FINAL DEGREE PROJECT
Chemical Enginee ing Deg ee
MAGNETIC SEPARATION OF ILMENITE USED AS AN
OXYGEN CARRIER IN FLUIDIZED BED COMBUSTION
Repo and Annexes
Au ho : Ignacio Lama ca Ba ba
Di ec o : Raúl Bení ez Iglesias
Da e: June 2021
iii
Magne ic sepa a ion o ilmeni e
used as an oxygen ca ie in
luidized bed combus ion
Bachelo ’s hesis in Chemical Enginee ing
Ignacio Lama ca
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
DIVISION OF ENERGY AND MATERIALS
CHALMERS TEKNISKA HÖGSKOLA
Go henbu g, Sweden 2021
www.chalme s.se
i
BACHELOR’S THESIS 2021
Magne ic sepa a ion o ilmeni e used as an oxygen ca ie in
luidized bed combus ion
Ignacio Lama ca
Depa men o Chemis y and Chemical Enginee ing
Di ision o Ene gy and Ma e ials
CHALMERS UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
Go henbu g, Sweden 2021

i
Magne ic sepa a ion o ilmeni e used as an oxygen ca ie in luidized bed combus ion
IGNACIO LAMARCA BARBA
© IGNACIO LAMARCA BARBA, 2021.
Supe iso : Pa le a Knu sson, Depa men o Chemis y and Chemical Enginee ing
Examine : B i -Ma ie S eena i, Depa men o Chemis y and Chemical Enginee ing
Bachelo ’s hesis 2021
Depa men o Chemis y and Chemical Enginee ing
Di ision o Ene gy and Ma e ials
Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology
SE-412 96 Go henbu g
Telephone + 46 (0)31-772 1000
Go henbu g, Sweden 2021
ii
Magne ic sepa a ion o ilmeni e used as an oxygen ca ie in luidized bed combus ion
IGNACIO LAMARCA BARBA
Depa men o Chemis y and Chemical Enginee ing
Di ision o Ene gy and Ma e ials
Chalme s Uni e si y o Technology
Abs ac
This bachelo hesis s udies how oxida ion and educ ion cycles du ing oxygen ca ie aided
combus ion (OCAC) ope a ion, as well as ash in e ac ion, a ec he magne ic suscep ibili y o
ilmeni e pa icles used as oxygen ca ie s. Magne ically sepa a ed samples o bo om ash collec ed
om K a ingen’s ci cula ing luidized boile loca ed in Ö o a (Sweden) we e analysed. The
samples we e pa o an OCAC campaign om Ap il 2018, in which was e wood and wood chips
we e used as uel.
Pa icles om he esh ma e ial, he bo om ash, as well as he ac ions sepa a ed by a magne -
he magne ic ac ion (magne ic accep ) and he non-magne ic ac ion (magne ic ejec ) collec ed
om di e en days we e mo phologically and chemically cha ac e ized using SEM-EDS. XRD
was used o c ys alline compounds iden i ica ion and XRF was used o he analysis o he bulk
composi ion o he samples. The a o emen ioned analysis we e complemen ed wi h magne ic
suscep ibili y measu emen s o he samples.
The sepa a ion o he magne was ound no o be o ally e ec i e as a i ac s (namely eldspa in
he magne ic ac ion and inac i a ed ilmeni e in he magne ic ejec ) we e de ec ed in he samples.
The esul s indica e ha p olonged esidence ime o he bed ma e ial in he boile inc eased he
p esence o CaTi0.8Fe0.2O2.9 en ichmen s in he ash laye o he pa icles om he magne ic accep
ac ion. I was obse ed ha ash compounds do no in e e e signi ican ly in he bulk magne ic
suscep ibili y. Magne ic suscep ibili y inc eased wi h longe esidence ime, whe e he sugges ed
cause behind i was he possible Fe2+ mig a ion owa ds he su ace o ilmeni e pa icles, and i s
oxida ion o magne ic Fe oxides – i anomagne i e and hema i e.
The esul s om he wo k sugges ha he magne ic suscep ibili y o bed ma e ial inc eases wi h
esidence ime in he boile , and so does he ash up ake. Ea ly sepa a ion can esul in esh
ma e ial ending in he magne ic ejec ac ion. Based on hese esul s, an op imal ime window
o he ex ac ion, sepa a ion, eci cula ion and/o enewal o he bed ma e ial can be de ined ha
will likely esul in an inc ease in sepa a ion e iciency o he bed ma e ial. The ewi h, magne ic
suscep ibili y measu emen s could be a use ul ool in he op imiza ion and decision making
ega ding his ime window.
Keywo ds: Oxygen ca ie aided combus ion, ci cula ing luidized bed, oxygen ca ie , ilmeni e,
ash in e ac ion, magne ic sepa a ion, magne ic suscep ibili y
iii
Acknowledgemen s
I am g a e ul o ha ing been able o emba k on his p ojec since i has been a g ea oppo uni y
o acqui e mo e knowledge han I had e e imagined when I s a ed. I ha e become e y in e es ed
in he ield and I hope o keep lea ning mo e abou i in he nea u u e. This Bachelo hesis would
ha e no been able wi hou he in ol emen o se e al people ha I would like o ake he ime o
hank.
Fi s ly, I would like o hank my supe iso , Pa le a Knu sson, o he commi ed guidance and
ad ice du ing each one o he s eps o he de elopmen o his epo and o pushing me o achie e
my goals. I would also like o hank Robin Faus o his help du ing his p ojec , o eaching me
i s -hand he echniques used in he expe imen al pa o he epo , as well as o his company
in he labo a o y du ing ha phase o he p ojec . Apa om hei dedica ed assis ance in he
p ojec , I also app ecia e hei ca ing help and counselling o e he mon hs I ha e been in Sweden
as a newcome .
Then, I would like o hank my examine , B i -Ma ie S eena i, o he aluable ad ice o e he
las s eps o he elabo a ion o he epo , which has ensu ed a highe s anda d o he quali y o
i . My g a i ude also goes owa ds F ed ik Lind and Pa ick Moldenhaue , who p o ided
in o ma ion ega ding he magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s as well as impo an in o ma ion
o he indus ial campaign he samples o which ha e been in es iga ed in his epo . In ha line,
I would like o hank hem and Imp obed AB o he samples ha we e analysed as well as
And eas Schae e o unning he XRF.
Las ly, I would like o show my g a i ude owa ds my amily o hei con inuous lo e and suppo
h oughou his jou ney.
Ignacio Lama ca, Go henbu g, June 2021
ix
Con en
1. In oduc ion ....................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Fluidized bed echnology .......................................................................................... 2
1.2 Oxygen Ca ie s ........................................................................................................ 3
1.3 Ilmeni e...................................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Biomass ash ............................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Reac ions ................................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Alkali up ake and consequences o boile ope a ion wi h OC .................................. 8
1.7 Magne ic sepa a ion ................................................................................................ 12
1.8 Fe magne ic species ................................................................................................. 16
2 Me hods ........................................................................................................................... 18
2.1 SEM-EDS ................................................................................................................ 18
2.2 X- ay Di ac ion (XRD) ......................................................................................... 20
2.3 Magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s .................................................................... 21
2.4 X- ay Fluo escence (XRF) ...................................................................................... 23
3 Resul s ............................................................................................................................. 24
3.1 SEM-EDS esul s .................................................................................................... 25
3.2 XRD esul s ............................................................................................................. 39
3.3 Magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s esul s ........................................................ 42
3.4 XRF esul s .............................................................................................................. 43
4 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 48
5 Fu u e wo k ..................................................................................................................... 53
6 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................... 55
Re e ences ............................................................................................................................... 57
Appendix I. Code used o he samples ................................................................................... 60
Appendix II. Speci ic me hodologies ollowed o SEM-EDS ............................................... 62
Appendix III. Addi ional Figu es o he laye analysis wi h SEM-EDS ................................ 63
Appendix IV. Addi ional Figu es o he XRD scans ............................................................. 64
Appendix V. Addi ional Figu es o he XRF esul s ............................................................. 65
4
combus ion p ocesses. The wo eac o s, he Ai Reac o and he Fuel Reac o , a e luidized bed
eac o s whe e oxygen ca ie s a e used as bed ma e ials.
Wi h some OCs, a Chemical-Looping wi h Oxygen Uncoupling (CLOU) mechanism is also
p esen along wi h egula CLC. CLOU is based on he same p inciple as CLC bu he e is an O2
elease om he oxygen ca ie o he gas phase. The O2 eleased goes on o eac wi h he uel,
esul ing in as e oxida ion han wi h he egula he e ogeneous eac ion be ween he uel and he
solid OC. Howe e , ilmeni e is conside ed a non-CLOU OC so he CLOU p ocess will no be
u he discussed in his epo [12].
In OCAC he OC is no s ic ly subjec o an oxidizing o educing a mosphe e like in CLC, as i
is used o eplace he bed ma e ial o a con en ional CFB. Thus, he oxida ion and he educ ion
do no ake place in sepa a e eac o s and he boile p esen s milde local educing and oxidizing
en i onmen s compa ed o CLC. Tha is why he OC has o be eac i e in con inuously a ying
oxidizing/ educing condi ions.
An oxygen ca ie can ei he be syn he ically manu ac u ed o i can be ex ac ed om a na u al
o e o om an indus ial was e s eam. A na u al oxygen ca ie is ound di ec ly in he na u e
and does no equi e ex ensi e ea men apa om c ushing o sie ing. Manu ac u ed ma e ials
a e based on na u al ma e ials ha a e subjec ed o ea men s like, o example, inco po a ion o
addi i es and hea ea men among o he s. Manu ac u ed o syn he ic ma e ials end o be mo e
expensi e han na u al/was e ma e ials. Na u al and was e s eam ma e ials a e inc easing in
impo ance o use as OCs. This can be con i med by he da a published by Lyng el e al. [12],
ha shows ha he e was a 68% inc ease in he ope a ion ime o na u al o es and was e ma e ials
as OCs du ing he yea s 2014-2018. Tha means ha a he end o 2018 he sha e o use o hese
OCs had doubled i compa ed o he sha e in 2014. This esea ch akes in o accoun a o al o
11338 hou s o ope a ion in o al sp ead o e 212 publica ions [12]. Ilmeni e is one o he mos
widely s udied and used OCs wi h solid uels and i is indeed he mos ecu en OC inside he
na u al/was e ca ego y [9, 11].
In OCAC, he OC can be deac i a ed and pa o he ma e ial can be los as ines due o a i ion,
which means ha pa o he bed needs o be egene a ed ei he wi h new bed ma e ial o
eci cula ed bed ma e ial ha has unde gone a ea men o sepa a ion. This leads o gene a ing
was e ma e ial lows and inc eases he o e all cos o he p ocess i expensi e OC ma e ials a e
used as bed ma e ial. Tha is why he a ge o OC esea ch and ope a ion a e al eady exis ing
low-cos ma e ials a ailable in la ge quan i ies. Ilmeni e ul ils he equi emen s o a good OC
and ha jus i ies he inc ease in esea ch s udies in ol ing his o e du ing ecen yea s [11].
1.3 Ilmeni e
Ilmeni e is a na u ally occu ing mine al composed o he ilmeni e phase FeTiO3 which can be
oxidized o Fe2TiO5 (pseudob ooki e). Ilmeni e anspo s oxygen by changing he deg ee o
oxida ion o i on om 3+, as in pseudob ooki e, o 2+, as i is in ilmeni e. While unde going his
change i oxidizes he uel in he eac o . Because o his edox eac ion, Fe is conside ed o be
he ac i e oxygen ans e ing elemen while Ti is no ac i e in he oxygen ans e [12, 9].
Ilmeni e exis s in he o m o sand o ock ilmeni e. Bo h sha e he same chemical composi ion
( he main phase is FeTiO3) and he main di e ence is he pa icle size and mo phology. Sand
ilmeni e pa icles ha e smoo h ounded shapes due o being exposed o e osion, a i ion and o he
kinds o na u al wea he ing. Ins ead, ock ilmeni e pa icles ha e sha p edges because he ock
comes om he di ec mining and c ushing o he o e. Sand ilmeni e some imes shows a highe
con en o TiO2 due o na u al oxida ion and dissolu ion o Fe du ing wea he ing [15].

5
Usually, i is mo e common o ind ock ilmeni e han sand ilmeni e in OC applica ions because
i o en has a highe oxygen ans e ing capaci y. Tha comes om he ac ha i is common o
ind mo e Fe in he ock ilmeni e pa icles han in he sand coun e pa [11].
Fuels also ake a huge pa in how he combus ion p ocess wi h an OC de elops. Among all ypes
o uel, gaseous uels a e he mos con enien ega ding hei handling and homogenei y. These
ypes o uels can eac di ec ly wi h he OC in a as gas-solid eac ion and can also ac as a
luidizing agen . One example o gaseous uels is syngas. Fo he solid uels, in o de o eac wi h
he OC, he ola ile pa o he solid uel has o be eleased. The eac ion ha akes place is also
a gas-solid eac ion bu he addi ional s ep o ola iliza ion adds complexi y o he p ocess. The
emaining solid cha s go h ough a simila p ocess as he solid uels ha need o be combus ed
[11].
1.4 Biomass ash
Du ing he combus ion o he uel, bed ma e ial and lue gases a e no he only species p esen in
he eac o .
Ashes a e he emaining ac ions om he uel a e combus ion. Biomass ash is a complex
he e ogeneous mix u e o mainly ypes o ino ganic ma e bu also o a lesse deg ee o ganic
ma e . In he boile he e a e wo ypes o ashes - ly and bo om ashes.
