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EMERGENCE OF KNOWLEDGE COMMONS,
RISKS, AND RELEVANCE FOR THE
HUMAN-RIGHTS FRAMEWORK
DAVID VILA-VIÑAS1
Abs ac :The s udy o common-pool esou ces (CPRs) has become inc easingly impo an in social
sciences. CPRs emphasize a mo e inclusi e use and an ins i u ional and no ma i e communi y-based
app oach. Howe e , his app oach is exposed o access, sus ainabili y, and democ acy isks. This pape
shows he in e es ha he a ionali y o he ins i u ions o he commons can ha e o he legal sphe e and,
pa icula ly, o human igh s. Bo h a e cha ac e ized by powe ul democ a ic legisla ion and sha e conce n
o mee ing he needs o he subjec s in ol ed and o he e ec i eness o hei con en s and gua an ees.
Keywo ds: commons, knowledge commons, ins i u ions, human igh s, ESCR, e ec i eness
Summa y: 1. he eme gence o commons. 2. e ec IVeness, Isks and Vulne abIlI Ies. 2.1 Access.
2.2 Sus ainabili y. 2.3 Democ acy. 2.4 Responses. 3. legal Impac . 3.1 Human- igh s app oach.
4. conclusIon
1. He eme gence o commons
Commons made a signi ican impac on social sciences a he end o he 20 h
cen u y. In he academic ield, he main igge was he publica ion o Go e ning he
Commons (Ös om, 1990). This wo k d aws on esea ch conduc ed in p e ious decades by
he Poli ical Theo y and Policy Analysis esea ch g oup a Indiana Uni e si y.2 The g oup’s
esea ch aimed a he unc ioning o common-pool esou ces (CPRs) such as aqui e s,
ishe ies o o es s. Based on ha esea ch, hey in e ed some gene al cha ac e is ics
o he na u e o hese esou ces and hei ins i u ional unc ioning. The mos impo an
aspec o CPRs is no he objec on which hey ha e been es ablished ( he well, he
o es o he so wa e) o hei pa icula cha ac e is ics, bu he ac ha hey ha e been
ins i u ionalized, in o he wo ds, hei ins i u ional dimension. This implies he exis ence
o a communi y ha has gi en i sel a se o explici and implici no ms (Hess and Ös om,
2016b: 66), me hods o pa icipa ion and mechanisms o law en o cemen .3
In poli ical e ms, he no ion o CPRs o , mo e loosely, commons, has se ed o
analyze how he p ope y egime has expanded o become he pa adigma ic egime o
he ela ionship and a ailabili y o hings, wi h a endency o adop an absolu e cha ac e .
1 Adjunc P o esso o Philosophy o Law, Uni e si y o Za agoza, Spain, (d ila@uniza .es)
2 The e is a da abase on CPRs and esea ch associa ed wi h his g oup, called he Digi al Lib a y o he
Commons (h ps://dlc.dlib.indiana.edu/dlc/).
3 See Ös om (1990: 90–102) o a mo e sys ema ic explana ion o he p inciples o CPR ope a ion.
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In his o ical e ms, a i s p ocess o ansi ion om he commons egime o a p i a e o
public p ope y egime ―called enclosing― has been no ed, pa icula ly in CPRs ela ed
o popula economics in he Mode n Age (Polanyi, 2001; La al and Da do , 2015: 282 and
.; Fede ici, 2010).
Mo e ecen ly, he concep o enclosing has been used o analyze a second p ocess,
his ime ocused on knowledge commons (such as science, so wa e, biodi e si y o
cul u al p oduc ion),4 key goods in he knowledge economy (Boyle, 2008, Vila-Viñas
and Ba andia an, 2015). Knowledge commons ha e hei own speci ici ies, which imply
some analy ical consequences, he mos ele an being ha ins i u ions o he commons
do no depend on he na u e o he goods on which hey a e es ablished, al hough hey
migh be condi ioned by hei cha ac e is ics.5 I he analysis is limi ed o ea ly CPRs
― e med adi ional commons by Ös om― which end o be local and o ha e a s ong
biophysical componen , we migh be emp ed o hink ha hese ins i u ions a e in
decline and enclosing is al eady esidual. Howe e , he wen ie h-cen u y consolida ion
o ins i u ions ha sha e ea u es wi h commons (al hough wi h S a e p edominance) and
he ecen eme gence o knowledge commons-based ins i u ions ha e enewed he scene.
