He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
"GET THEM LOST JUST AS IN THE NARROW STREETS O THE CASBAH":
METAPHORS OF RESISTANCE AND SUBVERSION IN TRANSLATION1
Kim WALLMACH
Uni e si y o Sou h A ica (P e o ia)
INTRODUCTION
O la e, (in e lingual) ansla ion has become some hing o a ope, pe haps e en a ope o a
ope, a me apho o he ans e o meaning gene ally and o pos colonial exchanges in pa icula .
This a icle aims o explo e he in e wined ela ionship o ansla ion, me apho and esis ance in
he con ex o con empo a y ansla ion heo ies, wi h speci ic e e ence o esis i e app oaches o
ansla ion.
The i le o his pape alludes o a a he opaque me apho con ained in he ph ase “ge hem
los in he casbah”, which o igina ed in wo k by he Tunisian w i e Adelwahab Meddeb (in
MEHREZ, 1992: 123-4). Meddeb s a es:
L'éc i u e ançaise nous ‘li e’ à l'au e, mais on se dé end a pa l'a abesque, la
sub e sion, le dédale, le laby in he, le décen age incessan de la ph ase e du
langage, de maniè e que l'au e se pe de comme dans les uelles de la casbah.
[W i ing in F ench 'su ende s' us o he o he , bu we will de end ou sel es wi h
he a abesque, he sub e sion, he maze, he laby in h, he incessan decen e ing
o he sen ence and o language so ha he o he will ge los jus as in he na ow
s ee s o he casbah.]
In his passage, he image o he casbah o old No h A ican ci y is delibe a ely in oduced as
a way o igu a i ely esis ing he dominan colonial cul u e o F ance as embodied in he F ench
language. Meddeb's use o he wo d casbah as he o he pole o he me apho has he unc ion o
supe imposing an un amilia model on he ex (in his case, A abic cul u e) which needs o be
decoded be o e he F ench ex can be unde s ood (MEHREZ, 1992: 124). Thus, al hough Meddeb,
as a Tunisian, is w i ing in F ench, he language o he colonise , he ensu es ha he is able o
delibe a ely cause na i e speake s o F ench o lose hei way in hei own language by using an
image which is o eign o he dominan cul u e bu in eg al o he mino i y cul u e - jus as hey
would lose hei way in he meande ing alleys o he casbah in a Tunisian ci y. Thus, ansla ion, o
in his case, non- ansla ion, o he mino i y cul u e, he ‘o he ’, becomes a me apho o esis ance.
In essence, he abo e example also illus a es he o igins in me apho o esis i e app oaches o
ansla ion.
1 An ea lie e sion o his pape was p esen ed a a con e ence o he Poe ics and Linguis ics Associa ion (PALA)
held in Po che s oom, Sou h A ica, 30 Ma ch 1999.
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
VENUTI AND RESISTIVE APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION
Law ence Venu i, one o he mos p oli ic heo is s in he cul u al s udies pa adigm in
ansla ion and he i s o use he e m ‘ esis ancy’ (VENUTI, 1995) wi h e e ence o ansla ion,
could be said o be he mos ocal p oponen o hese app oaches o ansla ion. Venu i (1995) uses
he e ms ' esis ancy', ' esis ance' o ‘ o eignisa ion’ o e e o he s a egy o ansla ing a li e a y
ex in such a way ha i e ains some hing o i s o eignness. In Venu i's iew, his app oach
challenges he assump ion p e alen in Anglo-Ame ican cul u e ha he only alid way o
ansla ing is o p oduce a ansla ion which eads luen ly and idioma ically and is so ‘ anspa en ’
in e lec ing he o eign w i e 's in en ion in he a ge language ha he ansla ion could be
mis aken o an o iginal ex . Acco ding o Venu i, “[ ]he mo e luen he ansla ion, he mo e
in isible he ansla o , and, p esumably, he mo e isible he w i e o meaning o he o eign ex ”
(VENUTI, 1995: 1-2). Thus, ansla ing idioma ically o ‘ anspa en ly’ ul ima ely e aces he ole
o cul u al poli ics in shaping ansla ion beha iou , s a ing wi h he ansla o 's c ucial in e en ion
in he o eign ex . Venu i also s ongly c i icises he idea ha idioma ic ansla ion (o wha he calls
‘domes ica ion’) should be he de aul ansla ion s a egy augh o s uden ansla o s and
ad oca ed o all ypes o ex .