Fly ashes consis o he ine pa icula es le a e uel con e sion ha lea e om he uppe pa
o he boile en ained by he lue gases. They a e usually sepa a ed by he cyclone and he il e
and can p o oke co osion and ouling i hey ge deposi ed on he hea equipmen ha is pa o
he downs eam p ocessing o he lue gases [11].
Bo om ashes consis o bed ma e ial and ash componen s ha s ay in he dense pa o he bed
and hey a e he main con ibu o s o bed agglome a ion and de luidiza ion.
The main bo om ash componen s a e silicon, alkali (mos ly K and Na) and alkaline ea h (mos ly
Ca and Mg) in he o m o oxides, ca bona es, chlo ides, hyd oxides and sulpha es. Ashes can
also inco po a e elemen s such as aluminium, i anium, sulphu o phospho us. The composi ion
o biomass ashes depends on h ee ac o s: he ype o biomass and condi ions in which he
biomass esou ce is ob ained and s o ed, he condi ions in which he combus ion akes place and
bo h he anspo and s o age condi ions o he ashes. I is widely accep ed ha wood and woody
biomass yields he minimum amoun o ashes compa ed o he o he g oups, being animal and
was e lows like municipal solid was e he esou ces ha ha e a highe ash yield (i can be up o
50-70%) [10].
When e e ing o biomass o i s ashes, elemen al concen a ions a e a aluable measu e o he
composi ion o a sample. Depending on he concen a ion o a ce ain elemen , i can be classi ied
as a majo (>1%), mino (1-0.1%) and ace (<0.1%) elemen in he sample. Following his
classi ica ion, ypically he majo elemen s in biomass a e C>O>H>N>Ca>K and he mino
elemen s a e Si>Mg>Al>S>Fe>P>Cl>Na. O cou se, he ash composi ion a ies depending on
he sou ce o he biomass bu ha classi ica ion is gene ally accep ed, along wi h he inclusion o
Mn and Ti as mino elemen s. The composi ion o he biomass ashes a ies depending on he ype
o biomass ha was used o combus ion bu i has been ound ha wood and woody biomass
shows a low concen a ion o Cl, K, Na and S while being ich in Ca [10].
Ilmeni e eac s wi h he main ash elemen s, K and Ca, o ming new compounds ei he while
di using in o he bed ma e ial pa icles (such as e.g. KTi8O16) o while s aying a ached o he
pa icle su ace (such as e.g. Ca(Ti0.7Fe0.3)O2.5) [16]. The o ma ion o hese compounds can lead
6
o K cap u e which p e en s he o ma ion o gaseous K compounds ha can co ode he hea
exchange equipmen p esen in he downs eam p ocessing o he lue gases. Tha ype o
co osion leads o ex ensi e main enance cos s. The e o e, i ansla es in o a g ea loss o bo h
p oduc ion and money. The mechanism o eac ion o o m he lis ed i ana e compounds is ha d
o assess and emains unclea .
1.5 Reac ions
The main ole o he OC in an OCAC applica ion is o ans e oxygen om he oxygen ich si es
o he oxygen lean si es o he eac o . The chemical mechanism behind ha is based on edox
eac ions be ween he oxygen ca ie and i s en i onmen .
1.5.1 Ilmeni e eac ions wi h o ganic cons i uen s om he uel
The OC mus be i s oxidized in an oxygen ich loca ion (e.g. nea he ai inle o he
combus ion chambe ) by ai :
𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑂𝑦−1 +1
2𝑂2→ 𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑂𝑦
(R1)
In he case o ilmeni e, he oxida ion occu s ollowing he nex eac ion:
2𝐹𝑒𝑂 · 𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)+1
2𝑂2(𝑔)→𝐹𝑒2𝑂3·𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)
(R2)
And hen, he OC is educed a an oxygen lean loca ion (e.g. nea he uel inle ).
The uel will eac o o m ola ile compounds and cha ( hese las o ganic compounds a e also
con e ed o CO) [11, 14].
𝐵𝑖𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝐶𝑎𝐻𝑏𝑂𝑐)→ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒𝑠 (𝐶𝑖𝐻𝑗)+ 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟 (𝐶𝑥𝐻𝑦𝑂𝑧)
(R3)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟(𝑠) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑔) → 𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂(𝑔)
(R4)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟(𝑠) + 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) → 2𝐶𝑂(𝑔)
(R5)
Vola iles a e in he o m o nCiHj gaseous hyd oca bons and along wi h CO hey eac wi h he
OC in a edox eac ion ha yields CO2. Du ing ha eac ion he OC is educed.
𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝐶𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑛𝐶𝑖𝐻𝑗(𝑔) + 𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑂𝑦(𝑠) → 𝐶𝑂2(𝑔) + 𝐻2𝑂(𝑔) + 𝑀𝑒𝑥𝑂𝑦−1(s)
(R6)
7
Du ing his eac ion he OC eac s wi h he ola ilized hyd oca bons. Howe e , inside he eac o
he e is also CO ha comes om he gasi ica ion o ola iles and cha s, and i can also yield CO2
when oxidized. Taking ilmeni e as he OC o choice, he eac ion should be he ollowing.
𝑥𝐹𝑒2𝑂3·𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)+ 𝑎𝐶𝑂(𝑔)+ 𝑏𝐶𝑖𝐻𝑗(𝑔) → 2𝑥𝐹𝑒𝑂 · 𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)+𝑐𝐶𝑂2(𝑔)+ 𝑑𝐻2𝑂(𝑔)
(R7)
Whe e pseudob ooki e o med in he oxygen ich sec ions is educed o ilmeni e again [14].
Du ing he oxida ion o ilmeni e, mul iple s udies ha e ound ha an Fe2O3 laye is o med on he
su ace o he pa icles and ha he oxidizing condi ions p omo e he sepa a ion be ween Fe and
Ti inside ilmeni e pa icles [18, 19]. This Fe oxide laye is o med as a esul o Fe2+ and Ti4+
di usion owa ds egions wi h high oxygen pa ial p essu es, such as he su ace o he pa icle.
While Fe2+ and Ti4+ a e di using owa ds he su ace o he pa icle, oxygen molecules a e
di using inside he pa icles. Acco ding o Knu sson e al. [18], Fe2+ di uses as e in FeTiO3
han Ti4+. When eaching he su ace, Fe2+ ions a e oxidized o Fe3+ as in Fe2O3 and ha is how
he hema i e laye is de eloped. D. Rao e al. [19] s a e ha unde 770 deg ees Fe2O3 is o med
on he su ace o he pa icle. Since O2 has o di use h ough Fe2O3 u he eac ion occu s a he
Fe2O3-FeTiO3 in e ace. Then, be ween 770 deg ees and 900 deg ees Fe2Ti3O9 (pseudo u ile) is
o med and i on di uses h ough i o he a ailable g ain bounda ies, c acks o he su ace, whe e
he oxygen pa ial p essu e is highe [19]. Since du ing oxida ion a e en highe empe a u es
pseudob ooki e (Fe2TiO5) is also o med, o p esen Fe-Ti seg ega ion he mobili y o he Fe
ca ions h ough he s uc u e has o be high, due o he ac ha he Fe:Ti a io is highe o Fe2TiO5
han o FeTiO3. O he han he sugges ed mechanism, i is possible o ind o he mechanisms o
his Fe-Ti seg ega ion in he li e a u e as i has been desc ibed in mul iple ways.
The ollowing eac ion is a sugges ed eac ion o he o ma ion o pseudo u ile om ilmeni e:
2𝐹𝑒𝑂 · 𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)+ 𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)+1
2𝑂2(𝑔) → 𝐹𝑒2𝑇𝑖3𝑂9(𝑠)
(R8)
The compound o med is pseudo u ile. Pseudo u ile, acco ding o Fu e al. [20], has a sligh ly
lowe la ice densi y han ilmeni e which could acili a e he mig a ion o Fe2+ h ough he
s uc u e, as obse ed by Co co an e al. [21]. This allows mo e o ma ion o hema i e (Fe2O3)
and he mig a ion o Fe con en ou wa ds he pa icle [21]. Recen s udies s a e ha i is p ecisely
his Fe mig a ion ou wa ds he cause o he phase sepa a ion be ween Fe2O3 (ou e pa o he
pa icle) and TiO2 (inne pa o he pa icle) [16].
The Fe mig a ion owa ds he su ace imp o es con ac wi h ai . Tha e ec , combined wi h he
ac ha Fe is he ac i e elemen in oxygen ans e ing leads o an inc ease in oxygen ans e ing
capaci y. Howe e , a i ion is happening wi h o wi hou Fe on he su ace. The p oblem wi h
ha is ha while Fe mig a es owa ds he su ace, Fe a i ion also inc eases, educing he OC
abili y as he ac i e elemen is los . This phenomenon educes he o e all li e ime o he OC
pa icles. Fe mig a ion also inc eases he po osi y o he pa icles, inc easing he pa icle/ai
eac ion su ace. Tha po osi y inc ease is only co ela ed wi h an inc ease in OC abili y in he
cases whe e a i ion is no dominan and he e is s ill enough Fe in he s uc u e [11].
8
Fe ends o mig a e o a eas wi h a high oxygen pa ial p essu e. In he case o sand ilmeni e, his
mig a ion ends o be mo e in ense owa ds ce ain c acks and ca i ies o he pa icle, whe e
s uc u al de ec s ac as passages o oxygen di usion. Howe e , his is no he expec ed
beha iou o ock ilmeni e. Since ewe ca i ies a e o med in hese pa icles i is mo e common
o see Fe mig a ing owa ds he su ace, as i is he nea es loca ion wi h a conside able oxygen
po en ial [11].
Ano he possible scena io o he obse ed Fe-laye a he ou e mos su ace is ha a o med ou e
ash laye ( he o ma ion o his laye will be u he explained la e on) can be wo n o due o
a i ion and as a esul , he Fe laye is p esen on he su ace. An example o his has been
obse ed in esea ch ca ied ou by S aničić e al. [22].
1.5.2 Ilmeni e eac ions wi h ino ganic cons i uen s om he uel (ashes)
Some o he mos impo an eac ions be ween ilmeni e and ash compounds a e he ones ha o m
po assium i ana es inside he co e o he OC pa icles (ilmeni e pa icles) due o po assium
di usion inwa ds. This eac ion happens due o in e ac ion o he TiO2 co e (le a e he Fe
di usion ou wa ds in oxida ion condi ions ha has been explained p e iously) wi h po assium-
based sal s o o he compounds such as po assium oxides. Fo ins ance, KCl has been chosen as
he po assium sal o he sugges ed eac ion bu o he ones could ha e been chosen oo.
8𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)+ 𝐾𝐶𝑙(𝑠)→𝐾𝑇𝑖8𝑂16(𝑠)+1
2𝐶𝑙2(𝑔)
(R9)
When he K compounds in he combus ion chambe (e.g. KCl) a e no aken up by an addi i e
hey can lea e he combus ion chambe wi h he lue gases. Once eleased, hey can be ha m ul
o he hea exchanging equipmen so i is an ad an age i K is aken up by he OC. Thus, he
ongoing esea ch ocusing on how o make ilmeni e abso b mo e K and he limi s o ha p ocess
is bene icial o p e en ing co osion [14].
In a simila in e ac ion, Ca compounds can be adhe ed o he su ace o he s uc u e o he
ilmeni e pa icle whe e eac ion akes place and Ca2+ is inco po a ed in o he i ana e s uc u e by
eac ing wi h TiO2 o o m CaTiO3 [16]. The ollowing sugges ed eac ion desc ibes he o ma ion
o CaTiO3 s a ing om CaO.
𝐶𝑎𝑂(𝑠)+𝑇𝑖𝑂2(𝑠)→ 𝐶𝑎𝑇𝑖𝑂3(𝑠)
(R10)
1.6 Alkali up ake and consequences o boile ope a ion wi h OC
Se e al s udies ha e documen ed how his heo e ical se o eac ions a ec he ac i i y, he
mo phology and mechanical s abili y o he ilmeni e pa icles when ac ing as bed ma e ial and he
chemical eac ions ha ilmeni e unde goes wi h he main ash compounds [12, 13, 16].
Acco ding o published da a, when exposed o combus ion condi ions, Fe mig a es owa ds he
su ace o he pa icle, o ming an i on- ich laye . This laye is ei he a uni o m laye o i appea s
as i on- ich clus e s o islands a loca ions whe e he oxygen pa ial p essu e is highe . Fo he
same combus ion condi ions, Co co an e al. [16], ound ha he po assium and calcium
compounds o he ashes eac wi h he ilmeni e pa icle o ming new compounds. On one hand,
9
po assium compounds o m wha is hough o be KTi8O16, a esul o K di using in o he pa icle
co e and eac ing wi h TiO2. On he o he hand, a Ca- ich double laye is o med a ound he Fe-
en iched laye ha can be ound on he pa icle. This double laye consis s o an ou e laye ha
accumula es on he su ace o he pa icle and an inne laye ha p esen s a mo e homogeneous
composi ion han he ou e one. The ou e Ca- ich laye inco po a es o he ash compounds (such
as Si and P). The inne laye is he esul o he o ma ion o a new compound, Ca(Ti0.7Fe0.3)O2.5
(o CaTiO3 in sand ilmeni e), which is o med when Ca2+ mig a es inside he pa icle and eac s
wi h he inne ilmeni e s uc u e. The o ma ion o his Ca double laye is p esen ed in a Co co an
e al. esea ch [16].