Bo h hei con i ed con igu a ion and he signi ican h ea o enclosu e con i m he legal
and poli ical na u e o hese ca ego ies. Fo ins ance, he op ion o es ablishing in ellec ual
p ope y igh s o e he use o ce ain biological o ms o genomic cha ac e is ics (o
egula ing hese ields in any way) does no depend on he na u e o hese goods ha ,
oge he wi h o he social ela ions, ha e long exis ed. Howe e , he no el y lies in a
change in he legal-poli ical a ionali y ha allows o speci y ce ain aspec s o hose
goods and ei he include hem as o he s in he legal a ic o exclude hei app op iabili y
o es ablish o he uses.
The expansion o he CPR no ion and i s enewed ele ance is also due o i s
ole in he con ex o he ne wo k socie y (Cas ells, 2004) o cogni i e capi alism
(Moulie -Bou ang, 2011), in which knowledge has become he c i ical ac o o labo
and ma ke p ocesses. Al hough he knowledge-commons ca ego y is he e ogeneous, i
sha es in e es ing ea u es wi h adi ional commons. While knowledge commons a e
o en sub ac i e in na u e — he wood aken om he o es by one communi y membe
can no be aken by ano he — “mos ypes o knowledge ha e, on he o he hand, been
ela i ely nonsub ac i e. Indeed, he mo e people ha sha e use ul knowledge, he g ea e
he common good” (Hess and Ös om, 2016a: 30).6 This does no mean ha knowledge
commons a e exemp om he social dilemmas ha accompany hese ypes o goods and
hei ins i u ional dimension; o ins ance, CPR ins i u ions should es ablish con ibu ion
4 Hess and Ös om (2016a: 32) unde s and knowledge as “all ideas, in o ma ion and da a which a e
in elligible in wha e e o m hey a e exp essed o ob ained”. The di e ences be ween da a, in o ma ion
and o he o ms o knowledge a e also explo ed in he pape .
5 La al and Da do (2015: 47–49) a gued ha he e is a isk ha he ca ego y o commons would be
na u alized and hus educed o a ew goods ela ed o a chaic economies.
6 Au ho s such as Ca ol Rose (1986) ha e e en pu o wa d he idea o a co nucopia o knowledge commons.
Acco ding o his cha ac e is ic, he mo e hese goods a e exploi ed he mo e p oduc i e hey a e and he
mo e alue hey acqui e.
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sys ems capable o sus aining hei ope a ion and sanc ioning sys ems agains beha io s ha
ha m hem (Hess and Ös om, 2016a: 38–39). In any e en , ins i u ionali y and legisla ion
a e no a lesse e il o hei go e nance. Nei he adi ional commons no knowledge
commons a e na u al commons o p ese e, bu human ins i u ions o ep oduce.
In e ms o hei biophysical cha ac e is ics, he mos no able di e ence is he
inc easingly digi al na u e o knowledge commons.7 The commonali y o hese knowledge
goods also aces he challenge o es ablishing ins i u ions o he commons on a b oade
scale han adi ional commons. I is ue ha some knowledge commons a e s ill local
―as a sel - aining g oup ha eaches cou ses and uns a small lib a y in a communi y
social cen e ― bu many o he s need o ope a e on a wide , ending- owa d global, scale
such as he DOAJ da abase8 o he Linux ope a ing sys em.
Al hough his dis inc ion is in e es ing, knowledge commons a e no a comple ely
sepa a e ca ego y om he whole o he commons. La al and Da do (2015) ―and Ha d
and Neg i (2009) be o e hem― es ablished a amewo k in which hey insis ha all
commons a e in e connec ed o he ex en ha hey o m hei own social ex u e, ha
is, a se o p ac ices and alues di e en ia ed om hose o he ma ke (p i a e p ope y
ules) and om hose o he S a e (p inciple o so e eign y ules). The e o e, i is no
jus a hi d ype o goods, di e en om he majo i y o p i a e goods and he mino i y
o public goods, as neoclassic heo y has pu o wa d (Ve cellone e al., 2015: 10–11).