In p ac ice, ollowing a esis i e app oach o ansla ion may in ol e ei he choosing o
ansla e a ex ha challenges he con empo a y canon o o eign li e a u e in he a ge language,
o i may mean ha he ansla o uses unidioma ic exp essions and o he linguis ically and
cul u ally aliena ing ea u es, like he casbah alluded o abo e, in he ansla ed ex in o de o
c ea e an imp ession o o eignness and p o ide eade s o he ansla ion wi h an “alien eading
expe ience” (VENUTI, 1995: 20). Venu i (1995: 34) concedes ha o eignising ansla ions a e jus
as biased in hei in e p e a ion o he o eign ex as a e domes ica ing ansla ions, ye poin s ou
ha hey “ end o laun hei pa iali y ins ead o concealing i .” His s a ed aim is he e o e
o o ce ansla o s and hei eade s o e lec on he e hnocen ic iolence o
ansla ion and hence o w i e and ead ansla ed ex s in ways ha seek o
ecognise he linguis ic and cul u al di e ence o o eign ex s ... ins ead o he
homogenei y ha widely cha ac e ises i oday. (VENUTI, 1995: 42)
Venu i’s ideas a e clea ly in luenced by hose o F ied ich Schleie mache and Jacques
De ida. In Schleie mache ’s well-known o mula ion, “[ei he ] he ansla o lea es he au ho in
peace, as much as is possible, and mo es he eade owa ds him: o he lea es he eade in peace,
as much as is possible, and mo es he au ho owa ds him.” (in GEERTSEMA, 1996: 48).
Schleie mache ’s insis ence ha on lea ing ei he he au ho and ex “in peace” o he eade “in
peace” implies ha iolence is, somehow, ine i able in he ansla ion p ocess, a iolence which is
di ec ed ei he a he ex and hus a he au ho , o a he eade . While Schleie mache would p e e
he au ho o es peace ully, Venu i expec s he eade o join ba le. Venu i also joins De ida in
iewing he e m ‘di é ance’ o ‘di e ence’ in ansla ion ( adi ionally a nega i e e m signi ying
dis o ion o de ia ion) in a new ligh , causing ansla ion i sel o be eassessed. De ida sees he
ansla ion p ocess as an ac ion in which he mo emen along he su ace o language is made
isible, and he limi s o language and in e ex uali y explo ed:
Wi hin he limi s o i s possibili y o i s appa en possibili y, ansla ion p ac ises
he di e ence be ween signi ied and signi ie . Bu , i his di e ence is ne e pu e,
ansla ion is e en less so, and a no ion o ans o ma ion mus be subs i u ed o
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
he no ion o ansla ion: a egula ed ans o ma ion o one language by ano he ,
o one ex by ano he . We shall no ha e and ne e ha e had o deal wi h some
‘ ans e ’ o pu e signi ieds ha he signi ying ins umen –o ‘ ehicle’– would
lea e i gin and in ac . (DERRIDA in GRAHAM, 1985: 150)
The ‘ ansla ion heo y’ discussed in decons uc ion and used o ansla e ex s which we e
p e iously conside ed o be un ansla able (e.g. wo ks by De ida, Blancho , Joyce, de Man,
Benjamin) is no a heo y in a adi ional sense - i is no p esc ip i e, i does no depend upon some
no ion o equi alence be ween sou ce and a ge ex , no does i p opose a be e model o
communica ion. Ins ead, i sugges s ha one hink less in e ms o copying o ep oducing and mo e
in e ms o in e ex uali y, o explo ing he limi s o language. The ac o ‘de-cons uc ing’ o
in e p e ing a ex is no seen as eco e ing some deepe gi en objec i e meaning which con ols
and uni ies he ex 's s uc u e, bu as exposing wha is usually supp essed, namely he in ini e
possibili ies, he ‘ ee play’ o meanings. Each decons uc ion, each in e p e a ion, opens i sel o
u he decons uc ion. Thus, bo h w i ing and ansla ion a e seen as “ he endless displacemen o
meaning which bo h go e ns language and places i o e e beyond he each o a s able, sel -
au hen ica ing knowledge” (NORRIS, 1982: 29). This o cou se means ha , ins ead o being seen as
ep oduc ions o an exac meaning, ansla ions a e seen as ex s in hei own igh which a e always
in he p ocess o modi ying, de e ing and displacing he o iginal.