In he s udy o Co co an e al. [16], ilmeni e was es ed in he Chalme s CFB esea ch boile as
an oxygen ca ie in he bed eac o . The uel used was mainly wood chips, he mean ope a ion
empe a u e was 850 °C and he es wen on o a span o 6 weeks. A e ha pe iod, he pa icles
wi h a highe esidence ime we e chosen due o heo e ically being he mos ep esen a i e o he
deg ee o in e ac ion wi h ash compounds [16].
To s udy agglome a ion and he mechanical s abili y o he pa icles, SEM-EDX and XRD
analysis we e pe o med on hese pa icles. A shi owa ds la ge pa icle diame e s and a
educ ion in he numbe o he ines pa icles was ound a e he expe imen . The i s e ec
obse ed a e he expe imen could be caused by laye o ma ion, an inc ease in he pa icle’s
po osi y (and he eby inc ease o he olume o he pa icles) and he inco po a ion o ash
compounds. Ano he possibili y could ha e been he agglome a ion o pa icles, al hough
agglome a ion was no isually obse ed. The educ ion o he numbe o ine pa icles could be
explained by he en aining o he ines pa icles in he lue gases.
When i comes o he mo phology o he pa icles, i was obse ed ha sand ilmeni e pa icles had
inc eased he numbe o ca i ies and had unde gone clus e and c acks o ma ion. I was also
no ed ha b igh spo s appea ed on he pa icles’ su aces. These spo s we e ich in i on while he
emaining da ke spo s we e simila o he composi ion o he ini ial esh ilmeni e. I on- ich
clus e s ended o appea on he su ace, o en close o c acks. The heo y ha explains his ac
is ha he ca i ies a e sho passages o oxygen di usion and ha inc eases he oxygen po en ial
locally [16].
When no ca i ies we e o med (a ea ly s ages o exposu e) EDS e ealed ha a laye had o med.
Tha laye had a simila composi ion o ha o he b igh spo s on he su ace ( ich in i on). The
inne pa o he pa icles had also a simila composi ion o ha o he ini ial esh ilmeni e.
Smoo he pa s o he su ace we e obse ed o be ich in magnesium and calcium and i was
no ed ha hese a eas had become poo e in i on and i anium compa ed o esh ilmeni e [16].

10
Figu e 1. Backsca e ed Elec on Mic og aphs o ilmeni e pa icles used as bed ma e ial
(51, 147 and 364 h). Fe ich smoo h clus e s can be seen in he 147h op ow o e iew
while he Fe ich laye can be seen in he 147h bo om ow c oss-sec ion o he pa icle
[16].
Wi h wha had been obse ed, some conclusions we e d awn ega ding he kine ics o he ash –
ilmeni e in e ac ions and he di usion o he laye s and hei hickness.
Co co an e al. [16] obse ed ha an ou e Ca- ich laye is o med on he su ace o he pa icle,
and i accumula es wi h ime, he eby becoming hicke . The concen a ion o Ca in he laye does
no change signi ican ly bu he hickness o he laye does. Also, Ca2+ mig a es inwa ds h ough
he i ana e s uc u e, esul ing in an inne laye ha can be dis inguished om he ou e laye .
Th ee hypo heses we e o mula ed o explain he o ma ion o he inne Ca-en iched laye : 1) Ca
is deposi ed om he ash on he su ace while he pa icle g ows in diame e , emaining “locked”
inside he ash laye ; 2) Ca is deposi ed om he ash and mig a es inwa ds he pa icle and 3) Ca
exis ing in he esh ilmeni e mig a es ou wa ds. The expec ed main sou ce o Ca is he ash
because o he hickness o he su ace laye . This expec a ion does no align well wi h he hi d
hypo hesis. While he mig a ion inwa ds could explain he p esence o he in e nal laye s, i does
no align well wi h he ac ha P and Si we e ound a he ex e nal pa s o he Ca laye . These
elemen s (P and Si) would mig a e inwa ds a di e en a es. This las ac was no p o en due o
no being he main pu pose o he in es iga ion [16].
P and Si compounds a e no o iginally ound on esh ilmeni e pa icles. Thus, he inding o P
and Si compounds in he laye sugges ed ha bo h elemen s we e deposi ed as ash componen s
di ec ly ou side o he pa icle.
Finally, i was sugges ed a mechanism ha combines hypo hesis 1) and hypo hesis 2). In his
mechanism, Ca compounds o m a laye ou side o he pa icle ha g ows ou wa ds and also Ca
mig a es inwa ds, eac ing wi h TiO2 om he in e nal s uc u e o he pa icles and o ming
CaTiO3 o simila Ca- i ana es [16].
11
Figu e 2. Illus a ion o he g ow h o he Ca laye in ilmeni e pa icles and i s mig a ion
inwa ds a e se e al ope a ion hou s (27 h, 147 h and 364 h om le o igh
espec i ely). Images ob ained as Ca EDS-in ensi y maps [16].
A simila analysis o K showed ha i was no p esen in he Ca su ace laye . Howe e , i also
o med ou side o he pa icle and mig a ed inwa ds, un il eaching he limi o 2% in a omic
composi ion in he pa icle. Tha limi was he K up ake limi a ion in he exac condi ions o ha
expe imen . Acco ding o expe imen al esul s, he pa icle was conside ed o be ich in po assium
(and he e o e ha ing eached he limi ) a e 83 hou s o ope a ion.
Figu e 3. Illus a ion o he mig a ion o K in ilmeni e pa icles and i s mig a ion inwa ds
a e se e al ope a ion hou s (27 h, 51 h and 147 h om le o igh espec i ely). Images
ob ained as K EDS-in ensi y maps [16].
Al hough i was no he goal o he esea ch, i was sugges ed ha c acks could be spo s o
mig a ion inwa ds o Ca and K compounds.
The main di e ence be ween he Ca and he K compounds o med on he su ace is ha Ca
compounds end o accumula e on he su ace and hen mig a e inwa ds wi h ime, while K
compounds do no only accumula e on he su ace. I is ega ded ha he mig a ion o K inwa ds
is as e han Ca mig a ion, al hough he mig a ion o K is p omo ed by he p esence o Ca on he
su ace [16]. Bo h K and Ca eac wi h TiO2 o o m K2Ti3O7/ K2Ti6O13 and CaTiO3 bu his las
compound is he mos s able among he h ee. This s abili y educes he ee TiO2 on he su ace
and p omo es he mig a ion o K inwa ds [16].
Ano he s udy by Co co an e al. [21] also cha ac e ized he shi in composi ion om ilmeni e
when in con ac wi h bo om ashes du ing OCAC ope a ion. In ha s udy, some samples we e
analysed be o e, du ing and a e OCAC ope a ion wi h bed ma e ial eplacemen wi h ilmeni e.
Fi s , 20% o he silica sand was eplaced wi h ilmeni e and a e wo days o ope a ion,
app oxima ely 40% o he bed ma e ial was ilmeni e. Elemen al analysis o he samples ob ained
show how he Fe weigh % diminishes wi h ime while Ti weigh % s ays qui e cons an and Ca,
K, Si, P and Mn weigh % inc ease [21].
12
Ano he in e es ing iew is he global s andpoin ega ding wha happens o he weigh o ilmeni e
du ing ope a ion, and how ha can be e lec ed by he obse ed di e ences in weigh be o e and
a e i s use as bed ma e ial. F om his s andpoin , Hildo e al. [14], obse ed wi h he help o
TGA ha when an ilmeni e sample was oxida ed i gained weigh whe eas in educing condi ions
pa o he weigh was los . In ac , he a e a which weigh was gained in oxida ing condi ion
was as e han he a e o losing weigh in educing condi ions [14].
I is expec ed, hen, o see a weigh gain when ope a ing wi h ilmeni e as he OC and bed ma e ial
a he same ime. This weigh gain, hough, is expec ed o be slowed down due o he g ea loss
o oxygen and sal s such as sulphu sal s and KOH wi h he lue gases. The amoun o weigh loss
expec ed a ies depending on he educing condi ions o he eac o and he d yness o he in e nal
en i onmen . Rega ding s ic ly he bed ma e ial and conside ing he inle and ou le s eams o
he boile , i is expec ed o obse e a weigh gain due o ash laye build-up.
Especially in he p esence o s eam, KOH is o med and e apo a ed, hus p o oking ewe
in e ac ions be ween ash K compounds and ilmeni e pa icles. Unde hese condi ions, hen, i is
expec ed less K % in he sample han in absence o mois u e. Rega ding S compounds ha can
be ans e ed on o he ilmeni e, a weigh loss was expec ed unde we and d y condi ions due o
he apo iza ion as SO2 o H2S [14].
1.7 Magne ic sepa a ion
Since in he middle o he 18 h cen u y Michael Fa aday disco e ed ha a subs ance in he way o
a magne ic ield inc eases o dec eases ( o some ex en ) he lux densi y o he magne ic ield (B)
when passing h ough i , a b oad ange o applica ions ha s em om his phenomenon ha e been
disco e ed and applied.
Magne ic sepa a ion is one o hose applica ions. I is based in he ac ha ma e ials can be
sepa a ed based on hei di e en magne ic p ope ies. The i s widely ex ended comme cial
applica ion o he p ocess came in he la e 1860s, when i was in oduced in he sepa a ion o
i on om b ass [23]. This p ocess, howe e , has been used in many indus ies since hen. Some
examples a e he magne ic aps om ood indus y ha exclude me al o eign bodies ha could
be a ood sa e y haza d om ce ain ood p oduc s, he magne ic sepa a o s used o was e
managemen in ecycling cen es o i s use in was ewa e ea men in s eel indus y and in powe
plan s [24].
The e is a wide a ie y o magne ic sepa a o s in he di e en indus ies ha equi e his echnique,
bu he mos common sepa a o s a e he ollowing ones:
• Magne ic pulleys: Elonga ed cylinde s suppo ed by a sha ha cons i u es he head
pulley o con eyo s ha anspo ma e ial in he plan . The pulleys ha e magne s
ins alled o a ached o hem so ha hey p o ide a cons an magne ic ield a ound he
whole ci cum e ence.
• Suspended magne s: Pe manen magne s o elec omagne s pu posely suspended o e a
con eyo bel o a eede ha anspo s ma e ial.
• Magne ic d ums: A magne assembly is buil inside a o a ing d um cylinde ha d aws
he magne ic pa icles on o i s su ace and ca ies hem ou side o he ange o in luence
o he magne .
• Pla e magne s: Magne s designed in he o m o pla es a e placed down a chu e om
which ma e ial alls. The magne ically sepa a ed ma e ial a ached o he pla e has o be
emo ed pe iodically om i s su ace.
13
• G a e magne s: Se e al magne ic ods o ubes a e disposed inside a suppo ame
h ough which he ma e ial is supposed o low ( he ma e ial is usually ee alling
owa ds he magne ) [23].
Figu e 4. Illus a ion o con en ional indus ial magne ic sepa a o s: 1. Magne ic pulley;
2. Suspended magne s; 3. Magne ic d ums; 4. Pla e magne ; 5. G a e magne s. A anged
om he o iginal sou ce [23].
Magne ic pulleys o bel sepa a o s a e ecu en in many indus ies because hese magne s a e
easy o ins all, ha e a low ini ial cos and a low cos o ope a ion (i he magne s a e pe manen ,
such as a e ea h ones), and a e able o accomplish con inuous and au oma ic emo al o
magne ic ma e ials. Howe e , hese sepa a o s a e s ill a highly empi ical echnology. The aim o
he sepa a ion is o ob ain he igh quali y o he concen a e wi h he igh eco e y, and ha is
ixed by he use wi h an adjus able non-magne ic spli e [25].
The d i ing o ce in he sepa a ion is he magne ic o ce (Fm), ha compe es wi h ex e nal o ces
such as g a i a ional o ce (Fg), he hyd odynamic d ag o ce (Fd), ac ion o ce (F ) and ine ia
(Fi), depending on he ype o he ope a ion. Wha e e he dynamic sys em is o he p ocess, i
needs o be made su e ha he magne ic o ce o he magne ic ma e ials ha need o be eco e ed
is highe han he compe ing o ces. Else, i will all wi h he non-magne ic ma e ial. In o de o
do ha , se e al hings need o be adjus ed, such as he pulley e olu ions in a magne ic pulley, as
o e ly high e olu ions could cause an unwan ed cen i ugal e ec ha diminishes he
pe o mance o he sepa a o . Pa icle size also has a lo o do wi h he deg ee o eco e y achie ed.
Usually, he magne ic pulleys a e used in sys ems ha ha e pa icles o a wide a ie y o diame e s
and ha is why he spli e be ween magne ic ac ion and non-magne ic ac ion is adjus able [20,
21].
In indus ial-scale boile s such as he K a ingen’s 115 MW h CFB boile loca ed in Ö o a, i is
common o ex ac samples o he bed ma e ial and magne ically sepa a e hem o in oduce he
magne ic ac ion again in he boile . This is handled by a oll bel magne loca ed a ound wo
cylinde s ha o a e con inuously o displace he en i ies placed on he bel . The magne ic
sepa a o ac s as a con eyo bel o he samples un il hey app oach one o he ex emes, whe e
20
2.2 X- ay Di ac ion (XRD)
The p inciple o X- ay di ac ion (XRD) is based on he di e en c ys al s uc u es o he
subs ances and how hey di ac X- ay wa es. Due o he di e en dis ibu ion o a oms in he
cells o he c ys al o mine als such as, o example, ilmeni e, he inciden X- ay wa e can be
di ac ed in o many di e en di ec ions. The angles and in ensi y o he esul ing adia ion can
be measu ed by a de ec o whe e he signal, in e ms o in ensi y s. angle o di ac ion, o ms a
di ac og am om which in o ma ion abou he s uc u e and dis ibu ion o he a oms in he
c ys al s uc u e can be ex ac ed.