Al hough his app oach is no as widesp ead and mul i ace ed as Ös om’s, i has he
i ue o unde lining he poli ical and he con lic ing dimension o hese ins i u ions.
Consequen ly, in his ex ensi e unde s anding o commons, he p imacy o knowledge
commons as a highly di e en ia ed and p e alen ca ego y loses s eng h. Fo ins ance, i s
in angible cha ac e is ques ioned, due o he huge need o biophysical (schools, eache s)
o digi al (se e s, cabling, e c.) in as uc u es (B a on, 2016) and o he biological needs
o people ha embody ha knowledge, such as housing, ood o secu i y (Ve cellone e
al., 2014: 18 and .). The analysis o he elemen s o his second enclosu e mo emen
e eals ha hey a e objec s wi h ma e ial bases, such as seeds (Da e mos and Vi e o-Pol,
2015), biodi e se subs ances (Golinelli e al., 2015), human bodies (Rosen eld and Mason,
2013) and physical in as uc u es suppo ing he In e ne . In addi ion, he ou pu s o hese
ins i u ions o commons a e no only inno a ions in digi al ields o on ie science, bu
also in social p ac ices and linguis ic and manage ial skills ha o m he basis o he
expansion o he pe sonal se ices sec o (Mo ini, 2014; Ma azzi, 2011).
2. e ec IVeness, Isks and Vulne aBIlI Ies
Ra he han p e-exis ing, commons a e made, since hey a e undamen ally a
p ac ice o common doing, commoning.9 This no ion has se e al implica ions. Fi s ly, i
7 This makes Hess and Ös om’s ini ial analyses mo e complex and inco po a es new di e ences. See
P ainsack (2019).
8 Di ec o y o Open Access Jou nals. See h ps://doaj.o g/
9 See Linebaugh (2013: 64). This same immanen cha ac e iza ion o he communal igh s leads Linebaugh
o di e en ia e hem om he human igh s.
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emphasizes e ec i eness. I ins i u ions a e o endu e, hey mus be e ec i e in achie ing
hei objec i es wi hin a gi en and cons an ly e ol ing con ex . Secondly, ins i u ional,
egula o y, and o ganiza ional issues become pa amoun . These a e ea u es sha ed by
a ious con empo a y app oaches o commons. On his consensus, La al and Da do
(2015: 663) no e ha ins i u ional ac i i y is no jus a manage ial- echnical ask, bu a
poli ical ac i i y and, as such, subjec o a a ie y o h ea s and con lic s. Indeed, he
popula iza ion o commons has un pa allel o he hegemonic p og ession o neolibe al
go e nmen ali y. This neolibe al a ionali y o go e nmen has p oposed an al e na i e
p ojec o ha o adi ional and con empo a y commons: i has ied o insc ibe hem in
he same logic o app op iabili y, acco ding o he absolu e egime o p ope y (La al and
Da do , 2015: 109–110), be e known as p i a iza ion in he poli ical sphe e.
This sec ion in oduces sou ces o ulne abili y o he commons, wi h special
a en ion paid o knowledge commons. The ollowing sec ion shows ha hese isks a e
sha ed wi h hose isks impac ing he e ec i eness o igh s, since bo h commons and igh s
aim o espond o essen ial needs. These isks should no be unde s ood as small enclosu es
and changes in he go e nance o ce ain goods, bu as pa o a go e nmen ali y change
ha p oposes eplacing basic wel a e ins i u ions, such as “social p ope y” (Cas el, 2004:
41–43), public se ices, he social igh s o pos -wa cons i u ions (O e, 1994: 127–134)
and he eme ging knowledge commons by ano he ins i u ional ne wo k and egime o
ela ions wi h onesel and o he s (Foucaul , 2007: 275 and .).
How would a esea ch agenda on he isks aced by commons be con igu ed?
Resea ch in o he e ec i eness o igh s, pa icula ly economic, social, and cul u al igh s
(ESCR), can use he iola ion app oach, which ocuses on s udying he mos equen and
signi ican iola ions o unde s and how hey ac ually unc ion and o design gua an ees
ha a no ma i e analysis would no make possible on i s own (Chapman, 1996). The
induc i e me hod used by Ös om’s g oup es ablished a classi ica ion o he mos
equen ins i u ional p oblems and o ganized hem as: a) equi y issues, ela ing o he
balance be ween owne ship and con ibu ion o CPRs; b) e iciency issues, ela ing o
he p oduc ion, managemen and op imal use o he esou ce; and c) sus ainabili y issues,
ela ing o he long- e m pe o mance o he esou ce (Hess and Ös om, 2016a: 29).