In he nex sec ion, I a emp o place esis i e app oaches o ansla ion wi hin he con ex o
ansla ion s udies as a whole, be o e going on o discuss some o he speci ic me apho s o
esis ance and di e ence employed in he cul u al s udies pa adigm. An explo a ion o he no ion o
discou se and how con lic and esis ance ope a e wi hin discou se is mos enligh ening when
ela ed o ansla ion s udies, since i p o ides insigh in o he ela ionships be ween he a ious
heo ies o ansla ion and, ul ima ely, some insigh in o he p o enance o esis i e app oaches o
ansla ion.
RESISTIVE APPROACHES CONTEXTUALISED: TRANSLATION STUDIES AS
DISCOURSE
I is my con en ion ha discou se o any kind is a si e o s uggle. I is a dynamic, linguis ic
and, abo e all, seman ic space in which social meanings a e p oduced and challenged. In s uggling
o a i m one ype o discou se, ano he ype o discou se mus be p esen ed as ‘o he ’, mus be
esis ed and, ul ima ely conque ed. I one pole o a concep ual dicho omy is o be posi i ely
e alua ed o p esen ed as sel -e iden , he o he pole mus necessa ily be denied o sub e ed. As
Foucaul (SELDEN, 1985: 100) says: “claims o objec i i y made on behal o speci ic discou ses
a e always spu ious: he e a e no absolu ely ‘ ue’ discou ses, only mo e o less powe ul ones”.
Discou ses a e esis an o in e nal c i icism and sel -sc u iny, since u e ing iewpoin s ha
se iously unde mine hem de ines one as being ou side hem. In o he wo ds, a discou se de ines
i sel in ela ion, o a he in opposi ion o o he discou ses, and a he same ime, in o de o
es ablish i s p imacy, a discou se mus deny he exis ence o hese con lic ing discou ses. Thus, in
my iew, denial and esis ance a e in eg al o any discou se. And he oo s o his esis ance lie in
bina ism and he ac ha mos bas ions o Wes e n hough ha e ope a ed acco ding o wo e ms
o a bina y opposi ion which always logically imply and p esuppose one ano he .
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
In he case o ansla ion, he undamen al bina ism o ansla ion discou se is s eng hened by
he ac ha ansla ion s udies s ill has di icul y in dis ancing i sel om i s objec o s udy. Thus
ansla ion discou se con inues o be de e mined and comp omised by a se ies o ecu ing well-
wo n dicho omies which a e simply manipula ed di e en ly acco ding o speci ic heo ies wi hin
ansla ion.
One ypical dicho omy ope a ional in discou ses on ansla ion is he a i icial dis inc ion
be ween an implied, supposedly a-his o ical ideal o ansla ion and i s his o ical, necessa ily
impe ec , ealisa ions. Acco ding o Lambe & Robyns (1992: 1), since he ideal ansla ion is
supposed o be he in eg al ansposi ion o e e y ea u e o a gi en sou ce ex , his i s dicho omy
is gene ally combined wi h he sou ce ex / a ge ex dicho omy. In bo h cases, he i s i em se es
as an absolu e e e ence o he o he . Closely linked o his is he dicho omy be ween o m and
con en , based on he adi ional epis emological pos ula e o communica ion: i is assumed ha a
ixed meaning, a ‘ anscenden al signi ied’, could be ans e ed by a di e en o m which e e s o
he i s o m. The o m/ con en dicho omy legi imises he dis inc ion be ween li e a y and
echnical ex s, which in u n leads o he opposi ion be ween ansla ion as an a and ansla ion as
a skill. While ‘ echnical’ ex s allow ai h ul ansla ion, p o ided ha he a ge languages
possesses he necessa y concep s, li e a y ex s a e cha ac e ised by he insepa abili y o o m and
meaning, which makes hem ‘un ansla able’. Ano he dicho omy ope a ional in discou ses on
ansla ion is he iden i y/ al e i y dicho omy, which occu s in a ious o ms ( o eign s. ecei ing
language, li e a u e, cul u e, na ion, s a e) and has led o he iden i ica ion o ansla ion wi h he
c ossing o na ional bo de s. The iden i y/ al e i y dicho omy also gi es ise o he age-old
dicho omy be ween ai h ul s. ee ansla ion (also closely linked o he o m/con en ela ion),
which has become he dominan bina y ela ion in discou se on ansla ion h ough he ages.