The undamen als behind he X- ay di ac ion a e ha X- ays, which ep esen elec omagne ic
adia ion wi h wa eleng hs in he nanome ic scale, can in e ac wi h he elec ons o he ma e ial.
In e e ence occu s when he sepa a ion o he a oms o he sample is compa able in size o he
wa eleng h o he X- ays.
The in e e ence is conside ed cons uc i e when he wo X- ay di ac ed wa es a e in phase
wi h each o he . When ha happens, he ampli ude o he wa e ha esul s adds up while he
wa eleng h s ays he same. Else, i he wa es a e no in phase, he in e ac ion is conside ed
des uc i e o pa ially des uc i e and he ou come is an X- ay wa e ha has a diminished
ampli ude compa ed o he o he o iginal wo di ac ed wa es. In ac , i he in e e ence is ully
des uc i e he ampli ude o he wa es ha esul om he in e ac ion is null.
Figu e 7. Illus a ion o he di ac ion o X- ays in wo planes o a c ys allog aphic
s uc u e.
The ype o in e e ence is desc ibed by he B agg’s law. B agg’s law is as ollows:
𝑛 · 𝜆 = 2 · 𝑑 · sin (𝜃)
whe e n is an in ege (1, 2, 3 …) and i is he o de o e lec ion o he sca e ed wa e, λ is he
wa eleng h o he inciden X- ay beam, d is he dis ance be ween wo consecu i e planes o he
molecula la ice and θ is he inciden angle o he X- ay.
I he di ac ed wa e ollows B agg’s law he in e e ence is cons uc i e. The classic
ins umen a ion o XRD is an X- ay sou ce ( ends o be an X- ay ube) ha emi s ocused X- ay
beams owa ds he sample a a θ inciden angle. Tha angle is inc eased wi h ime so he de ec o
ecei es a wide spec um o sca e ed wa es based on he angle o incidence o he sou ce beam.
The sca e ed wa es can be analysed by a ansduce ha coun s pho ons. The di ac ion pa e n
can be compa ed o he di ac ion pa e n o e e ence ma e ials a ailable in a da abase. Based

21
on he coincidence o di ac ion pa e ns, he c ys alline compounds p esen in he sample can be
iden i ied [35].
The in o ma ion ob ained by XRD is he dis ibu ion and dis ances be ween he a oms inside he
c ys als and he leng h and ype o hei bonds, as well as he p esence o any impu i y in he
sample. I gi es in o ma ion abou he o ganiza ion o packing o he a oms, which allows o
ma ch he iden i ied s uc u es o such ha ha e a simila o ganiza ion o a oms. No mally, hese
pa e ns a e compa ed o hose o a da abase and he s uc u es a e iden i ied based on he
compa ison be ween he main peaks o he pa e ns and he index o adjus men o he da a om
he da abase.
XRD was pe o med in a Siemens D8 di ac ome e . The samples we e g ound p io o he
analysis and he pa e ns we e compa ed o he da abase “C ys allog aphy Open Da abase –
REV212673” ha he so wa e DIFFRAC.EVA p o ides.
2.3 Magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s
In his epo , an analysis o he magne ic suscep ibili y o he sample was done by a Ba ing on
MS2B magne ic suscep ibili y senso . This senso is connec ed o he MS3 Ba ing on de ice ha
connec s o a compu e in o de o ans e he da a o he Ba so compu e p og am.
The ela ion be ween he pe meabili y o ai ( he senso app oxima es i o he pe meabili y o he
oid) and he pe meabili y o a specimen can gi e he alue o he bulk magne ic suscep ibili y
o a sample, acco ding o he p e iously in oduced Equa ion 3. The MS2B sys em measu emen
elies on he p inciple ha any change in he pe meabili y o a co e causes a change o induc ance
in a wound induc o . Ba ing on senso s c ea e a weak magne ic ield om an al e na ing cu en
(AC) and he equency o oscilla ion is de e mined by he induc ance o he sys em. A he same
ime, he induc ance is dic a ed by he pe meabili y o he sys em.
When he e is no sample in he senso , he magne ic pe meabili y o ai , which he senso
app oxima es o he acuum pe meabili y (μ0), de e mines he induc ance, and a he same ime
he equency o oscilla ion o he al e na ing cu en . When he sample is placed, he e is a change
in he oscilla ion o he al e na ing cu en ha he senso uses o calcula e he change in
induc ance and he e o e he di e ence in magne ic pe meabili y. Wi h ha alue, he magne ic
suscep ibili y can be calcula ed acco ding o Equa ion 3.
This de ice can measu e suscep ibili ies o samples ha a e ca e ully placed in 12 ml. con aine s.
The MS2B Senso in pa icula , is a Dual F equency Senso , which means ha i can measu e he
suscep ibili y a wo di e en equencies o he gene a ed magne ic ield. Thus, i has a Low
F equency (LF) mode (0.46 kHz) and a High F equency (HF) mode (4.6 kHz). The esul s in HF
mode a e used o compa ing wi h he LF esul s and i hey do no ma ch, i is an indica o o
ul a ine e imagne ic pa icles wi h a diame e sho e han 0.03 μm. This is no expec ed in he
samples analysed so he esul s ha e only been aken in LF mode.
Since he e is a wide a ie y o magne ic suscep ibili y senso s and some senso s call o di e en
me hodologies, he me hodology ollowed o he suscep ibili y measu emen s in he p esen
epo is u he explained:
1. Fi s , a d i es is conduc ed o 15 minu es wi h he magne ic suscep ibili y senso . This
wa ms up he senso s and p epa es hem o he measu emen s.
2. The calib a ion sample is measu ed o check whe he he senso is ob aining
measu emen s ha a e exac enough. The measu ed alue is compa ed o he nominal
alue p o ided by he manu ac u e o he senso .*
22
3. The 12 ml. emp y con aine is weigh ed in an analy ic balance and he measu emen is
w i en down.
4. The suscep ibili y o he emp y con aine is measu ed be o e s a ing o measu e a
di e en sample.* The eason behind i is ha some dus om o he samples always
accumula es inside and in o de o make su e ha i is no in e e ing o ouling he
ollowing measu emen s i has o be checked ha i s suscep ibili y is se e al o de s o
magni ude lowe han ha o he sample.
5. Du ing he anspo o he samples o Chalme s uni e si y om Ö o a, seg ega ion
be ween hea y and ligh elemen s/compounds migh ha e occu ed. I is possible ha he
hea y compounds end o dis ibu e nea he bo om o he sample bo le whe eas he
ligh e compounds may loa o he op o he bo le. To p e en ha , be o e ex ac ing
he sample om i s bo le i is s i ed so ha a ep esen a i e amoun can be aken.
6. The con aine is illed up wi h he sample ha is going o be measu ed. I mus be illed
up wi h sample comple ely un il i can be sc aped o he op o he po wi h a spa ula.
Since he ollowing weigh measu emen will be used o calcula ing he pou ed bulk
densi y** i has o be done wi h cau ion and wi hou apping he con aine by acciden .
7. The po con aining he sample is weigh ed again in an analy ical balance. The mass o he
sample ha con ains can be ob ained by sub ac ing he weigh o he emp y po o his
las weigh measu emen .
8. An Indi idual Tes is selec ed in he Ba so so wa e.
9. The op ions selec ed o he measu emen a e a 5 second Blank es ollowed by a 10
second sample measu emen and ano he 5 second Blank es . Fo he Blank es no
sample should be placed in he suscep ibili y senso and only a e he i s Blank
measu emen he sample should be placed inside he MS2B senso .
10. S eps 5 and 6 a e epea ed h ee imes in o de o ha e mo e han one alue and see he
de ia ion o he measu emen s.
* The s eps ha a e ma ked wi h his symbol ollow he same suscep ibili y measu emen s
ha ollow s eps 8 and 9.
** The pou ed bulk densi y e e s o he densi y o he sample ha is ob ained by in oducing
he sample inside o he con aine wi hou mo ing o apping i . I i is apped, he ee space
p esen be ween he pa icles will be illed wi h o he pa icles and hen he olume dec eases.
This me hod was chosen due o i s quickness, ep oducibili y and sca ce equi emen s o
equipmen ha makes i sui able o he indus ial s age o measu emen s.
The alue ob ained wi h he senso is he olume ic magne ic suscep ibili y o he bulk o he
sample. Howe e , no e e y sample has he same mass and no e e y measu emen p esen in he
bibliog aphy is measu ed in 12 ml con aine s. Since he olume ic magne ic suscep ibili y alue
depends on he mass and olume o he sample measu ed, i has o be di ided by he bulk densi y
o he sample in o de o be compa able wi h o he sample measu emen s and wi h da a om he
bibliog aphy. In he p esen epo , he alue o he densi y co esponds o he pou ed bulk densi y.
I calcula ed ollowing Equa ion 4, he mass speci ic magne ic suscep ibili y is ob ained:
𝜒𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 =𝜒
𝜌 (𝑚3
𝑘𝑔)
(E4)
Whe e χmass is he mass speci ic magne ic suscep ibili y, χ he magne ic suscep ibili y and ρ is he
bulk densi y o he sample ha is measu ed. Fo con enience, om his poin on, in he epo he
23
“mass speci ic magne ic suscep ibili y” will be e e ed as “magne ic suscep ibili y” as i is he
alue ha will be compa ed.
2.4 X- ay Fluo escence (XRF)
X- ay luo escence (XRF) is a non-des uc i e analy ical echnique used o he quan i ica ion o
he bulk elemen al composi ion o ma e ials.
The p inciple behind i s ems om he use o p ima y high-ene gy X- ays o gamma ays o exci e
he co e-le el elec ons om he sample owa ds an exci ed s a e. The hole le by ha exci ed
elec on will be e en ually illed by an elec on om a highe ene gy s a e ha decays and ha
esul s in he emission o a cha ac e is ic seconda y X- ay. These emi ed seconda y X- ays (also
known as luo escen X- ays) ha e a lowe ene gy han he inciden p ima y ones. The ene gy o
he seconda y X- ays is cha ac e is ic o e e y elemen as i gi es in o ma ion abou he ene gy
le els o he a omic species and hei di e ences in ene gy [36].
Figu e 8. Illus a ion o he inciden X- ay adia ion hi ing he a om and he esul an X-
ay luo escence emission [37].
An X- ay de ec o can con e he X- ay ene gy in o a ol age ha can be p ocessed and hen a
spec og am can be ob ained om i .
The me hod allows o quan i ica ion o he elemen al composi ion in he sample since he
in ensi y o he seconda y X- ays is p opo ional o he abundance o he elemen s in he ma e ial
[38].
The undamen als behind he echnique a e simila o SEM-EDS, bu he inciden adia ion
di ec ed owa ds he sample in each echnique is di e en . SEM-EDS uses a ocused elec on
beam while XRF uses sho wa eleng h X- ays. In some cases, bo h echniques e en use he same
de ec o . Howe e , gene ally, XRF is able o gi e deepe in o ma ion since i ypically de ec s
elemen s a he ppm le el, while EDS usually has a de ec ion limi a he 0.1% le el (i can a y
depending on he elec on beam accele a ion ol ages applied) [39].
XRF allows he iden i ica ion o he di e en elemen s p esen in he bulk phase o a sample and
hei quan i ica ion in a omic concen a ion. This way, i can accu a ely es ima e he composi ion
o he sample. Wi h XRF i is possible o analyse he chemical composi ion o he bulk phase, no
only speci ic spo s, lines o in ensi y maps as i happens wi h EDS.
24
XRF was pe o med wi h a PANaly ical Axios spec ome e and i was made su e ha he samples
co e ed he whole bo om o he suppo so ha no holes we e p esen when he analysis ook
place. To do so, a weigh o app oxima ely 4-5 g was in oduced in he sample holde .
3 Resul s
In his sec ion, he esul s o he analy ic me hods and he magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s
a e p esen ed. The ou comes o each me hod a e p esen ed he e as well as some obse a ions
while he connec ions be ween he esul s can be ound in he Discussion sec ion.
The i s hing ha was done was c ea ing a code o name all he samples ha we e ini ially
conside ed in an easy way. Mo e in o ma ion abou he code and i s meaning can be ound in
Appendix I.
SEM-EDS esul s will be p esen ed in he i s place, ollowed by XRD, magne ic suscep ibili y
measu emen s and XRF espec i ely.
I was decided o in es iga e abou he di e ences in he magne ically sepa a ed ac ions o an
indus ial sample (Ö o a samples) and how ha can be ela ed o a unc ion o a ailable ee Fe
and in e ac ions wi h he ash compounds. The main ques ions o in e es ha ollow ha analysis
a e how his magne ic sepa a ion is handled in an indus ial size boile and i he p ocess o
eci cula ion o ilmeni e can be imp o ed.
Tha is why he e o s we e ocused on he bo om ash samples om K a ingen’s CFB boile
loca ed in Ö o a (Skåne, Sweden) ha appea in he Appendix I.
The analysed samples a e om a h ee-week campaign ha was un in K a ingen’s CFB boile
om he 4 h o Ap il o he 22nd o Ap il o he yea 2018. The CFB boile has a nominal he mal
capaci y o 115 MW h and i is no mally ope a ed wi h qua z sand bu in ha campaign, he bed
ma e ial was eplaced o oxygen-ca ying ock ilmeni e ha comes om he Tellnes mine owned
by Ti ania (in No way). The uel used was a mix o was e wood and wood chips.