This app oach is an adequa e s a ing poin o o ganize isks in o h ee g oups: access,
sus ainabili y, and democ acy issues.10
2.1. Access
Access p oblems a e ela ed o he possibili y o excluding indi iduals and g oups
om using and enjoying commons. This is a isk associa ed wi h he expansion o
app op iabili y, ha is, a managemen o commons unde a p ope y-based egime. Fo
ins ance, his occu s wi h he expansion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s o e knowledge
commons, which p omo es he es ablishmen o new o ms o exclusion (P ainsack, 2019:
7 and .). This does no mean ha he pe ec egime o all commons is one o unlimi ed
10 This se o isks is consis en wi h he undamen al p inciples ha ecen esea ch on u ban commons ha e
no ed, such as uni e sali y-inalienabili y, sus ainabili y and democ acy (Méndez de Andes e al., 2019: 1).
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open access, which migh lead o dynamics o inequal compe i ion and selec i i y
(Mo ozo , 2012; Tkacz, 2012) as well as isks o CPR sus ainabili y. I is, he e o e, usual
o he communi ies behind commons o es ablish ules o exclusion o , a leas , limi ed
exploi a ion o p e en such pe e se e ec s. Some imes hose limi a ions can be in e ed
om he e y cha ac e is ics o he common good, o ins ance, scien i ic knowledge.
Al hough i could be classi ied as a CPR, access o i s ou comes o pa icipa ion in scien i ic
p oduc ion a e highly egula ized h ough me hodological ules imposed by he scien i ic
communi y i sel (Ahumada, 2012). Ne e heless, he ac ha access o CPR depends on
ce ain ules, which a e necessa y o hei own unc ioning, does no mean hey a e all
admissible in a igh s-based app oach (e.g., ce ain expe imen s a e o bidden) no ha
hey a e wi hou consequences o he sus ainabili y o he esou ce o he gene al in e es .
2.2. Sus ainabili y
CPRs ha ha e pe sis ed ha e been e ec i e in achie ing he goals hei communi ies
sough , bu also in main aining hei sus ainabili y.11 In con as o his si ua ion, eminis
app oaches o social ep oduc ion ha e shown how neolibe al go e nmen ali y does no
conside he ele ance and cos o sus ainabili y, hus pu ing he con inui y o di e en
o ms o li e a isk (Ca asco, 2014; Mo ini, 2014; Pé ez O ozco, 2014; Dalla Cos a,
2009). Neolibe al s a egies ha e aken ad an age o he in angible and decen alized
composi ion o many knowledge commons o subo dina e CPR sus ainabili y o he bene i
o in ellec ual p ope y igh s holde s (Vila-Viñas and Ba andia an, 2015). This is con a y
o he unc ioning o knowledge. Fi s , i is no possible o ex ac knowledge comple ely
om he pe son who embodies i o inse i in o a p oduc ion cycle as a pa o capi al, as
ano he ac o o p oduc ion and, second, nei he is i possible o indi idualize i en i ely
in he posi ion o a pa icula wo ke who is paid o use hei knowledge. As indica ed,
go e nmen ali y o co po a i e wel a e (Rose and Mille , 1992: 23; Vila-Viñas, 2014: 201
and ) p oposed he c ea ion o some majo social de ices o add ess hese p oblems and
o socialize isks: public educa ion and public heal h se ices ha could ensu e knowledge
expansion, ans e sys ems ha could p o ec in imes o labo inac i i y and ising wages
and a huge p opo ion o unpaid and subo dina ed emale labo .