Rela ed o he ai h ul/ ee ela ion a e he mas e /se an and male/ emale dicho omies, which
cons i u e ela ions o subse ience e sus dominance and appea in me apho ical desc ip ions o
he ela ion be ween an o iginal ex and i s ansla ion. T ansla ion is gene ally seen as a se ies o
ei he /o decisions, o choices be ween he al e i y o he sou ce ex and he iden i y equi ed o
he ansla ion o be conside ed accep able in he a ge cul u e al hough, o cou se, o he op ions do
exis , such as non- ansla ion.
In my iew, in o de o examine ansla ion as a p ac ical ac ion pe o med in speci ic
ci cums ances, i is no enough simply o enume a e he kinds o dicho omies which ypically ecu
in ansla ion s udies. I is also impo an o examine how hese dicho omies a e manipula ed in
o de o de e mine he posi ion o ansla ion wi hin a ious discu si e p ac ices. As Bo é (1992: 6)
pu s i : “In e ec , o unde s and discou se, one mus y o posi ion i , o see i in i s own e ms, o
desc ibe i s place wi hin a ne wo k o o he analy ic and heo e ical concep s which a e ‘weapons’
o g appling wi h con empo a y socie y and i s his o y.” As he ollowing able ( igu e 1)
illus a es, i is qui e possible o use hese dicho omies o b oadly cha ac e ise he dominan and
pe iphe al heo ies o ansla ion going back o he 1920s. Each indi idual b anch o ansla ion
heo y can be de ined acco ding o i s p i ileging o one se o dicho omies o e ano he , and also in
e ms o i s ejec ion o he o he pole.
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
INFLUENCE OF:
LINGUISTICS
Linguis ics-based ansla ion
heo ies I (1960s) (e.g. Ca o d)
heo y [p ac ice]; p esc ip i e
[desc ip i e]; sou ce ex [ a ge ex ];
science [a ]; objec i i y
[subjec i i y]; impossibili y o
ansla ion [possibili y o ansla ion];
abs ac ideal [his o ical, impe ec
ealisa ion]; isola ed cons uc [ ex in
con ex ]; con en [ o m]; echnical
ex s [li e a y ex s]; ( ai h ul= o m/
ee=con en )
LITERATURE
PHILOSOPHY
He meneu ic app oaches o
ansla ion (ca.1920-p esen ) (e.g.
S eine )
a [science]; heo y [p ac ice];
p esc ip i e [desc ip i e];
abs ac ideal [his o ical,
impe ec ealisa ion]
Nida
Theo y [p ac ice]; p esc ip i e
[desc ip i e]; ex in con ex o cul u e
[isola ed cons uc ]; e e sal o
ai h ul/ ee dicho omy: ai h ul =
con en / ee= o m
Linguis ics-based ansla ion
heo ies II (la e 1970s) (e.g.House,
Neube , Reiss)
heo y [p ac ice]; p esc ip i e
[desc ip i e]; science [a ]; objec i i y
[subjec i i y]; sou ce ex [ a ge ex ];
abs ac ideal [his o ical, impe ec
ealisa ion]; con en [ o m], echnical
ex s [li e a y ex s]; ex in con ex
[isola ed cons uc ]; single ansla ion
[co pus o ansla ions] ( ai h ul =
o m/ ee= con en )
THE `CULTURAL TURN'
Func ionalism (ca. 1991-p esen )
(e.g.No d, Snell-Ho nby)
heo y [p ac ice]; p esc ip i e
[desc ip i e]; ex in con ex [isola ed
cons uc ]; ex in cul u e
Co pus ansla ion s udies (ca. 1995
- p esen )
(e.g. Bake , La iosa e c.)