When analysing samples ha come om an indus ial boile se e al hings ha e o be aken in o
accoun . The uel ha is ed a he Ö o a plan is e y he e ogeneous. Tha means ha i should
be expec ed o ind a qui e la ge numbe o di e en elemen s in he SEM-EDS and XRF analysis.
In indus ial acili ies he composi ion o he uel is a ying also om one ime poin o ano he
and be ween he plan s. Also, when a change o uel o ope a ional condi ions is done, a change
in he ac ual bed ends o happen wi h a delay o one o a ew days ( his delay is no homogeneous
in ime). Tha same phenomenon happens i one models he boile as a CSTR, whe e a change in
he eed p o okes a change in he in e nal condi ions o he eac o . Tha change can be ex ended
in ime and one o he a iables ha dic a es how as /slow i appea s is he amoun o inle
ma e ial compa ed o he ma e ial p esen in he ac ual eac o . In he case o he Ö o a boile ,
he amoun o ma e i con ains is qui e big as i has a capaci y o 60 ons o bed ma e ial unde
no mal ope a ion.
The loca ion in he combus o om whe e he samples o bo om ash a e ex ac ed can a y om
one combus ion uni o ano he . Tha means ha he bo om ash may be ex ac ed om a ying
loca ions in boile s o di e en CHP plan s. In he case o he Ö o a plan , i is ex ac ed om
he bo om o he boile . The plan condi ions di e om one acili y o ano he and he e o e
25
conclusions should be made p edominan ly o he s udied case a Ö o a and da a should be
ca e ully used o d aw mo e gene al conclusions.
All o hese conside a ions imply ha he esul s ob ained should be ini ially ela ed o he Ö o a
plan and speci ically o he campaign ha was held o he mon h o Ap il ( om he 4 h o Ap il
o he 22nd o Ap il) o 2018. Tha does no necessa ily mean ha a gene al end o a
ep esen a i e phenomenon canno be obse ed o pushed o wa d in o he powe plan s bu a he
ha he limi a ion should be aken in o conside a ion.
I would ha e been in e es ing o e alua e he ly ashes om he Ö o a combus o o check i
he e is a i ion o Fe going on and i so, when does i s a . Howe e , he e we e no a ailable ly
ash samples om Ö o a. A his poin , i was decided o use he a ailable esou ces and a
simpli ica ion was p oposed. Since he a ailable ly ash samples we e om a campaign un on
he Chalme s 12 MW h CFB boile du ing he win e o 2014, i was assumed ha he semi-
indus ial-size boile can be simila o he ully indus ial-size acili y loca ed a Ö o a. The uel
used in ha campaign was wood chips and hei composi ion can be checked in Co co an e al
[21]. The indings unde his assump ion will need o be e isi ed in u u e wo k as he assump ion
will no be p o en ue in his p ojec . This assump ion is done, hus, o explana o y pu poses.
3.1 SEM-EDS esul s
SEM-EDS was used bo h o imaging and chemical analyses. Fo imaging, se e al mic og aphs
o he su ace o he sample we e aken. They we e used o ollow he mo phology de elopmen
o he di e en samples. Fo chemical analysis, EDS poin analysis we e pe o med on selec ed
loca ions. All o he analysis esul s a e no malized on a C and O ee basis. This no malisa ion
is equi ed because C and O a e common elemen s and hus hei quan i ica ion is no possible.
The esul s ha e o be analysed, hen, wi hou aking hem in o accoun .
Fi s , a p elimina y poin analysis was pe o med on selec ed pa icles om he Ö o a samples
o see i he e was some hing ha s ood ou om he samples.
When obse ing he samples om Ö o a sepa a ed by he magne ic sepa a o , he ollowing
obse a ions we e made: 1) Mo phology o he pa icles, 2) simila i ies and di e ences in
chemical composi ion and 3) a i ac s, pa icles ha a e no expec ed in each ac ion, such as
eldspa in he magne ic ac ion and ilmeni e in he magne ic ejec .
A e ha , he sha e o a i ac s and ilmeni e pa icles in each sample was quan i ied hanks o
poin analysis wi h EDS. The su aces o selec ed a i ac s and an ilmeni e pa icle om he
magne ic ac ion Ö -0417-MF we e also analysed wi h poin analysis in EDS.
Las ly, SEM-EDS was also used o a emp ing o see i a i ion o Fe happened in he Chalme s
boile campaign in 2014. The samples analysed o his pu pose a e he pa icles om he cyclone
o he same boile .

26
Figu e 9. BS SEM mic og aphs o he samples: F esh ilmeni e (Top le ), Ö -0417-MF
(Top igh ), Ö -0416-RF (Bo om le ) and Cyk-1125-OCAC (Bo om igh ).
A e pe o ming p elimina y poin analysis on selec ed pa icles o he Ö o a samples and
compa ing hem o he F esh ilmeni e sample as well as he ly ash samples om he cyclone,
se e al indings we e no ed:
1. The esh ilmeni e pa icles al eady con ain Mg (mainly in he o m o single eldspa
pa icles o ilmeni e pa icles a ached o eldspa pa icles) and ha seems o be he main
sou ce o Mg o he samples ex ac ed om he boile . The Ö o a samples also ha e
hese eldspa pa icles, e en in he magne ic ac ion. This las inding especially s ands
ou as eldspa is no magne ic.
2. The e a e ilmeni e pa icles in he magne ic ejec ac ion. Tha also s ands ou as
ilmeni e, a e unde going oxida ion, ends o ha e o med Fe oxides ha show magne ic
p ope ies, oxides such as magne i e o hema i e.
3. A e mo e ope a ion ime, he concen a ions o Ca and K ha e e ec i ely isen. Tha is,
he poin analysis shows ha he pa icles om Ap il 17 ha e highe concen a ions o
hese wo elemen s han he samples om Ap il 9.
27
4. As i can be seen in Figu e 9, pa icles in he cyclone sample a e smalle compa ed o
bo om ash (as i should be o ly ash) and con ain a lowe concen a ion o K.
In o de o answe he ques ion ega ding he p esence o eldspa pa icles in he magne ic
ac ion, wo hings we e conside ed. Fi s , i has o be quan i ied he sha e o hese eldspa
pa icles in he esh ilmeni e and he Ö o a samples o make su e abou he o igin o he pa icles
and whe he i happens consis en ly in he samples. I also needs o be made su e whe he wha
was obse ed wi h SEM-EDS is ep esen a i e o he samples. Second, an ini ial hypo hesis was
aised. The hypo hesis was ha he eldspa pa icles ha appea in he magne ic ac ion a e
co e ed in some ype o Fe ich laye ha has magne ic p ope ies and ha is why hey end up
being d agged on o he magne ic ac ion con aine when hey a e sepa a ed om he blend.
Simila conside a ions we e aken when app oaching he p esence o ilmeni e in he magne ic
ejec . The ini ial hypo hesis, in his case, is ha he pa icle has ei he los he magne ic Fe oxides
ha may mig a e o he su ace due o a i ion, ha he pa icle has no been oxidized enough o
ha he ash laye somehow is so hick ha i s ongly a ec s he magne ic suscep ibili y o he
pa icle.
To quan i y he ilmeni e and eldspa sha e o hese pa icles, 6 o e iews we e aken wi h SEM
o he ollowing samples immobilized in epoxy: F esh, Ö -0409-BA, Ö -0416-RF, Ö -0417-
MF, Ö -0417-BA. The o e iews a e SEM mic og aphs aken wi h he lowes magni ica ion
possible (400X) in he able op SEM ha was used du ing he expe imen al pa . These
mic og aphs we e used o iden i y he sha e o he ype o pa icles in each s udied ep esen a i e
sample. In o de o no in oduce bias when choosing he loca ions o he o e iews, hey we e
always aken in he same 6 posi ions. A u he explana ion o how ha was done can be ound in
he Appendix II.
To app ecia e he dis ibu ion o he pa icles in each sample, poin analysis wi h SEM-EDS was
pe o med on he pa icles wi h a diame e bigge han 100 μm in he o e iews o each sample.
Based on he elemen concen a ions o he pa icles, hey we e classi ied as ilmeni e, eldspa ,
ilmeni e-like pa icles and o he pa icles, and a sha e o each ype o pa icle was calcula ed o
each o e iew. Tha classi ica ion would allow o see he de ia ions in he bulk composi ion o
he samples and hei sha es o each o he pa icles o in e es (ilmeni e and eldspa mainly).
A e OCAC ope a ion, ilmeni e pa icles ha ha e eac ed wi h he uel ashes can ha e a qui e
di e se composi ion. Tha complica es he classi ica ion o he pa icles. The way i has been done
is ha i he pa icle shows a conside able a omic % o bo h Fe and Ti, bu also ash elemen s like
Ca, K o Si, he pa icle can be conside ed as an ilmeni e-like pa icle o de i ed om i . I he
pa icle has a p edominan ly high concen a ion o Fe and Ti compa ed o he elemen s p esen in
ash compounds, hen i is classi ied as an ilmeni e pa icle. I a pa icle is no classi ied as nei he
ilmeni e-like, ilmeni e o eldspa pa icle, hen i is aken in o accoun as “o he pa icles”.
The ollowing Table 2 shows he numbe o ilmeni e, ilmeni e-like and eldspa pa icles in each
one o he 6 o e iews aken om he samples and he sum o he numbe o pa icles o all
o e iews o each sample and he co esponding sha es. I can be seen ha he sum o ilmeni e,
eldspa and ilmeni e-like pa icles does no equal he o al numbe o pa icles ha we e
accoun ed o . Tha is because he e we e pa icles ha could no be classi ied as nei he o he
h ee bu hey we e accoun ed o he o al numbe o pa icles due o ha ing a diame e la ge
han 100 μm.
28
Table 2. Sha es o ilmeni e, eldspa and ilmeni e-like pa icles in he o e iews o he
F esh ilmeni e sample and ou Ö o a samples.
F esh*
Ö -0416-RF**
O e iew
1
2
3
4
5
6
SUM
1
2
3
4
5
6
SUM
Numbe o ilmeni e pa icles
14
19
18
11
20
18
100
2
2
1
2
2
3
12
Numbe o eldspa pa icles
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
10
16
15
14
7
13
75
Numbe o mixed pa icles*
Numbe o ilmeni e-like pa icles**
1
1
0
2
1
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Numbe o pa icles
15
20
18
13
21
21
108
12
18
16
16
9
16
87
% o ilmeni e
93
95
100
85
95
86
93
17
11
6
13
22
19
14
% o eldspa
0
0
0
0
0
10
2
83
89
94
88
78
81
86
% o mixed pa icles
7
5
0
15
5
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
% o ilmeni e o mixed pa icles*
/ilmeni e-like pa icles**
100
100
100
100
100
86
97
17
11
6
13
22
19
14
Ö -0417-MF
Ö -0409-BA
O e iew
1
2
3
4
5
6
SUM
1
2
3
4
5
6
SUM
Numbe o ilmeni e pa icles
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
1
3
1
0
2
9
Numbe o eldspa pa icles
3
3
3
0
3
2
14
3
6
3
4
6
5
27
Numbe o ilmeni e-like pa icles
7
11
11
13
8
9
59
4
8
6
7
8
6
39
Numbe o pa icles
12
16
16
17
12
12
85
16
18
15
17
17
14
97
% o ilmeni e
8
0
0
0
0
0
1
13
6
20
6
0
14
9
% o eldspa
25
19
19
0
25
17
16
19
33
20
24
35
36
28
% o ilmeni e-like pa icles
58
69
69
76
67
75
69
25
44
40
41
47
43
40
% o ilmeni e o ilmeni e like pa icles
67
69
69
76
67
75
71
38
50
60
47
47
57
49
Ö -0417-BA
O e iew
1
2
3
4
5
6
SUM
Numbe o ilmeni e pa icles
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Numbe o eldspa pa icles
2
2
0
4
3
0
10
Numbe o ilmeni e-like pa icles
8
9
14
8
14
16
69
Numbe o pa icles
11
12
16
15
18
17
89
% o ilmeni e
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
% o eldspa
18
17
0
27
17
0
12
% o ilmeni e like pa icles
73
75
88
53
78
94
78
% o ilmeni e o ilmeni e like pa icles
73
75
88
53
78
94
78
Ou o he sha es he ollowing in o ma ion can be ex ac ed:
• The blend Ö -0409-BA sample has a subs an ial sha e o pa icles ha a e no ilmeni e
nei he eldspa (i.e. pa icles whe e he only wo main elemen s a e Si and Ca) so he
sha e o ilmeni e, eldspa o ilmeni e-like pa icles is lowe consequen ly.
29
• The sha e o ilmeni e (only accoun s o he ilmeni e pa icles ha ha e a simila
composi ion o ha o he esh ilmeni e, i.e. wi hou ha ing majo ash compounds in
hei s uc u e) ound in he magne ic ejec is bigge han he one ound in he magne ic
ac ion (Ö -0417-MF) and blend (Ö -0417-BA). Howe e , ha does no ake in o
accoun he numbe o ilmeni e-like pa icles o pa icles de i ed om ilmeni e, which
added up o he % o ilmeni e s ands o a bigge sha e in he magne ic sepa a ion blend
(bo h om day 9 and day 17) and ac ion samples. Tha seems o indica e ha he
pa icles ha eac mo e wi h he ash compounds end up in he magne ic ac ion a he
han in he ejec .
