DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis
in he Class oom (*)
FAITH WALLIS (**)
SUMMARY
1.—U oscopy and medie al medicine. 2.—Wes e n u ine doc ine be o e Theophilus.
3.—Theophilus and his De u inis. 4.—The ex o Theophilus in he Wes . 5.—The
«Cha es» and «Digby» commen a ies. 6.—Theophilus in he class oom. 6.1.—The
scien ia and doc ina o u ine: he accessus. 6.2.—Physiological con ex : he p oduc ion o
u ine. 6.3.—The s a e o heal h: na u al u ine. 6.4.—F om semio ics o diagnosis: hin,
whi e u ine. 6.5.—Theo e ical e- aming o semio ics: he ch oma ic scale o u ines.
7.—Compa ison wi h he Digby commen a y. 8.—In en ing diagnosis.
ABSTRACT
This pape shows how he wo ea lies La in exposi ions o Theophilus’ De u inis
unde s ood diagnosis in di e en ways. The «Cha es» commen a o sees u ine as a
sign o physiological p ocess and some hing which is de i ed om a disease s a e. By
con as , he Digby commen a o is mo e conce ned wi h how u oscopy unc ions a he
bedside as a ool ha enables us o in e disease s a es om u ine. Though hey
unde s and he ole o diagnosis di e en ly, bo h commen a ies e lec he new in ellec ual
(*) The schola s who a ended he King’s College con e ence we e ex emely gene ous
wi h hei commen s and sugges ions on he e sion o his pape p esen ed
he e. I wish o acknowledge in pa icula he help o Joan Cadden, Danielle
Jacqua , and Michael McVaugh. The esea ch on which his pape is based was
unded by a g an om Associa ed Medical Se ices/Hannah Ins i u e o he His o y
o Medicine. In he ansc ip ions o medie al manusc ip s ep oduced below, he
ollowing con en ions a e used: (/deno es an in e linea addi ion, (( // a ma gi-
nal addi ion, <> ma e ial supplied by mysel , [] ma e ial dele ed by mysel .
(**) Associa e P o esso . Depa men o His o y and Depa men o Social S udies,
McGill Uni e si y. McIn y e Medical Sciences Building. 3655 D ummond S ee .
Mon eal, Quebec. Canada H3G 1Y6.
32 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
con ex o wel h cen u y medicine, whe e physical signs cease o be me e p ognos ic
omens, and become ools o a aining knowledge o p ocesses o he wise inaccessible o
he senses.
BIBLID [0211-9536(2000) 20; 31-73]
Fecha de acep ación: 15 de junio de 1998
The wel h cen u y’s new collec i e and cu icula s yle o medical
ins uc ion, i s ia schola is, e-de ined medicine as a scien ia, ha is, a
uniquely ce ain ype o knowledge de i ed om p inciples and
demons a ed by eason. I also iden i ied i wi h physica, he b anch o
philosophy conce ned wi h he na u al wo ld. As a scien ia and a b anch
o philosophy, medicine was also doc ina, he kind o knowledge which
could be con eyed by o mal ins uc ion, based on ex s (1). In he
wo ds o Cons an ine he A ican’s Pan egni, i became medicina li e alis (2).
(1) See PESENTI, Tiziana. A i e medicina: la o mazione del cu iculum medico. In:
Luciano Ga gan; O onzo Limone (eds.), Luoghi e me odi di insegnamen o nell’I alia
medioe ale (secoli XII-XIV), Gala ina, Congedo edi o e, 1989, pp. 155-177; BYLEBYL,
Je ome J. The Medical Meaning o Physica. [In: Michael R. McVaugh; Nancy G.
Si aisi (eds.), Renaissance Medical Lea ning: E olu ion o a T adi ion] Osi is, 1990,
2nd se ies, 6, 16-41; JORDAN, Ma k D. The Cons uc ion o a Philosophical
Medicine: Exegesis and A gumen in Sale ni an Teaching on he Soul. [In: ibid.]