p ac ice [ heo y]; desc ip i e
[p esc ip i e]; a ge ex [sou ce ex ];
objec i i y [subjec i i y]; la ge
compu e co pus o ansla ions
[single ansla ion]
Desc ip i e T ansla ion S udies
(ea ly 1980s) (e.g. Lambe ,
Le e e e, Tou y)
Linguis ic/scien i ic + li e a y
ansla ion; li e a y + echnical ex s;
p ac ice [ heo y]; desc ip i e
[p esc ip i e]; a ge ex [sou ce ex ];
his o ical, impe ec ealisa ion
[abs ac ideal]; ex in con ex
[isola ed cons uc ]; ex in cul u e;
objec i i y [subjec i i y]; science
[a ]; co pus o ansla ions [single
ansla ion]
Cul u al s udies pa adigm (ca.
1985) (e.g. Bassne , Le e e e)
TT eade [ST au ho ]; p ac ice
[ heo y]; single ansla ion [co pus o
ansla ions]; ansla ion as p ima y a
[ ansla ion as seconda y skill];
desc ip i e [p esc ip i e]; a ge ex
[sou ce ex ]; his o ical, impe ec
ealisa ion [abs ac ideal]; ex in
cul u e; [isola ed cons uc ].
In luence o
Pos s uc u alis heo ies
Figu e 1: Dicho omies ope a ional in
ansla ion s udies
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
Resis i e ansla ion heo ies (ca.
1991-p esen ) (e.g. Venu i, Bassne ,
Le e e e), incl.: eminis
ansla ion, cannibalism, ‘gue illa’
heo ies o ansla ion
Di e ence [symme y]; o eignisa ion
[domes ica ion]; o m [meaning];
eade [au ho ]; TT eade [ST
au ho ]; subjec i i y [objec i i y]
The posi ioning o he cul u al s udies pa adigm (o which esis i e app oaches o ansla ion
could be said o be a sub-ca ego y) can qui e easily be ou lined acco ding o his app oach. Cul u al
s udies a ose in opposi ion o he linguis ics-based ansla ion heo ies o he 1980s. In he p e ace
o T ansla ion, his o y and cul u e (BASSNETT & LEFEVERE, 1990), which amoun s o a
mani es o on he cul u al s udies pa adigm, Susan Bassne and And e Le e e e a e qui e empha ic
abou wha cul u al s udies is no , bu a he less speci ic abou wha i is:
The eade will no longe ind pains aking compa isons be ween o iginals and
ansla ions, la gely because such compa isons, a e paying lip-se ice o he ex -
as-uni , end o all ic im o he ‘in isible heo y’...which is implici ly pos ula ed
o unde w i e judgemen s on why a ce ain ansla ion (usually he one p oposed
by he w i e o he pape in ques ion) is be e han ano he (usually con ained in
he ansla ion being compa ed wi h i s o iginal). No will he eade ind
sugges ions o ei he he p oduc ion o oolp oo ansla ions o he aining o
oolp oo ansla o s, simply because bo h a e u opian..., o say he leas . Ins ead,
[cul u al s udies] aims o ackle he p oblem o ideology, change and powe in
li e a u e and socie y and so asse he cen al unc ion o ansla ion as a shaping
o ce. (BASSNETT & LEFEVERE, 1990: 4-5, 10)
In o de o a i m i s s a us as a new app oach o ansla ion, he cul u al s udies pa adigm
necessa ily ejec s he a emp s o o he ansla ion heo is s o objec i ely desc ibe ansla ion
phenomena on he bases o co po a o ex s (which is wha Desc ip i e T ansla ion S udies heo is s
aim o do). Ins ead, hese heo is s choose o o eg ound he subjec i e na u e o hei enqui y and
hei e alua ion o he powe play in ol ed in ansla ion. Bu he undamen al, and a he
in e es ing, cha ac e is ic o he cul u al s udies pa adigm is he ejec ion o any sugges ion o
objec i i y o p esc ip ion. Fo Venu i, in pa icula , his mus be a oided a all cos s. In his book
The Scandals o T ansla ion: owa ds an e hics o di e ence (1998: 25, 29-30)), he s a es:
The mos wo isome endency in linguis ics-o ien ed app oaches is hei
p omo ion o scien i ic models... [S]uch app oaches…. pu i y ansla ion p ac ices
and si ua ions o hei social and his o ical a iables, lea ing li e a y and echnical
ansla o s alike unequipped o e lec on he cul u al meanings, e ec s, and
alues p oduced by hose p ac ices... My ecommenda ion is ha empi ical
app oaches, whe he based on linguis ics o on polysys em heo y, be quali ied
and supplemen ed by ... he social and his o ical hinking ha i demands o
ansla o s and ansla ion schola s.