• The eldspa sha e o he magne ic ac ion Ö -0417-MF (17%) is qui e high o being
he magne ic accep as eldspa should all wi h he non-magne ic ac ion. This numbe
is also highe han he eldspa sha e o he Ö -180417-BA (12%) which is he blend
be o e magne ic sepa a ion. I he magne ic sepa a ion is being handled co ec ly, he bulk
magne ic ac ion should ha e a lowe % o eldspa han he bulk blend be o e
sepa a ion. This phenomenon can be explained mainly because o he he e ogenei y o
he Ö o a samples. Gi en ha he e ogeneous mix u e, ob aining a ep esen a i e
ac ion om he bo om ash as a whole and hen aking a ep esen a i e o e iew may
esul in his ype o de ia ions. The % di e ence be ween bo h samples is only 5%,
which conside ing he o de o magni ude o he pa icles accoun ed o (85 and 89 o
Ö -0417-MF and Ö -180417-BA espec i ely) is a low disc epancy o a leas i is no
abe an .
In o de o co ela e he sha e in o ma ion o he hypo heses ha we e p e iously sugges ed, an
analysis o he laye s o he ilmeni e pa icles o he magne ic ejec and he esh ilmeni e was
pe o med. To ep esen he a ia ion o he a omic % close o he edge o he pa icles, se e al
poin s o each pa icle we e analysed wi h EDS and ep esen ed in he ollowing Figu es 10 o 12.
The successi e poin analysis pe o med in he same pa icle we e done in a way ha hey
ollowed a s aigh line. Also, he i s poin analysis was done s a ing om he poin a hes o
he su ace and each poin analysis ha ollowed was pe o med close o he su ace o he
pa icle. Tha is why i should be no ed ha in hese Figu es whe e a omic % is ep esen ed agains
he loca ion o he pa icle, he X axis is inc easingly close o he edge o he pa icle (i.e. he
highes numbe in he axis ep esen s he edge o he pa icle).
The Fe:Ti a io is also ep esen ed o see i he e is any di e ence in Fe dis ibu ion along he
pa icle.
As an example o how he poin s we e aken in he sample, he nex Figu e 10 (le ) also illus a es
he analysis o he su ace o an ilmeni e pa icle om he esh ilmeni e sample.
Fi s , he su ace o an ilmeni e pa icle om he esh ilmeni e is compa ed o one om an
ilmeni e pa icle om he magne ic ejec (Ö -0416-RF), so ha i is possible o obse e
di e ences ha may ha e o do wi h he loss o magne ism. The dis ibu ion o Fe, Ti and Si
elemen al concen a ions as well as he Fe:Ti a io om F esh ilmeni e along he line o poin s is
also ep esen ed in Figu e 10 ( igh ). The same ep esen a ion is done in Figu es 12 and 31 bu
o ash elemen s Al, Ca, Na and K. This is done so ha i can be seen how Fe, Ti and ash elemen s
dis ibu e along he pa icle, which may indica e i an ash laye is de ec ed in he ejec pa icles
and i a case o Fe mig a ion can be done. In case a laye is de ec ed, i will be de ec ed by
compa ing wi h he esh ilmeni e dis ibu ion, ha does no p esen a laye .
36
The pa icle analysis was pe o med in wo di e en ilmeni e pa icles om he magne ic ac ion
Ö -0417-MF. Figu es 20 and 22 show a BS-SEM mic og aph o he pa icle and i s su ace o
pa icle 1# and 2# espec i ely, while Figu es 21 and 23 show hei espec i e Fe:Ti a io and he
Ca concen a ion dis ibu ion along he su ace o he pa icle.
Figu e 20. BS-SEM mic og aph o ilmeni e pa icle #1 (le ) om he magne ic ac ion
(Ö -0417-MF) and su ace analysed ( igh ) in Figu e 21.
Figu e 20 ( igh ) shows he su ace o he pa icle, which appea s o be mo e he e ogeneous han
he co e o he pa icle.
Figu e 21. Fe:Ti a io and elemen al concen a ion o Ca in ilmeni e pa icle #1 om Ö -
0417-MF. The a io and he concen a ion a e plo ed om a loca ion nea he co e o he
pa icle (1) o he su ace o he pa icle (9).
Figu e 21 appea s o show ha whe e Ca concen a ion is high, he a io be ween Fe and Ti
dec eases and ice e sa. The e is an inc ease in Fe concen a ion a ound he poin s 6 and 7 ha
could be indica ing he p esence o an Fe laye . The Fe:Ti a io ela i e inc ease be ween poin 1
( he closes o he pa icle co e) and he maximum Fe:Ti a io is 201%. Also, he inc ease in Ca
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
123456789
Fe:Ti
A omic %
Ö -0417-MF ilmeni e pa icle #1
Calcium
Fe:Ti

37
o he closes poin s o he su ace o he pa icle (poin s 7, 8 and 9) could be signalling he
o ma ion o a Ca double laye ha was obse ed in ea lie bibliog aphy. This will be u he
discussed in he Discussion sec ion.
Figu e 22. BS-SEM mic og aph o ilmeni e pa icle #2 (le ) om he magne ic ac ion
(Ö -0417-MF) and su ace analysed ( igh ) in Figu e 23.
Figu e 22 ( igh ) also shows an i egula su ace o he ilmeni e pa icle #2 ha seems o be mo e
he e ogeneous in composi ion han i s co e.
Figu e 23. Fe:Ti a io and elemen al concen a ion o Ca in ilmeni e pa icle #2 om Ö -
0417-MF. The a io and he concen a ion a e plo ed om a loca ion nea he co e o he
pa icle (1) o he su ace o he pa icle (13).
As i can be obse ed in Figu e 23, i appea s again ha Fe:Ti a io shows highe alues whe e
Ca has a highe elemen al concen a ion and ice e sa. Howe e , in his case, i can be no ed ha
0
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
12345678910 11 12 13
Fe:Ti
A omic %
Ö -0417-MF Ilmeni e pa icle #2
Calcium
Fe:Ti
38
he loca ion whe e he Fe:Ti a io ises is close o he su ace han i is o pa icle #1. The Fe:Ti
a io ela i e inc ease be ween poin 1 and he poin whe e he Fe:Ti a io is maximum is 181.5%.
I can also be app ecia ed how when looking a he wo closes poin s o he su ace, pa icle #2
does no show an inc ease in Ca elemen al concen a ion as signi ican as pa icle #1 does. This
could indica e ha some ash compounds ha a e o med on he su ace a e being wo n o due o
a i ion and i will be u he discussed in he Discussion sec ion.
To obse e Fe a i ion, wo ly ash samples om he cyclone o Chalme s boile we e analysed.
As i has been said, his analysis canno p o e ha a i ion was happening in he Ö o a campaign,
only in he Chalme s boile . Howe e , i is le o u u e wo k o see i bo h boile s showed his
phenomenon and i he assump ion ha hey can be assimila ed in ha sense is co ec .
Since ly ash consis s o smalle pa icles han bo om ash, ollowing he me hod o aking
o e iews wi h SEM-EDS mic og aphs and classi ying he pa icles wi h a diame e bigge han
100 μm was no a good idea. In ac , he majo i y o he obse ed pa icles in he ly ash ha we e
bigge han 100 μm we e ilmeni e pa icles. Wha was done ins ead, was only ying o loca e
smalle pa icles ha migh gi e in o ma ion on whe he a i ion was going on. In ha sense, only
selec ed pa icles we e analysed, as he esea ch o he composi ion o he ly ash was a om
he objec i e o his p ojec .
Wi h his analysis some ines ich in Fe we e disco e ed, which means ha a i ion o Fe was
happening o some ex en . The mic og aph o one o hese pa icles and i s composi ion a e
ep esen ed in Figu e 24 and Table 3 espec i ely.
Figu e 24. BS-SEM mic og aph o selec ed Fe ine om he ly ash sample Cyk-1125-
OCAC.
The highligh ed pa icle is a ine om he oxygen ca ie pa icles and wi h poin analysis SEM-
EDS i s a omic concen a ion was analysed.
39
Table 3. No malised elemen al concen a ion o he highligh ed pa icle in Figu e 24
ob ained wi h poin analysis SEM-EDS.
Elemen
A omic
Concen a ion
(%)
I on
49.1
Magnesium
25.1
Ti anium
11.2
Calcium
10.1
Manganese
2.1
Silicon
1.5
Po assium
1
I can be seen ha he pa icle is indeed ich in Fe and ha could mean ha ilmeni e pa icles a e
unde going Fe a i ion om hei su aces in he Chalme s boile . Since only a couple o pa icles
we e selec ed, his analysis could be no ep esen a i e o he o ali y o he bed and he e o e
a i ion could be happening only o a small sha e o pa icles. I has been ound ha he e a e Fe
ines in he ly ash o he Chalme s boile and ha could mean ha a leas a small numbe o
pa icles a e unde going a i ion, and he same could be happening in K a ingen’s boile .
3.2 XRD esul s
In o de o iden i y he c ys alline compounds ha may make hese laye s magne ic, XRD was
pe o med on he same samples om Ö o a as he SEM-EDS. I can be checked which samples
we e analysed wi h each echnique in he Appendix I.
XRD was used o de e mine which c ys alline compounds a e p esen in he samples. The esul
o applying he echnique a e he XRD scans ha a e shown in Figu e 25.
Figu e 25. XRD scans o all lis ed samples.
40
The indi idual no malised scans (whe e he in ensi y – I in he e ical axis has been di ided by
he maximum in ensi y – I0) can be ound in Appendix IV.
The ollowing Table 4 is a summa y o he main c ys alline compounds de ec ed in each o he
scans shown in Figu e 25 and hei ela i e p esence, based on he ela i e peak in ensi y be ween
he di e en scans.
Table 4. C ys alline compounds de ec ed wi h XRD Analysis and hei ela i e p esence
based on he ela i e peak in ensi y. In his able ++ indica es e y high peak in ensi y, +
indica es high peak in ensi y, - indica es low peak in ensi y and – indica es e y low peak
in ensi y.
Pseudob ooki e
(Fe2TiO5)
Ilmeni e
(FeTiO3)
Magne i e /
Ti anomagne i e
(Fe3O4/Fe2.8Ti0.2O4)
K- eldspa /
Mic ocline
(KAl0.93O8Si3.07)
Ca- i ana e
(CaTi0.8Fe0.2O2.9)
Ö o a
0409 BA
++
+
+
-
+
Ö o a
0409 MF
++
+
+
--
+
Ö o a
0416 RF
++
+
--
+
--
Ö o a
0417 BA
++
+
++
-
++
Ö o a
0417 MF
++
+
++
--
++
Based on he iden i ied peaks, i has been de e mined ha pseudob ooki e (Fe2TiO5) is p esen in
e e y sample and in simila quan i ies. Ö -0416-RF is he sample ha shows less pseudob ooki e.
I should be no ed ha he mine al phase ilmeni e (FeTiO3) has simila peaks as he oxidized phase
and can hus o e lap wi h pseudob ooki e peaks. Howe e , ilmeni e phase is no expec ed o be
in a signi ican ly highe quan i y han pseudob ooki e a e a subs an ial oxida ion pe iod as he
one ha happens in he combus o . Bo h phases could be p esen e en hough i could be assumed
ha pseudob ooki e is mo e dis ibu ed owa ds he su ace o he pa icle (as ha egion is
oxidized as e ), while ilmeni e phase is dis ibu ed owa ds he co e o he pa icle.
Pseudob ooki e also p esen s a sligh ly highe co ela ion o he da a o he used da abase
(C ys allog aphy Open Da abase – REV212673) han ilmeni e. Thus, an assump ion can be made
ha he iden i ied phase is p ima ily pseudob ooki e.
The e is a s ong indica o ha magne i e is p esen bo h in he blend be o e sepa a ion and in he
magne ic ac ion o he samples. In o he wo ds, Ö -0416-RF shows a low numbe o coun s
whe e he es o he samples show magne i e peaks. Hema i e sha es he main peaks wi h
magne i e and ha is why, as i happens wi h ilmeni e and pseudob ooki e, i is ha d o ela i ely
quan i y how much hema i e he e is in he samples. Magne i e s ill shows a conside ably highe
deg ee o co ela ion o he used da abase han hema i e and ha is why i is ega ded as he main
magne ic componen o he samples.
To be able o obse e he e ec o ope a ion ime and magne ic sepa a ion, he no malised scans
ha e been pai ed by ime poin o he sample in Figu e 26 and by ype o sample (BA, MF, RF)
in Figu e 27.
41
Figu e 26. No malised XRD (I/I0) scans pai ed by ime poin .
I can be seen how he e is no a signi ican di e ence be ween he blend and he magne ic ac ion
( o bo h days conside ed Ap il 9 and 17) when i comes o he peaks ha indica e he p esence
o magne i e. Addi ionally, some Fe py oxenes (FeSiO3 / CaFeSi2O6) seem o be p esen in he
samples om Ap il 17 and Mg py oxene (MgSiO3) could be p esen in he magne ic ejec (Ö -
0416-RF). These py oxenes come mos p obably om he ashes.
Figu e 27. No malised XRD (I/I0) scans pai ed by ype o sample (BA, MF, RF).
Howe e , in Figu e 27 i can be obse ed how bo h Ö -0417-MF and Ö -0417-BA ha e s onge
peaks ha ela e o magne i e han hei ea ly campaign coun e pa s. Tha could sugges ha , a
leas o his campaign, a longe esidence ime inc eases he oxida ion o Fe om ilmeni e
owa ds magne i e and hema i e.
Ano he obse a ion when i comes o he esidence ime is ha a Ca- i ana e (CaTi0.8Fe0.2O2.9)
also inc eases i s concen a ion wi h ime in bo h he magne ic ac ion and he blend. In ha sense,

42
he samples om Ap il 17 show a highe signal o his Ca- i ana e han he samples om Ap il 9.
