosana Ca o epo s a ela ionship wi h Agencia de Vi -
ienda y Rehabili aci´
on de Andalucía (AVRA). Regional Go e nmen o
Andalusia, Spain. ha includes: consul ing o ad iso y. I he e a e o he
au ho s, hey decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial in-
e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape
Da a A ailabili y
I ha e sha ed he link o my da a (Mendeley Reposi o y) unde he
heade "Resea ch Da a" placed be o e "Re e ences" in he Re ised
Manusc ip
Acknowledgemen s
This wo k ecei ed equipmen and inancial and adminis a i e
suppo om he "Agencia de Vi ienda y Rehabili aci´
on de Andalucía"
(AVRA) o he Regional Go e nmen o Andalusia, Spain, and he Eu-
opean Regional De elopmen Fund (2014–2020). AVRA p o ided
human and echnical esou ces, access o he dwellings, con ac wi h he
esiden s, Blowe Doo es s, and ehabili a ion p ojec s documen a ion.
The au ho s hank he membe s o he Resea ch g oup TEP130 o he
Uni e si y o Se ille, o p o iding moni o ing senso s, D . Ca men
Ma ia Mu˜
noz Gonz´
alez, om he Uni e si y o M´
alaga, Spain, o da a
collec ion assis ance and Anna Zol owska o help wi h English w i ing
and p oo - eading.
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