O cou se, in o de o make his c i icisms hold weigh , Venu i collapses wo dis inc
app oaches o ansla ion (desc ip i e ansla ion s udies and linguis ics-based app oaches) in o one,
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
o which he c ea es his own umb ella e m: “ he scien i ic model” (VENUTI 1998: 25). In o de o
a i m he cul u al s udies pa adigm, i is also necessa y o ejec and esis he concep ual ‘o he ’
o i s e usal o ake “cul u al, social and his o ical o ma ions” in o accoun . This is qui e an
in e es ing mo e, especially since polysys em heo y has i s oo s in compa a i e li e a u e and is in
ac based on cul u al and social heo y, and since cul u al conside a ions o m he basis o he
linguis ics-based app oach o a heo is such as Nida.
An unde s anding o he posi ioning o esis i e ansla ion app oaches in opposi ion o o he
ypes o ansla ion discou se p o ides some insigh as o why esis i e ansla ion app oaches ha e
an explici ly me apho ical unde pinning. Fo , in mo ing s ongly away om any sugges ion o a
oo-scien i ic in es iga ion o ansla ion, adi ional me apho s o ansla ion which o igina ed
be o e he ad en o linguis ics (and could hus be said o be ‘p e-scien i ic’) a e impo an sou ces
o inspi a ion o cul u al s udies heo is s. Me apho has adi ionally been de ined as a ope o
esemblance, no jus as esemblance be ween signi ie and signi ied, bu also as he esemblance
be ween signs, one o which ep esen s he o he . Bu pos s uc u alism and decons uc ion ha e se
ou o show ha me apho can also be a ope o di e ence. Ce ain ansla ion heo is s ha e
app op ia ed his idea and ha e been inspi ed o e isi and a emp o sub e adi ional ‘p e-
scien i ic’ me apho s ela ing o ansla ion. In u n, he ac o esis ance o es ablished no ms as
embodied in me apho has i sel become a me apho which has g adually e ol ed in o a numbe o
explici ly con on a ional discou ses on ansla ion, he so-called esis i e app oaches o ansla ion.
TRADITIONAL TRANSLATION METAPHORS RE-EXAMINED
Wha ypes o adi ional me apho s do esis i e ansla ion heo is s e-examine? Me apho is
undeniably one o he iches sou ces o in o ma ion abou discou ses on ansla ion, e ealing
much abou socie y's a i udes o he ansla ion p ocess. Resea che s such as Lo i Chambe lain
(1992) in pa icula ha e ound ha me apho s o ansla ion going as a back as Cice o end o
illus a e he in e io i y o a ansla ion in ela ion o he o iginal in a numbe o ways. The o iginal
au ho is o en seen as an ‘in en o ’, ee o exp ess himsel as he wishes, whe eas he ansla o is
me ely an ‘imi a o ’, bound by he wo ding o he o iginal. In many s a emen s abou ansla ion,
he me apho o sla e y is associa ed wi h he ansla o , and his sla e y is con as ed wi h he
eedom and o iginali y o he ‘in en o ’.