A simila compound was al eady p esen in ea lie bibliog aphy (see Co co an e al. [16]) and he
analysis shows ha i can be ound wi h high possibili y bo h in he magne ic ac ion and he
blend o ea ly o la e ope a ion days.
Rega ding he magne ic ejec (Ö -0416-RF), i shows a lowe amoun o pseudob ooki e
compa ed o he es o he samples bu he e a e h ee s ong peaks ha can be seen a 27.5°, 41.6°
and 50.6° ha a e no as s ong on he o he samples. Those peaks indica e he p esence o
mic ocline (K eldspa ). The same peaks can be seen wi h he blends and he magne ic ac ion
bu he heigh o he peaks is conside ably lowe and i can be obse ed ha he magne ic ac ion
has a dec ease in he K- eldspa peak in ensi y. This las dec ease is he mos no able di e ence
be ween he blend and he magne ic ac ion (conside ing each pai wi h he same da e o
sampling).
3.3 Magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s esul s
A e he SEM-EDS and he XRD analysis, he magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s we e done
o all o he samples om Ö o a om Ap il 9, 16 and 17 ha appea in Table 6 as well as o
F esh Ilmeni e.
As sugges ed by esea che s p e iously using he cu en me hod o magne ic suscep ibili y
measu emen , he ob ained suscep ibili y was di ided by he pou ed densi y o he sample as well
as by i s mass. Tha is because some imes he mass speci ic magne ic suscep ibili y migh no be
compa able o o he measu ed olumes o he da a o o he esea che s [42].
The esul s a e summa ized in he ollowing able:
Table 5. Magne ic suscep ibili ies measu ed o 5 samples ob ained om Ö o a and a
F esh ilmeni e sample.
Sample
Mass speci ic
magne ic
Suscep ibili y (m3/kg)
Weigh speci ic
magne ic
suscep ibili y (g-1)
Mass o he
sample (g)
Ö o a-0417-MF
1.38·10-4
1.15·10-2
25.32
Ö o a-0417-BA
1.20·10-4
1.00·10-2
24.26
Ö o a-0409-MF
7.68·10-5
6.40·10-3
22.52
Ö o a-0409-BA
5.91·10-5
4.92·10-3
23.39
Ö o a-0416-RF
1.82·10-5
1.51·10-3
20.88
F esh ilmeni e
3.36·10-6
2.80·10-4
29.03
As i can be seen, he samples a e o de ed in Table 5 based on a dec easing magne ic suscep ibili y.
F om he able, he magne ic ac ion o one ope a ion day (Ap il 9 o Ap il 17) can be compa ed
wi h he blend o he same day and hey ha e a magne ic suscep ibili y ha is qui e close be ween
hem (13.24% and 23.12% o ela i e di e ence espec i ely). I can be obse ed ha he
di e ence be ween any o he pai o samples suscep ibili ies is highe .
This obse a ion was somewha expec ed because he magne ic suscep ibili y is an addi i e
p ope y and he compounds ha a e mo e magne ic can ha e a suscep ibili y which is se e al
o de s o magni ude highe han ha o o he compounds ha a e less magne ic (as desc ibed
p e iously in he Magne ic sepa a ion sec ion o he In oduc ion). Thus, i he magne ic
43
compounds accoun o a bigge suscep ibili y and hey a e bo h in he blend and in he ac ion,
a simila suscep ibili y will be measu ed.
F esh ilmeni e is he less magne ically suscep ible sample (e en less han he magne ic ejec ).
Tha p o es ha in o de o achie e magne ic sepa a ion, i is equi ed o ac i a e he ilmeni e
wi h se e al oxidizing/ educing cycles.
3.4 XRF esul s
XRF was he echnique o choice o e-e alua e wha had been obse ed wi h SEM-EDS and o
y o link he chemical composi ion wi h he c ys alline compound in o ma ion ha XRD
p o ides and he magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s om he Ba ing on senso .
XRF has an ad an age, i allows o mul iple samples o be analysed simul aneously which
enables he ob en ion o esul s o di e en samples in a sho pe iod o ime. Tha is why he
samples chosen o unde go his echnique we e he same 5 Ö o a samples as o he o he ou
echniques (BS SEM, SEM-EDS, XRD, magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s) bu wi h he
addi ion o wo o he Ö o a samples om a di e en ime poin (Ö -0413-BA and Ö -0413-
MF). The in o ma ion om hese samples is shown in Table 6 in he Appendix I.
The samples analysed wi h XRF we e: Ö -0409-BA, Ö -0409-MF, Ö -0413-BA, Ö -0413-MF
Ö -0416-RF, Ö -0417-BA and Ö -0417-MF.
In o de o ha e an idea o how much o he Fe was on he su ace o he pa icles, i was decided
o g ind e e y sample and analyse wice each sample, one ha had been g ound and ano he one
ha had no been g ound. The no a ion o dis inguish be ween hem is “GR” o he g ound
samples and no addi ion o he non-g ound ones.
The eason o g inding is ha he signal dep h o XRF is limi ed o 1-100 μm in o he pa icles
so i he su ace o he pa icles is made ou o a Ca laye , XRF analysis will ha e a s onge signal
coming om his elemen a he han om he elemen s loca ed close o he co e o he pa icle
(i.e. Ti and Fe). When g inding he samples, hese laye s all o and he co e is made accessible
o measu emen wi h XRF.
In he magne ic ejec (Ö -0416-RF) he amoun o Al, Si and K was pa icula ly ollowed o see
i i had any co ela ion o he high amoun s o eldspa obse ed in he magne ic ejec wi h BS
SEM and SEM-EDS. T acking he amoun o Fe in e e y sample was also impo an o be able o
unde s and wha is happening wi h ha elemen when ilmeni e pa icles s ay mo e ime inside he
Ö o a boile .
As XRF akes in o accoun he composi ion o he bulk phase, and no se e al pa icles like in
SEM-EDS, he obse a ions om SEM-EDS could gain s eng h o lose i (o cou se, also aking
in o accoun XRD esul s).
The da a ob ained om he XRF we e spec og ams wi h which he XRF so wa e can quan i y
he elemen al composi ion measu ed in A omic concen a ion. Those concen a ions needed o be
no malised wi hou O and C. In he sample Ö -0413-MF GR an abno mal amoun o Ce was
de ec ed and he elemen was excluded du ing he p ocessing o he da a.
A e he no malisa ion and he adjus men s we e done, a lis o elemen s anging om 22 o 25
elemen s was ob ained. Ou o hose elemen s, only he elemen s ha ei he had a concen a ion
highe han 1% o we e p esen in he SEM-EDS/XRD analysis we e aken in o accoun . The
elemen s ha mee he condi ions a e he same elemen s ha we e ound in he SEM-EDS analysis
44
ha was done o he o e iews om 5 Ö o a samples. Tha is: Al, Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, P, S,
Si, Ti and Zn.
Seeking o see whe he he g inding has any e ec on he composi ion shown by XRF, each pai
o g ound and non-g ound sample is ep esen ed in he same g aph.
Figu e 28. XRF elemen al dis ibu ion compa ison be ween he g ound agains he non-
g ound samples.
The Figu e ha shows he XRF elemen al dis ibu ion compa ison be ween he g ound and non-
g ound Ö -0413-MF sample can be ound in Figu e 34 o he Appendix V.
The i s hing ha can be obse ed om he Figu e 28 plo s is he ac ha he di e ence be ween
he Ca concen a ion om a g ound sample and a non-g ound sample inc eases wi h ime. When
looking a he samples om Ap il 9 and Ap il 13, hey di e a maximum o 3.71 pe cen age uni s,
whe eas when looking a he magne ic ejec om Ap il 16 (Ö -0416-RF), he blend om Ap il
17 (Ö -0417-BA) and he magne ic ac ion om Ap il 17 (Ö -0417-MF) he di e ence
inc eases up o 5.98%, 8.09% and 10.23% espec i ely.
45
This could mean ha Ca is wo n o in he p ocess o g inding and while a highe amoun o Fe
and Ti is de ec ed (which is he case), he concen a ion o Ca dec eases. I ha is he case, i
would indica e ha he e was no mig a ion o Ca inwa ds o a leas i was no e y signi ican .
The exac opposi e o wha happens wi h Ca can be a gued o Ti. I can be seen how when
g inding a highe % o Ti is de ec ed. Howe e , his di e ence is ini ially low (0.16 and 0.48 o
he Ö -0409-BA and Ö -0409-MF samples espec i ely) and inc eases o e ime (3.03 and 9.23
o Ö -0417-BA and Ö -0417-MF espec i ely). This could mean ha Ti, ha acco ding o he
bibliog aphy does no mig a e owa ds he ou e pa s o he pa icle, does no mig a e and a highe
quan i y o i is e ealed when he Ca laye is wo n o .
Finally, i is ele an o look a how he Fe % changes wi h o wi hou g inding. Fo he samples
om Ap il 9 and Ap il 13, i can be seen ha i does no make a big di e ence as he pe cen age
di e ence be ween he g ound and he non-g ound samples is low (up o 0.7% in he case o he
Ap il 13 blend - Ö -0413-BA). A conside able inc ease in his di e ence in concen a ion comes
in he Ö -0417-MF, whe e Fe inc eases in he bulk composi ion by a o al o 7.4% when g inding.
This also could be e idence ha he e is a Ca laye co e ing he Fe and Ti om he ilmeni e
pa icles.
As i can be seen, he blends om Ap il 9, 13 and 17 do no show a high di e ence be ween he
g ound samples and he non-g ound ones. The same can be s a ed abou he magne ic ac ions
om Ap il 9 and Ap il 13. Tha could mean ha he e is no Ca laye o a slim one in hose samples.
Tha is cohe en conside ing ha he Ap il 9 and Ap il 13 samples a e om an ea ly ope a ion
day in he campaign so he ac i a ion o he ilmeni e and i s mig a ion migh s ill be s a ing. I is
also cohe en wi h he ac ha he blend samples p esen an a e age o he elemen s om all he
species p esen in he bo om ash and hus any possible di e ence ha could be obse ed is
smoo hed ou by i s di e se composi ion. Tha could be a possible explana ion o he low
di e ence in Fe % in Ö -0417-BA in compa ison o he high di e ence shown o Ö -0417-MF.
Rega ding he ejec (Ö -0416-RF), e en i i is om a la e ime poin , i is no expec ed o ha e
as many ilmeni e pa icles wi h Fe laye s in i s s uc u e in compa ison o o he ash compounds.
The di e ence in Fe % in his sample is conside ably lowe han o Ö -0417-MF bu i is highe
han o Ö -0413-MF. This could mean ha he e is an ash laye in he ejec pa icles bu i is
no as hick as he magne ic ac ion one.
The compa ison be ween g ound and non-g ound samples has gi en in o ma ion on he Ca laye ,
bu he e is mo e in o ma ion ha can be ex ac ed om he elemen al composi ion compa ison
be ween di e en samples.
52
E en hough Fe mig a ion has no been p o ed by all echniques, a sugges ed explana ion o he
inc ease in magne ic suscep ibili y in his epo is ha Fe mig a es owa ds he su ace o he
ock ilmeni e pa icle, whe e he oxygen pa ial p essu e is highe , and hen is oxidized in o
hema i e and magne i e, which show highe magne ic suscep ibili ies han esh ilmeni e.
Rega ding he magne ic sepa a ion e iciency, i should be aken in o accoun ha i no enough
esh ma e ial is ed o no enough bo om ash is magne ically sepa a ed, ilmeni e pa icles will
s a o add mo e and mo e ash compounds o i s s uc u e. The p oblem is ha hose pa icles, no
ma e how much ash hey ha e inco po a ed in he o m o Ca- i ana es, Fe py oxenes o o he
compounds, will become mo e and mo e magne ically suscep ible. A leas ha can be s a ed
when conside ing he span o ime om Ap il 9 o Ap il 17 om ha exac Ö o a campaign.
The pa icles will become mo e suscep ible e en i o e all Fe concen a ion is dec easing (i is
no possible o say ha Fe is being los he e due o a i ion as i has no been p o en). Supposing
Fe also mig a es owa ds he su ace in he ilmeni e pa icles om Ö o a and he pa icles a e
unde going a i ion, as long as new ee Fe keeps being oxidized o magne i e hose pa icles will
s ill be magne ically sepa a ed.
This can be posi i e i he posi i e e ec s o la ge esidence imes and ash up ake a e conside ed,
like educ ion o he co osion due o K up ake. Howe e , i can also be nega i e i he nega i e
impac is highligh ed, like he inc ease in Fe a i ion due o pa icle po osi y inc easing. This
means ha he e is a ime window ega ding he ex ac ion in which he magne ic sepa a ion has
a posi i e impac and inc eases he e iciency o he p ocess when conside ing ash up ake and
oxygen ca ying capaci y.
The sepa a ion should be pe o med once ilmeni e has been ac i a ed and is suscep ible enough
o be sepa a ed. The ac i a ion ime is dependen on he uel and he ope a ional condi ions o he
boile . I should also be ho oughly combined wi h egene a ion o he ma e ial so ha i is made
su e ha he magne ic sepa a ion is no only sepa a ing ilmeni e pa icles wi h lowe and lowe
oxygen ca ying abili y (once a i ion s a s o happen) wi h hick ash laye s a ached o hem.
The sepa a ion should no be delayed un il hose e ec s s a o ha e a nega i e impac on he
o e all e iciency o he oxygen ca ie bed ma e ial inside he combus o .