Neolibe al go e nmen ali y has added s a egies o app op ia ion o commons,
usually known as commodi ica ion and p i a iza ion (Foucaul , 2007: 177–179). Tha
expansion o he app op iabili y o CPR ou comes wi hou an equi alen con ibu ion o
11 See p inciples illus a ed by long-endu ing CPR ins i u ions in Ös om (1990: 90–102). As Ve cellone
e al. (2015: 18) posi , he inno a ion o knowledge CPRs “ ecalls ecological and collec i e p oblems ha
we e missing om he no ions o i al ousness and non- i al ousness in consump ion. The e m common-
pool esou ce makes he ecological p oblem plain by e e ing o he equilib ium be ween he s ock and low
necessa y o gua an ee he ep oduc ion o a esou ce”.
12 Some da a may cla i y he con ex o ulne abili y o he young popula ion in Spain. In he las qua e o
2019, only 18.6% o young people aged 16–29 we e emancipa ed (a he same ime in 2008, his p opo ion
was 26.1%). De elopmen uns pa allel o he p ices o en al housing, which has isen om 55.7% o 94%
o a wo ke ’s sala y du ing he same pe iod (Sou ce: Inju e. Obse a o io de Emancipación). The a e age
age o emancipa ion in EU is 26 yea s old and 29 in Spain (Sou ce: Eu os a ). The isk o child po e y in
Spain was 26.8 in 2018 (Sou ce: ECV, 2008–2018). The a e age age o ha ing he i s child o women in
Spain was 31 yea s old in 2018 (Sou ce: INE).

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hei enewal in ol es a isk o he sus ainabili y o knowledge commons. Consequen ly,
al hough iden i ying he isk o he ecological collapse o some CPRs is usual, poin ing
ou social and poli ical isks is less so (Ve cellone, 2011: 90, 103–5). These isks a e
sha ed wi h hose ha h ea en he e ec i eness o social igh s in Spain, such as he igh
o housing o he igh o a digni ied li e o some g oups.12 Fu he mo e, i neolibe al
go e nmen ali y has inc eased he cap u e o CPR esou ces wi hou he co esponding
eplenishmen , he shi o aus e i y (Bly h, 2013; Bake , 2010) has inc eased he p essu e
on hese esou ces, e en wi h he sac i ice o economic p o i in a o o p ese ing he
s a us quo.13
2.3. Democ acy
These access and sus ainabili y isks a e ela ed o ins i u ional and democ a ic
isks. As Boyle (2008: 51) no ed, i he adi ion o in ellec ual p ope y igh s as an
excep ion has shi ed o becoming he no m, i is because o some sho comings in he
democ a ic de elopmen o hese new egula ions. One aspec ha is easily o go en
in he desc ip ion o he enclosing p ocess om a socio-legal pe spec i e is ha i no
only pu s uni e sal access a isk, by allowing exclusions and disc imina ions based
on p ope y igh s ha end owa d he absolu e, bu also CPR sus ainabili y, when i
leads o esou ce exploi a ion ha is no compensa ed by enough con ibu ions o enew
i . In addi ion, hese enclosu es also in ol e a isk o au onomous CPR go e nance.
Ös om’s g oup iden i ied he impo ance o he communi y ha embodies CPRs and
i s ins i u ional capaci y, i s ly, o p o ide ules o sel -go e nance and, secondly, o
p o ide mechanisms o deal wi h con lic s and o s eng hen compliance wi h hese
ules. In his ega d, i a CPR becomes app op iable, i means any holde o he p ope y
igh s can manage i exclusi ely. On a esou ce scale, his cen alizes esponsibili ies
ha we e o me ly dis ibu ed h oughou he communi y, e en i he e was a ce ain
le el o di e en ia ion and specializa ion in how hey we e pe o med. On an ecosys em
scale based on knowledge commons, such as he con empo a y knowledge economy, his
hie a chizes i s unc ioning. Fo ins ance, he ac onym GAFA14 now no only e e s o
he main economic s akeholde s, bu also o poli ical s akeholde s capable o deciding on
he o m and e ec s o communica ions o cul u al consump ion (Zubo , 2019; Cancela,
2019; Mo ozo , 2018).
A simila si ua ion is obse ed in science, which is also a knowledge commons
and he objec o a igh (Mo ge a, 2015; Plome , 2015; Shaheed, 2014). Mos e iden
iola ions a e due o he disc imina ion o some popula ions ega ding hei access o
some medical ea men s o o wa e pu i ica ion me hods, bu hei con inued exclusion
om scien i ic knowledge (e.g., by a educ ion in public in es men in science o by a
13 Be o e he aus e i y app oach became widesp ead in many pe iphe al s a es, Dean (2003: 167–170)
desc ibes i as e lexi e go e nmen ali y, whe e he p ima y objec i e is he secu i y and s abili y o
go e nmen and all o he objec i es a e subo dina ed.