Osi is, 1990, 2nd se ies, 6, 42-61, esp. pp. 60-61; O’BOYLE, Co nelius. Medicine,
God, and A is o le in he Ea ly Uni e si ies: P e a o y P aye s in La e Medie al
Medical Commen a ies. Bulle in o he His o y o Medicine, 1992, 66, 185-209; SIRAISI,
Nancy G. Taddeo Alde o i and his Pupils: Two Gene a ions o I alian Medical Lea ning,
P ince on, NJ, P ince on Uni e si y P ess, 1981, chps 4-5; OTTOSSON, Pe -
Gunna . Scholas ic Medicine and Philosophy: A S udy o Commen a ies on Galen’s Tegni
(ca. 1300-1450), Napoli, Bibliopolis, 1984; AUSÉCACHE, Mi eille. Gilles de Co beil
ou le médecin pédagogique au ou nan des XIIe e XIIIe siècles. Ea ly Science
and Medicine, 1998, 3, 191-192.
(2) CONSTANTINE. Pan egni, edi ed by Ma co T. Mala o and Umbe o de Ma ini,
Roma, Is i u o di s o ia della medicine dell’Uni e si à di Roma, 1961, p ae a io,
p. 39. Elsewhe e in his pape , I shall ci e om he edi ion o he Pan egni
published in Basel by Hein ich Pe i in 1539, and which Ma k Jo dan has iden i ied
as he mo e eliable o he wo Renaissance edi ions: JORDAN, Ma k. The Fo une
o Cons an ine’s Pan egni. In: Cha les Bu ne ; Danielle Jacqua (eds.), Cons an ine
he A ican and ‘Al„ ibn al-‘Abb†as al-Mag†us„: The «Pan egni» and Rela ed Tex s,
Leiden, B ill, 1994, pp. 286-290. Howe e , his edi ion does no con ain he
33
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
The componen s o he A icella seem o ha e been chosen o illus a e
hese no el claims. The Isagoge o Johanni ius, he Apho isms and P ognos ics
o Hippoc a es, and e en ually a e he mid- wel h cen u y, he A s
medicine o Tegni o Galen u nished a once a classical pedig ee and a
comple e heo e ical amewo k o a medical science (3). These a e
ex s abou wha doc o s hink and know, no abou wha doc o s a e
supposed o do. Bu he A icella also con ained wo o he less ob iously
heo e ical ex s, bo h o Byzan ine p o enance: he pulse ea ise by
Phila e us, and he handbook o u oscopy by Theophilus P o ospa ha ios.
As manuals o diagnos ics, bo h ex s ha e a dis inc ly p ac ical sa ou :
hey a e abou he hings ha doc o s do, no abou wha hey hink.
Indeed, hey may ha e been chosen o inclusion in he A icella p ecisely
o coun e balance he collec ion’s s ongly heo e ical o ien a ion. I is
wo h ema king ha he Isagoge o iginally con ained ma e ial on pulse
and u ine which was excised in Cons an ine’s ansla ion (4).
p e ace. Since i also does no con ain he P ac ica Pan egni, his sec ion o he
wo k, as well as he Via icum, is ci ed om he Lyon edi ion o 1515, p in ed by
Ba holémi T o .
(3) On he o igins and de elopmen o he A icella, see KRISTELLER, Paul Oska .
Nuo e on i pe la medicine sale ni ana del secolo XII. Rassengna s o ica sale ni ana,
1957, 18, 61-75; Ba holomaeus, Musandinus and Mau us o Sale no and o he
Ea ly Commen a o s o he ‘A icella’, wi h a Ten a i e Lis o Tex s and Manusc ip s.