I he amoun o esh ilmeni e added is excessi e o he magne ic sepa a ion is handled be o e
he esh ma e ial pa icles ha e been ac i a ed, a conside able amoun o esh ilmeni e pa icles
could go in o he ejec due o no showing he magne ic suscep ibili y needed in o de o be
sepa a ed. I ha is he case, esh ma e ial could be los be o e being used. This exac hing would
explain why he e we e some big ilmeni e pa icles wi h ew ash elemen s in hei composi ion in
he sha es o he magne ic ejec . These ilmeni e pa icles we e he a i ac s ha we e p esen ed
in he ejec and we e no iced wi h he sha e classi ica ion o pa icles wi h SEM-EDS. Those
pa icles esembled esh ilmeni e in hei composi ion and ha is because mos p obably hey
we e ilmeni e pa icles ha had been ecen ly added be o e he poin o ex ac ion. Those pa icles
had no been ac i a ed and he e o e hey did no ha e oxygen ca ying oxides such as magne i e
o hema i e in hei s uc u e. These pa icles p obably had a sligh ly highe magne ic
suscep ibili y han esh ilmeni e and ha is why hey could no make i o he magne ic ac ion.
Tha way, magne ic sepa a ion has o be imed co ec ly in o de o no lose unexploi ed ma e ial
and o make su e ha he one ha is being used allows o he bes pe o mance possible. The e
is a p e e ed ime window ega ding he ex ac ion ha could be heo e ically op imized by
inco po a ing magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s in he plan in o de o ha e mo e insigh on
when i is adequa e o apply he magne ic sepa a ion and consequen eci cula ion o bed ma e ial
o when i is be e o eed mo e esh ilmeni e. The magne ic suscep ibili y me hod used in his

53
epo is non-in asi e and is based on manual ex ac ion o samples bu i could be au oma ed
which could make i i ing o applica ion in indus y.
Fu he mo e, in his epo , i has been obse ed ha along wi h ac i a ion o he pa icles, a highe
magne iza ion is accomplished. Tha happens, p esumably, un il Fe a i ion o he pa icles
p o okes he dec ease o oxygen ca ying capaci y. I ha is he case, an in e es ing ollow-up o
his epo would be he in es iga ion o he connec ion be ween oxygen ca ying capaci y and
magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s. The in es iga ion on bulk magne ic suscep ibili y as a
p edic o o an indica o o oxygen ca ying capaci y could be e y help ul owa ds accomplishing
highe e iciency o magne ic sepa a ion in OCAC.
5 Fu u e wo k
The i s hing ha can be p oposed as u u e wo k is he epe i ion o he measu emen s and
cha ac e iza ions done in his epo . As i was said when in oducing he expe imen al pa , he
boile loca ed a Ö o a has a high capaci y (60 onnes) and in compa ison, he numbe o pa icles
analysed wi h XRF and magne ic suscep ibili y was small. A ye smalle numbe o pa icles we e
analysed wi h XRF and SEM-EDS, and he e o e, he conclusions d awn o his small numbe
o pa icles could no ep esen he en i e sample o wha had happened in he boile . I was
assumed ha he combina ion o he me hods used in his epo could adequa ely ep esen he
whole, bu i needs o be e i ied wi h u he expe imen a ion. Especially he conclusions ha
we e d awn based o pa icle analysis wi h SEM-EDS will need o be e isi ed o check ha hey
we e ep esen a i e.
O he analysis echniques o e en o he modes o ope a ion o he echniques used in his epo
could be used in o de o ob ain mo e in o ma ion abou he samples. SEM-EDS, o example,
could be used in he mode ha ob ains in ensi y maps o gain in o ma ion abou whole pa icles
and no only pa s o hem. Tha could allow o easie cha ac e iza ion o he pa icles and a
be e unde s anding o how he di e en elemen concen a ions a e dis ibu ed h ough he bed
ma e ial pa icles.
Ano he possible imp o emen ha could be done in u u e wo k is he addi ion o mo e magne ic
ejec samples, as he p esen epo only ea ed one. The sample was indeed di e en o he o he
samples, so he magne ic sepa a ion had e ec i ely been applied and i can be app ecia ed bu he
compa ison wi h o he magne ic ejec s would gi e mo e in o ma ion abou he e iciency o he
sepa a ion and he condi ions o he pa icles ha end up in he ejec .
The samples analysed only wi h XRF (Ö -0413-BA and Ö -0413-MF) could be analysed wi h
XRF, BS SEM, SEM-EDS and hei magne ic suscep ibili ies could be measu ed. This was no
done due o ime cons ain s bu i could be done o complemen he in o ma ion o he Ap il 9
and Ap il 17 ime poin s wi h ano he ime poin ha is equally dis an o bo h. I ob ained, he
ly ash samples om he Ö o a acili y could also be analysed o check he Fe a i ion and when
does i appea .
As commen ed al eady in he Discussion, he eldspa pa icles p esen in he magne ic accep
show a Fe-Ti-Ca laye whose p ope ies (magne ic suscep ibili y and oxygen ca ying capaci y)
would be in e es ing o see.
The alkali up ake o he pa icles om Ö o a could be in es iga ed as XRF showed a qui e s able
bulk concen a ion o he pa icles ac oss he samples excep o he magne ic ejec . K in ensi y
54
maps could be aken o he pa icles o see he K dis ibu ion in he pa icle, as he p esence o
eldspa in he bulk phase o he samples complica es d awing conclusions wi h XRF.
An in e es ing con inua ion o he epo would be measu ing he oxygen ca ying capaci y o he
samples wi h TGA (The mog a ime ic Analysis) o in a small boile in o de o co ela e i o
wha has been obse ed h ough he epo . As i has been said in he Discussion, ano he
po en ially in e es ing ou e o ollow a e his p ojec would be looking in o he co ela ion
be ween bulk magne ic suscep ibili y and he oxygen ca ying capaci y o he pa icles. The
po en ial use o magne ic suscep ibili y as a p edic o o indica o o he oxygen ca ying capaci y
could be e y p omising i p o en. A model could be adjus ed be ween he wo a iables and he
co ela ion coe icien (R2) could be ob ained. I one would like o ake i a s ep u he , ha model
could be ained wi h da a om he egula ex ac ions o he plan applying Machine Lea ning,
so ha he esul ing model could help in decision making ega ding he p ope ime o ex ac ion
o ma e ial, magne ic sepa a ion and eci cula ion.
Las bu no leas , he in es iga ion conduc ed in his epo could be done wi h o he pa icles
om o he indus ial plan s o o he campaigns om he same CHP plan so ha he obse a ions
could be compa ed o maybe gene al ends could be obse ed.
55
6 Conclusions
In his Bachelo hesis, he magne ically sepa a ed samples om an OCAC campaign in
K a ingen’s CHP plan loca ed in Ö o a ha e been in es iga ed. The blend be o e sepa a ion,
he magne ic ac ion and he magne ic ejec ha e been subjec ed o a mo phological and
chemical cha ac e iza ion wi h BS SEM and SEM-EDS. The c ys alline compounds p esen in
each sample ha e been iden i ied wi h XRD and hei bulk composi ion has been cha ac e ized
wi h XRF. In o de o co ela e he chemical composi ion o he samples wi h he esidence ime
in he boile and hei magne ic suscep ibili y, magne ic suscep ibili y measu emen s ha e been
also ca ied ou .
A classi ica ion o pa icles analysed in each sample wi h SEM-EDS ga e he sha e o ilmeni e
pa icles, eldspa pa icles, pa icles ha de i ed om ilmeni e o had a high ash elemen s
concen a ion and o he pa icles. Feldspa pa icles ha come om he uel we e obse ed as
a i ac s in he magne ic ac ion, co e ed in an Fe-Ti-Ca laye , acco ding o SEM-EDS analysis.
Ope a ion ime allowed he o ma ion o Ca laye s in he ilmeni e pa icles o he magne ic
ac ion. SEM-EDS analysis o wo pa icles om he sample showed he o ma ion o a double
laye a ound a possible Fe laye in one o he pa icles and a single inne laye below ano he
possible Fe laye on he o he pa icle. The mos p obable explana ion o he di e ence be ween
he wo laye s was a i ion o ces ha wo e o he ou e ash laye o he pa icle wi h only an
inne one. The mechanism o mig a ion o he Ca2+ o o m such inne laye s could be assimila ed
o he one p esen in p e ious bibliog aphy, as acco ding o XRD analysis he compound o med
is CaTi0.8Fe0.2O2.9, simila o o he Ca- i ana es epo ed in he bibliog aphy. The p oposed
mechanism consis s in Ca deposi ion in he su ace and di usion inwa ds o eac wi h TiO2 and
be inco po a ed in he ilmeni e s uc u e as he iden i ied Ca- i ana e.
Also, wi h an inc ease in ope a ion ime (i.e. in a e age esidence ime o he bed ma e ial) an
inc ease in mass speci ic magne ic suscep ibili y was obse ed o he magne ic blend and he
magne ic ac ion. Tha is mainly due o he o ma ion o magne ic Fe oxides such as
i anomagne i e ( e imagne ic) and hema i e (an i e omagne ic), iden i ied wi h XRD. A
mechanism o he o ma ion o hese oxides was sugges ed. The mechanism inds i s suppo in
he SEM-EDS inding o possible Fe laye s in he su ace o ilmeni e pa icles om he magne ic
ac ion o he sample wi h he la es ime poin . This mechanism should be e-e alua ed wi h
o he echniques.
The p oposed mechanism o o ma ion o he oxides s a s wi h Fe2+ mig a ion owa ds he su ace
o he pa icle, whe e he oxygen pa ial p essu e is highe , and whe e i is oxidized o o m
magne i e and i u he oxidized i o ms hema i e.
The magne ic suscep ibili y o he ilmeni e pa icles seems o inc ease wi h esidence ime and an
ini ial s age o ac i a ion is equi ed in o de o p esen he Fe oxides ha show he suscep ibili y
needed o magne ic sepa a ion. A p e e ed ime window o he sepa a ion was p esen ed. An
ea ly sepa a ion and eci cula ion will esul in ilmeni e pa icles showing low magne ic
suscep ibili ies, simila o he ones measu ed o esh ilmeni e (3.36·10-6 m3/kg), which leads o
he pa icles ending in he magne ic ejec . A la e sepa a ion and eci cula ion will esul in
ilmeni e pa icles becoming inc easingly magne ic, e en hough he oxygen ca ying capaci y is
being diminished due o Fe a i ion and hick ash laye s a e being o med a ound he pa icle.
The e o e, he p ocess o sepa a ion and ecycling has o be imed co ec ly in o de o no lose
esh ma e ial o eci cula e ma e ial wi h low oxygen ca ying capaci y. Magne ic suscep ibili y
56
measu emen s a e sugges ed as a use ul ool in decision making ega ding he adequa e ime o
he sepa a ion and i s consequen eci cula ion.
57
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60
Appendix I. Code used o he samples
The ollowing Table 6 (in he nex page) shows all he samples ha we e analysed wi h each
echnique along wi h whe e hey we e ob ained om and he ime in which hey we e ex ac ed
om he boile . A code has been designed o a conciseness ma e . The code consis s o he
ollowing e ms:
𝐴𝐵𝐶 − 𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷 − 𝑇𝑦𝑝𝑒
Whe e ABC is based on he i s h ee le e s o he name o he place whe e he sample was
ex ac ed, MMDD is he da e o imes amp o ob en ion o he sample (mon h and day) and Type
consis s o addi ional in o ma ion, e.g. he indica ion on whe he he sample is he blend ha has
no unde gone magne ic sepa a ion (BA), he magne ic ac ion (MF) o he magne ic ejec
ac ion (RF) o he bo om ash (BA) sample. On he da e o ob en ion he yea is omi ed because
he samples o in e es a e om he same o igin (Ö o a) and since all o hem sha e he same
yea o ope a ion, adding he yea does no gi e any new in o ma ion.
The no a ion o he addi ional in o ma ion s ands o he ollowing:
• BA: Bo om Ash collec ed di ec ly om he boile and ha has no unde gone magne ic
sepa a ion. I is he blend ha would go in o he magne ic sepa a o .
• MF: Magne ic ac ion ob ained om he in oduc ion o he bo om ash blend (BA) in
he boile .
• RF: Rejec ac ion ob ained om he in oduc ion o he bo om ash blend (BA) in he
boile .
• OCAC: I jus iden i ies ha he sample has been used o OCAC in he Chalme s boile .
61
Table 6. Lis o all he samples analysed wi h SEM-EDS echniques.
Code
Name o
he
sample
Place o
o igin
Times amp o
ob en ion o
he sample
SEM-
EDS
XRD
χ
measu emen s
XRF
F esh
ilmeni e
F esh
ilmeni e
Ti ania
mine,
No way
(Chalme s)
Season 2016
(sp ing)
X
X
Ö -0409-
BA
Ö o a
180409
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-09
X
X
X
X
Ö -0409-
MF
Ö o a
180409
magne ic
ac ion
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-09
X
X
X
X
Ö -0416-
RF
Ö o a
180416
magne ic
ejec
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-16
X
X
X
X
Ö -0417-
BA
Ö o a
180417
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-17
X
X
X
X
Ö -0417-
MF
Ö o a
180417
magne ic
ac ion
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-17
X
X
X
X
Ö -0413-
BA
Ö o a
180413
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-13
X
Ö -0413-
MF
Ö o a
180413
Ö o a
Imp obed
2018-04-13
X
Cyk-
1117-
OCAC
Sekcyklon
141117
OCAC
7.09
Chalme s
Boile
2014-11-17
X
Cyk-
1125-
OCAC
Sekcyklon
141125
OCAC
6.40
Chalme s
Boile
2014-11-25
X