Gende me apho s also abound in discou ses on ansla ion. T adi ional and misogynis
concep ions o gende oles and a ibu es ha e colou ed much o he discussion on ansla ion,
coding ansla ion as a passi e and subse ien ac i i y ha simply ep oduces someone else's eal
wo k. The ac o ansla ing has adi ionally been iewed as some hing quali a i ely in e io o he
o iginal ac o w i ing – w i ing being o iginal and ‘masculine’, and ansla ing seen as being
de i a i e and ‘ eminine.’ (CHAMBERLAIN 1992: 68) Many me apho s o ansla ion ha e
his o ically been couched in e ms o powe ela ions wi hin he amily, ocusing on he con ol o
emale sexuali y by male au ho i ies o male amily membe s. The implica ion is ha a ex (and a
woman) mus be kep in check in o de o he man o be su e ha he o sp ing – he ansla ion o
he child en– a e legi ima ely his. An example o his kind is he ag ‘les belles in idèles’ used o
desc ibe ansla ion in 18 h cen u y F ance. Li e ally ansla ed, 'les belles in idèles’ means ‘ he
beau i ul un ai h ul’. This exp ession implied ha i ansla ions (like women) we e ai h ul, hey
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
we e p obably ugly, and i hey we e beau i ul, hey we e likely o be un ai h ul. This exp ession
seems o ha e su i ed because i has cap u ed a cul u al pa allel be ween he issues o ideli y in
ansla ion and in ma iage, and i has been used o g ea e ec by men all o e he wo ld. To quo e
only wo ins ances: S e en Seymou , who was U.S. p esiden Jimmy Ca e 's in e p e e , once said:
"T ansla ions a e like women. When hey a e p e y, chances a e hey won' be e y ai h ul." The
Sou h A ican poe Roy Campbell echoes his in Poe y Re iew, June-July 1949: "T ansla ions (like
wi es) a e seldom ai h ul i hey a e in he leas a ac i e." Ano he Sou h A ican, Uys K ige,
used a simila image in his p e ace o he ansla ion o Twel h Nigh in 1971: "As he F ench say,
ansla ing a g ea poem is like kissing ano he man's b ide h ough a eil." Indeed, he discou se on
ansla ion is a discou se ha has ended o main ain double(d) s anda ds based on adi ional gende
s e eo ypes.
The poli ics o gende can be said o o e lap wi h he poli ics o colonialism. T adi ionally,
ansla ion was li e ally a s a egy o linguis ic inco po a ion. In ansla ions by he Ge man
Roman ics, o example, he wo d übe se zen ( o ansla e) was used in e changeably wi h
e deu schen ( o Ge manize). A six een h-cen u y ansla o o Ho ace named Thomas D an also
shows dis inc ly impe ialis endencies in he p e ace o his ansla ion. He s a es:
Fi s I ha e now done as he people o God we e commanded o do wi h hei
cap i e women ha we e handsome and beau i ul: I ha e sha ed o his hai and
pa ed o his nails, ha is, I ha e wiped away all his ani y and supe lui y o
ma e ... I ha e Englished hings no acco ding o he ein o he La in p op ie y,
bu o his own ulga ongue... I ha e pie ced his eason, eked and mended his
simili udes, molli ied his ha dness,... changed and much al e ed his wo ds, bu no
his sen ence, o a leas (I da e say) no his pu pose. (D an in CHAMBERLAIN
1992: 62)
D an ’s in en ion, as a cle gyman ansla ing a secula au ho , is o make Ho ace mo ally
sui able and ans o m him om he o eign, he alien, he 'o he ' in o a membe o he amily, in he
Old Tes amen adi ion whe eby a cap i e woman is ans o med in o a wi e. The sexual iolence
allu ed o in his desc ip ion o ansla ion p o ides an analogue o he poli ical and economic
a oci ies implici in a colonising me apho .
METAPHORICAL CONCEPTUALISATION: FROM METAPHOR OF RESISTANCE TO
RESISTIVE TRANSLATION THEORY
Bu how a e ‘p e-scien i ic’ me apho s o ansla ion such as hose discussed abo e
app op ia ed and ans o med in o me apho s o esis ance? Be o e examining he speci ic
me apho s app op ia ed by he a ious b anches o esis i e ansla ion heo ies, I will y o p o ide
an explana ion o he way in which me apho ical concep ualisa ion ope a es in his ega d. In
Samuel Johnson’s Dic iona y o he English language (1755), me apho is de ined as ollows:
Me apho : The applica ion o a wo d o a use o which, in i s o iginal impo , i
canno be pu : as, he b idles his ange ; he deadens he sound; he sp ing awakes
he lowe s. A me apho is a simile comp ised in a wo d: he sp ing pu ing in
ac ion he powe s o ege a ion, which we e o pid in he win e , as he powe s o
a sleeping animal a e exci ed by awaking him.