14 In o ma ion on he echnological sec o e e s o GAFA o Big Fou (Google, Apple, Facebook, and
Amazon) and also GAFAM o Big Fi e, including Mic oso , o e e o hese majo s akeholde s.
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concen a ion o pa en s) has an e ec on hei possibili ies o di ec scien i ic knowledge
in acco dance wi h hei alues and in e es s, some hing ha i is usually e lec ed in
cons i u ional ex s o in in e na ional co enan s on igh s. This in oduces he isk ha
knowledge is no longe a mechanism o emancipa ion bu a mechanism o domina ion
(La al and Da do , 2015: 254–5; Sha e , 2015).
2.4. Responses
The social-co po a e go e nmen ali y o wel a e gene a ed i s own se o
p e en ions ega ding hese isks, ha is, inc easing access o basic goods h ough s a e
solida i y sys ems and public se ices, along wi h con ibu ion de ices ha allowed o
hei expansion. Bo h p oduc ion and li e cycles we e o ganized a ound co po a ion cul u e
(Bol anski and Chiapello, 2002), sexual di ision o labo (Fink, 2001; Lewis, 1997) and
s a e bu eauc acy de elopmen o he managemen o hese wel a e a angemen s (Rose,
1996: 46). This se o wel a is solu ions e u ns wi h o ce when he neolibe al o aus e e
enclosing mo emen is a i s mos se e e.
In spi e o his, he commons adi ion has been eluc an o an exclusi ely s a e-
based esponse, ei he due o i s libe al oo s (such as Ös om’s g oup), i s coope a i is 15
and municipalis adi ion (Res akis, 2015), o he p agma ic need o balance he cap u e
powe o he p i a e sec o (Ho el, 2019) and o p e alen g oups in he S a e (Jessop,
2008; Vila-Viñas, 2014: 53). These posi ions unde sco e he leade ship o communi ies
and he p og essi e democ a iza ion o social p ope y managed by he S a e, ei he in he
o m o wel a e de ices o o public se ices. These c i ical app oaches also e idence he
exis ence o a undamen al di ision be ween public and p i a e in ou poli ical imagina y.
When p inciples o access, sus ainabili y and democ acy ha e been ex ended o p i a e
goods, jus i ica ions abou he an agonism be ween economic e iciency and democ a ic
managemen o en eme ge. Based on he g ea e impo ance o commons in he knowledge
economy, only ecen ly has he ele ance o he commons-based p oduc ion egimes
(Benkle , 2006) inc eased, ha is, a p oduc ion whe e “no one uses exclusi e igh s o
o ganize e o o cap u e i s alue, and when coope a ion is achie ed h ough social
mechanisms o he han p ice signals o manage ial di ec ions” (Benkle , 2004: 1110).
In a wel a e egime, he esponse o hese and o he social isks was o ganized
a ound he opposi ion be ween commodi ied and de-commodi ied sphe es. In he la e ,
he igh o access essen ial goods was gua an eed o some social g oups (Esping-
15 F om his app oach, his go e nmen , buil o e he p axis o he common (La al and Da do , 2015: 266)
should be di e en ia ed om he ex emes o pu e so e eign y and simple managemen : “ hinking in e ms
o a collec i e p ac ice ela ed wi h he use o he una ailable. Nei he go e nmen no managemen , bu
a collec i e ac i e use h ough which e e yone pa icipa es in he cop oduc ion o non-s a e legal no ms”
(La al and Da do , 2015: 306).
16 Mos c i ical app oaches o he S a e, such as La al and Da do (2015), equa e he poli ical e ec s o
ma ke and S a e a ionali y. In he amewo k p oposed by his pape , his iden i ica ion is incompa ible
wi h he cons i u ional-posi i is sys ems o igh s. As a esul , he amewo k o s uc u ing o he public and
he commons will be used mo e o en han ma ke a ionali y and he absolu e cha ac e o p ope y igh s.