I alia medioe ale e umanis ica, 1976, 19, 57-87; and e isions and expansions o he
la e in his S udia sulla Scuola medica sale ni ana, Napoli, Is i u o i aliano pe gli
s udi iloso ici, 1986, pp. 97-151. On he A icella and medical heo y, see JORDAN,
Ma k D. Medicine as Science in he Ea ly Commen a ies on ‘Johanni ius’. T adi io,
1987, 43, 121-145, and JORDAN, no e 1, pp. 42-61. On he ole o he A icella in
p o iding a his o ical pedig ee o medicine, see CRISCIANI, Chia a. His o y,
No el y and P og ess in Scholas ic Medicine», [In: Michael R. McVaugh; Nancy
G. Si aisi (eds), Renaissance Medical Lea ning: E olu ion o a T adi ion]. Osi is, 1990,
2nd se ies, 6, 118-139, and KIBRE, Pea l; SIRAISI, Nancy G. Ma heolus o Pe ugia’s
Commen a y on he P e ace o he Apho isms o Hippoc a es. Bulle in o he His o y
o Medicine, 1975, 49, 405-428.
(4) JACQUART, Danielle. P incipales é apes dans la ansmission des ex es de médecine
(XIe-XIVe siècle). In: Jacqueline Hamesse; Ma a Fa o i (eds.), Rencon es de
cul u es dans la philosophie médié ale: aduc ions e aduc eu s de l’An iqui é a di e
au XIVe siècle. Ac es du colloque in e na ional de Cassino 15-17 juin 1989, Lou ain-la-
Neu e/Cassino, Uni e si é ca holique de Lou ain/Uni e si à degli s udi di Cassino,
1990, p. 257.
34 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
The pu pose o his pape is o examine he o unes o one o
hese p ac ical ex s, Theophilus’ De u inis, in he academic medical
milieu o he wel h h cen u y. The commen a ies on his ex e eal
much abou how e en u oscopy could be cons ued as a scien ia, a
doc ina, and a pa o medical physica. They also h ow ligh on he
genesis o a new «philosophical» concep o diagnosis.
1. UROSCOPY AND MEDIEVAL MEDICINE
Few medical p ac ices a e mo e dis inc i ely wes e n and medie al
han u oscopy (5). Pulse-diagnosis acqui ed a ully elabo a ed heo e ical
jus i ica ion in An iqui y, bu ancien u oscopy was a ai ly ma ginal
p ognos ic skill, wi h li le in he way o a cohe en physiological a ionale,
excep in cases o u ina y ac illness (6). The de elopmen o his
(5) Despi e his, he his o iog aphy o Wes e n u oscopy is e y meag e. Fo a s imula ing
hypo hesis on i s ise and appa en decline in academic medicine, see McVAUGH,
Michael R. Bedside Manne s in he Middle Ages. Bulle in o he His o y o Medicine,
1997, 71, 201-223. La e An ique and Byzan ine u oscopy has been s udied in
DIMITRIADIS, Kons an in. Byzan inische U oskopie, Bonn disse a ion, 1971, and
in he b ie su ey by DIAMANDOPOULOS, A hanasios A. U oscopy in Byzan ium.
Ame ican Jou nal o Neph ology, 1977, 17, 222-227. A aluable his o y o ea ly
medie al u oscopy in he La in Wes has been ske ched in KEIL, Gundol . De
Ku ze Ha n ak a des B eslaue ‘Codex Sale ni anus’ und seine Sippe, Bonn disse a ion,
1969, and in KEIL, Gundol . Die u ognos ische P axis in o - und ühsale ni anische
Zei , F eibu g-im-B eisgau Habili a ionssch i , 1970. The la e , un o una ely,
has no ye been published; I am g a e ul o D Keil o p o iding me wi h a
pho ocopy o he ypesc ip . See also KEIL, Gundol . Die mi elal e liche Übe se zung
om Ha n ak a des ‘Ba holomäus’. Sudho s A chi , 1963, 47, 417-455. Sale ni an
u oscopy has been su eyed by OLDONI, Massimo. U oscopy in he Sale no
School o Medicine. Ame ican Jou nal o Neph ology, 1994, 14, 483-487, and by
RIHA, O un; FISCHER, Wil ud. Ha ndiagnos ik bei Isaak Judaeus, Gilles de
Co beil und O ol on Beie land. Beobach ung zu Bea bei ungs echnik. Sudho s
A chi , 1988, 72, 212-224. The classical wo k, VIEILLARD, Camille C. L’u ologie e
les médecins u ologues dans la médecine ancienne. Gilles de Co beil: sa ie, ses oeu es,
son poèmes des u ines, Pa is, Lib ai ie scien i ique e li é ai e, 1903, emains
use ul.