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
This is a use ul de ini ion in ha i highligh s he inna e unexpec edness o me apho , he
a emp on he pa o he use o use a wo d in an unusual and di e en con ex . I p o ides a
plausible explana ion o why he o iginal, ‘p e-scien i ic’ me apho s o ansla ion we e chosen in
he i s place - o hei shock alue as well as o hei illus a i e alue. Con empo a y ansla ion
heo is s ha e simply epea ed he same p ocess in c ea ing a new me apho which again implies he
applica ion o a wo d o a use o which, in i s o iginal impo , i canno be pu : o ins ance, in
u ning a s e eo ypical associa ion such as he me apho TRANSLATION IS FEMALE AND
UNFAITHFUL (o iginally unusual, bu which has become con en ional o e ime) on i s head.
Thus Ba ba a Johnson (1985: 142,3), o ins ance, is able o o e u n he belles in idèles me apho
om a nega i e iew o ai h ulness in ma iage and in ansla ion o a posi i e one:
While he alue o he no ion o ideli y is a an all- ime high in he audio- isual
media, i s s ocks a e conside ably lowe in he domains o ma i al mo es and
heo ies o ansla ion ... Fo while bo h ansla o s and spouses we e once bound
by con ac s o lo e, honou and obey, and while bo h ine i ably be ay, he
cu en ques ioning o he possibili y o conscious mas e y makes ha con ac
seem deluded and exploi a i e om he s a .
I is clea ly possible o explain how a me apho can be e e sed, bu in o de o unde s and
how a me apho can be ex ended in o a heo y, i is necessa y o go beyond he wo d-based
concep ion o me apho ha Samuel Johnson’s de ini ion p esupposes. Johnson’s de ini ion can be
p oblema ic, pa icula ly when one is ying o examine he me apho ical concep ualisa ions o
heo ies, since as long as he me apho ical p ocess is concei ed in e ms o he con e ing o a no el
sense upon a ‘ ocal’ wo d, i is impossible o gain any g asp wha e e on he no ion o a me apho
ha ing u he me apho s as ‘implica ions’. Howe e , as Whi e (1996: 148-9) explains,
once we do b eak comple ely wi h he p esupposi ions o a ‘wo dbased’
concep ion o me apho , and ega d me apho as ab ini io based upon he
es ablishmen o a co espondence be ween wo di e en si ua ions, and he
me apho ical sen ence as a con la ion o wo desc ip ions o such si ua ions, he
possibili y o ex ending me apho a ises au oma ically. All we do is con inue o
desc ibe he si ua ion ha we a e desc ibing me apho ically by con inuing o
con la e ye u he simul aneous ex ensions o he desc ip ions o he wo
si ua ions.
Thus, he essence o he me apho is unde s anding and expe iencing one kind o hing in
e ms o ano he . The concep is me apho ically s uc u ed, he ac i i y is me apho ically s uc u ed,
and, consequen ly, he language is me apho ically s uc u ed (LAKOFF & JOHNSON 1980: 5). I
is impo an o ealise ha he p ocess o ex ending me apho in o heo y is no by any means
unique o ansla ion. The d awing o compa isons is uni e sal a leas in he sense ha i has been a
majo demons able componen o scien i ic hough o cen u ies. Me apho s and analogies ha e
his o ically played an impo an ole in he o mula ion and ansmission o new heo ies
(ORTONY 1993: 13).
So which heo ies e-examine and unde mine adi ional me apho s used in ansla ion? The e
a e a numbe o app oaches o ansla ion which can be g ouped unde he umb ella e m o esis i e
ansla ion heo y. Some o he bes documen ed a e: o eignisa ion, eminis ansla ion, he
gue illa heo y o ansla ion, and cannibalis ic ansla ion heo y.
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He mēneus. Re is a de T aducción e In e p e ación Núm. 2 - Año 2000
LAMBERT, J. & ROBYNS, C. 1992. T ansla ion. In: Posne , R., Robe ing, K, & Sebeok, T.
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A ican ex . In Venu i, L. (ed) Re hinking T ansla ion. Discou se, Subjec i i y,
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MEZEI, K. 1989. T a e se, Tesse a, ol. 6 Sp ing/Summe : La aduc ion au
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P ess.
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Benjamins.
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New Yo k: Rou ledge.
VIEIRA, E.R.P. 1994. A pos mode n ansla ional aes he ics in B azil. In: Snell-Ho nby, M.,
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WALLMACH, A. K. 1999. Di e ence/de i a ion: eminis ansla ion unde e iew.
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