Da iD ila- iñas
The Age o Human Righ s Jou nal, 15 (Decembe 2020) pp. 186-202 ISSN: 2340-9592 DOI: 10.17561/ ah j. 15.5779 193
Ande sen, 2007). Based on a commons app oach, he opposi ion would no be o ganized
be ween ma ke and S a e a ionali ies. The mos usual opposi ion would be be ween
ma ke a ionali y (o ganized a ound an absolu e no ion o p ope y igh s) and commons
a ionali y.16 This app oach would change he iew o he isks o access, sus ainabili y
and democ acy, which a e isks sha ed be ween he commons and he de-commodi ied
sphe e in wel a e sys ems. This would also allow o a mo e ealis ic esponse o cu en
igh s iola ions.
3. legal Impac
Since he commons app oach became popula in poli ics and academia, se e al
p oposals ha e ied o use i in he legal ield. The bes known, mainly om US Law
Schools, exposed he ex en o in ellec ual p ope y igh s, in pa allel o he eme gence o
he ield o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies (Boyle, 2008; Ha ey, 2007: 64–
65; Lessig, 2004; Bollie , 2003). A he same ime, hey explo ed al e na i e egula ions
o p ope y igh s o e knowledge goods ha we e he subjec o his second enclosu es
mo emen . Consequen ly, in ellec ual p ope y igh s compa ible wi h p inciples o
commons we e designed in he ields o cul u al and scien i ic p oduc ion (as c ea i e
commons o copyle licenses), o so wa e (Lessig, 2006), o o ha dwa e (Pea ce, 2014;
Lazalde e al., 2015). A common-based p oduc ion sys em was also p esen ed (Benkle ,
2006), so i could se e as an al e na i e o p oduc ion o ganiza ion ha is inc easingly
based on closed in ellec ual p ope y igh s.
Resea ch conduc ed by cons i u ional law was added o hese al e na i es o e ed
mainly by p i a e law. The ele ance o law as he ab ic o he ne wo k o plu al social
ela ions was unde lined based on he social law adi ion (Gu i ch, 2005). The issue was
knowing he ole he poli ical a ionali y o commons could play in ha ask o imp o ing
no only he go e nance o ce ain goods and p oduc i e p ocesses, bu also o he social
whole and i s poli ical dimension. To his end, spaces o local democ acy ha e been he
main ield o esea ch, hand in hand wi h p ocesses o co-go e nmen o public se ices,17
in acco dance wi h he subsidia i y p inciple.18 A ecen example o his app oach is he
eco e y o p i a ized se ices unde a new logic ha is no exclusi ely public (Cangelosi,
2019: 80). On a b oade scale, he main objec o c i icism has been he expansion o an
17 Cases in he Emilia-Romagna egion a e well known, whe e a managemen sys em o some public se ices
by en i ies o social and solida i y economy was chosen (Res akis, 2015), and democ a iza ion p ocesses o
psychia ic ins i u ions we e implemen ed (Basaglia, 1972).
18 In he public managemen sphe e, his p inciple p oposes ha he communi y di ec ly manage a se ice
o public esou ce whe e possible, while he s a e should only in e ene when di ec managemen by he
communi y is no possible (Res akis, 2015: 604 and .).
19 See Ve cellone e al., 2015: 4–5: “Mo eo e , om he conc e e expe iences analyzed he e, he idea
eme ges ha he concep o common goods can cons i u e a conc e e al e na i e, and ha includes on a legal
oo ing [Rodo à Commission]. The e o e, he common is he p oduc o a social and ins i u ional s uc u e
ha demons a es o ms o go e ning and social co-ope a ion ha gua an ee i s p oduc ion, ep oduc ion
and sp ead. The new ins i u ions o he common ha eme ge om hese cons i uen p ac ices cons i u e a
gene al p inciple o sel -go e nance o socie y and sel -o ganiza ion o social p oduc ion, p oposing a new
di ision be ween common, public and p i a e”.
EmE gEncE o KnowlEdgE commons, isKs, and ElE ancE o ThE human- ighTs amEwo K
The Age o Human Righ s Jou nal, 15 (Decembe 2020) pp. 186-202 ISSN: 2340-9592 DOI: 10.17561/ ah j. 15.5779 194
absolu e p ope y igh (La al and Da do , 2015: 529 and .; Ha d and Neg i, 2009: 3 and
.), which has become a ma e ial limi o he e ec i eness o ou human- igh s sys ems.