(6) This ela i ely na ow de ini ion o he scope o u oscopy is exempli ied by
HIPPOCRATES. P ognos ics, 12, edi ed by W. H. S. Jones, Camb idge, Mass,
Ha a d Uni e si y P ess, 1923, pp. 24-28; by HIPPOCRATES. Coacae p aeno a iones,
35
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
echnique and i s a ionale was essen ially he achie emen o la e An iqui y
and he Middle Ages. The a ionale was g ounded in he h ee-s age
model o diges ion expounded mos ully by Galen. Each s age p oduces
a co esponding was e p oduc : om he i s diges ion in he s omach
come he aeces; om he second diges ion in he li e , ed bile, black
bile, and u ine; and om he hi d diges ion in he membe s, a a ie y
o esidues, including he sedimen s in u ine, spu um, swea , hai ,
ea wax and so o h (7). The p emiss is ha examining hese supe lui ies
a e hey eme ge on he ou side o he body will e eal some hing
abou he unseen diges i e p ocess wi hin. U ine, howe e , is he easies
o hese esidues o ob ain in a quan i y su icien o pe mi examina ion,
and he easies o di e en ia e and classi y (8).
2. WESTERN URINE DOCTRINE BEFORE THEOPHILUS
Di e en ia ing and classi ying u ines was one o he majo p ojec s
o la e An ique medicine. An emb yonic sys em can be de ec ed in
7.34.564 sq. In: É. Li é (ed.), Oeu es complè es d’Hippoc a e, ol. V, Pa is, J.-B.
Bailliè e, 1846, p. 712 sq.; and by HIPPOCRATES. Apho isms, 4.68 sq. This poin
is made by ANGELETTI, Luciana Ri a; CAVARRA, Be enice. C i ical and His o ical
App oaches o Theophilus’ De u inis. U ine as Blood’s Pe cola ion and U oscopy
in he Middle Ages. Ame ican Jou nal o Neph ology, 1994, 14, 283, and by WITTERN,
Rena e. Diagnos ics in Classical G eek Medicine. In: Yosio Kawaki a (ed.), His o y
o Diagnos ics. P oceedings o he 9 h In e na ional Symposium on he Compa a i e
His o y o Medicine, Tokyo, Di ision o Medical His o y, The Taniguchi Founda ion,
1984, p. 78. On he weak concep o diagnosis in Hippoc a ic medicine, see
PAGEL, Wal e . P ognosis and diagnosis: A Compa ison o Ancien and Mode n
Medicine. Jou nal o he Wa bu g and Cou auld Ins i u es, 1938-39, 2, 382-398. To be
su e, he i s book o he Epidemics akes a somewha b oade iew o he use ulness
o u ine inspec ion, and uses analy ical ca ego ies which la e became sys ema ized
in u oscopy, namely ex u e, colou and sedimen . Howe e , Epidemics I was no
a ailable in La in in he Middle Ages; mo eo e , Galen’s commen a y on he
Epidemics su i es only in La in, and only o book six, which sugges s ha i had
li le in luence in he G eek and A ab wo ld in which u oscopy was de eloped.
(7) KEIL, no e 5, p. 16.