These app oaches, as a whole, ha e gene a ed a plu aliza ion o he legal ield, in oducing
a common ealm be ween he classic public (S a e-so e eign y) and p i a e (indi idual-
p ope y) dicho omy.19 I is a new ealm linked o he ecological one and i s inapp op iable
na u e (Ma ei, 2011: 10–12), in con as o he “ undamen al s uc u e [o ] he ule o a
subjec (an indi idual, a company, he go e nmen ) o e an objec (a p i a e good, an
o ganiza ion, a e i o y)” (Ma ei, 2011: 6), which has p e ailed un il now.
One h ead ha could link he concep o commons wi h ou legal adi ions would
be cus om. Some his o ical examples, such as he English Magna Ca a, and, in pa icula ,
he Cha e o he Fo es , o 1225, ecognize p e-exis ing ins i u ions o he commons, wi h
hei igh s nes ed (Linebaugh, 2008). Based on objec i is and iusna u alis pe spec i es
o he legi imacy o igh s, he episodes o igh s ecogni ion in posi i e legal no ms would
be he legal consolida ion o legi ima e and legally ele an p e-exis ing p ac ices (Pé ez
Luño, 2013: 58 and .).20 Wi hin he amewo k o his pape , he in e es in cus om s ems
om i s democ a ic legi imacy, as a epea ed p ac ice wi h a gene al awa eness o i s legal
en o ceabili y. Howe e , om a democ a ic pe spec i e, he main ea u e o commons
is hei ins i u ional and no ma i e cha ac e . As no ed abo e, one o he mos consis en
p inciples ha Ös om’s g oup ound in he analyzed CPR (Ös om, 1990: 90–102) was he
c ea ion o he ules o ope a ion by he communi ies behind he CPRs. These ules we e
la e ecognized by he ex e nal au ho i y. The e o e, bo h CPR c ea ion and con inui y
a e no spon aneous and, ins ead, obliga ions and legal links be ween he membe s o
hei communi ies a e e y impo an (La al and Da do , 2015: 173). All his b ings o
ligh he poli ical and ins i u ional dimension o hese esou ces in con as o he ac i i y
o me e managemen . CPRs a e ins i u ions capable o p oducing no ms om ce ain se s
o p ac ices and con lic ing ela ionships wi h al e na i e s a egies o go e ning hose
esou ces.21
This con igu a ion o commons has wo legal consequences. Fi s , by highligh ing
he ins i u ional dimension,22 he ela ional aspec s o legal p ac ice a e also emphasized. The
s a ing poin is no longe he au onomous subjec ha uses he wo ld o hings in an abs ac
20 Al hough i is no he main objec o hei esea ch, La al and Da do (2015: 352 and .) c i icize he
poli ical e ec s o his connec ion be ween cus oms and commons because: 1) i does no e lec he p ocess
o o ma ion o some commons, such as ecen knowledge commons; 2) cus oma y no ms a ise om a
pa icula ne wo k o powe ela ionships, which a e di icul o ansla e in o he p esen ; and 3) hey a e
no necessa ily in line wi h he p inciples o he common, and, o show ha , hey poin o succession law,
which hey de ine as an obs acle o he ins i u ions o he common.
21 “Unlike ‘managemen ’, ‘go e nmen ’ assumes con lic s and seeks o o e come hem h ough a decision
conce ning he ules. Ins i u ing p axis is, he e o e, a p ac ice o go e ning he commons h ough he
con lic s ha gi e hem li e” (La al and Da do , 2015: 663).
22 In hei conclusions, La al and Da do (2015: 662–663) main ain a concep o commons qui e sepa a e
om he mo e ex ended meaning as common goods o , as a gued in his pape , as ins i u ions o he commons,
close o a CPR no ion. Al hough i is an in e es ing concep because i unde lines some cha ac e is ics no ed
in his pape , i is a emo ed om he gene al meaning o hese concep s, bo h in legal and poli ical
sphe es, and is hus less use ul.
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Accep ed: Augus 14 h 2020