(8) On la e medie al schema a o analysis o swea , spu um, aeces, skin-e up ions,
as well as haema oscopy (a diagnosi ic echnique closely modelled on u oscopy),
see KEIL, no e 5, pp. 17-18.

36 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
Caelius Au elianus’ Ta dae passiones and Celsus’ De medicina. A e aeus
u nishes he i s eco ded explana ion o how he kidneys sepa a e
u ine om blood in De causis e signis acu o um mo bo um (9). Bu u oscopy
as a diagnos ic echnique eally de eloped in he Byzan ine Eas , beginning
wi h O ibasius and Ae ius o Amida. I is in e es ing ha u oscopy
pa icula ly appealed o medical w i e s wi h s ong philosophical in e es s,
such as S ephen o A hens (10) and Magnus o Emesa (11). Theophilus
was he lega ee o his adi ion.
Li le o his eached he Wes be o e he ea ly Sale ni an pe iod.
The e a e e y ew La in u oscopy ex s w i en be o e 1100, and e en
ewe eco ds o he use o u oscopy in a clinical con ex . Desc ip ions
o clinical p ac ice in he ea ly Middle Ages men ion diagnosis om
pulse and occasionally haema oscopy (12), bu a ely u oscopy (13).
(9) CAELIUS AURELIANUS. Ta dae passiones 5.3.55-57, edi ed by Ge ha d Bendz,
Co pus medico um la ino um 6.1, Be lin, Akademie Ve lag, 1993, p. 886; CELSUS.
De medicina, 2.4.8-9, 2.5.11-13, 2.7.11-13, edi ed by F. Se a, Sc ip o um omano um
quae ex an omnia 164-166, Pisa, Gia dini, 1976, pp. 88-89, 91-92, 95-96; ARETAEUS.
De causis e signis acu o um mo bo um 2.9, edi ed by Ka l Hude, Co pus medico um
g aeco um 2, Be lin, Akademie Ve lag, 1958, pp. 30-31.
(10) On he ca ee and in luence o S ephen o A hens, see BISCHOFF, Be nha d;
LAPIDGE, Michael. Biblical Commen a ies om he Can e bu y School o Theodo e and
Had ian, Camb idge S udies in Anglo-Saxon England 11, Camb idge, Camb idge
Uni e si y P ess, 1995, p. 49 sq. S ephen composed a numbe o wo ks on scien i ic
and medical subjec s, including a commen a y on he Apho isms o Hippoc a es,
edi ed by Leende G. Wes e ink, Co pus medico um g aeco um 11.1, 3, Be lin,
Akademie Ve lag, 1985-1992, ano he on he P ognos ics, edi ed by John M. Du y,
Co pus medico um g aeco um 11.1, 2, Be lin, Akademie Ve lag, 1983, and a
u ine ea ise edi ed in BUSSEMAKER, C. T ai é d’E ienne su les u ines, publié
pou le p emiè e ois d’ap ès un manusc i de la Biblio hèque oyale. Re ue de
philologie, de li é a u e e d’his oi e anciennes, 1845, 1, 415-438, 543-560. On his
ea ise, see ANGELETTI, Luciana Ri a; CAVARRA, Be enice. The Pe i ou on
T ea ise o S ephanus o A hens: Byzan ine U oscopy o he 6 h-7 h cen u ies AD.
Ame ican Jou nal o Neph ology, 1997, 17, 228-232, and DIMITRIADIS, no e 5, pp.
33-36.
(11) See BUSSEMAKER, U. Ca s. Übe Magnus on Emesis und dessen Buch om
Ha ne. Janus, 1847, 2, 273-297; DIMITRIADIS, no e 5, pp. 29-32.
(12) Fo example, in he Casus sanc i Galli, Ekkeha d IV o S Gall ells how he g ea
monas ic physician No ke p edic ed, on he basis o he smell o he blood
emi ed by a pa ien ’s bleeding nose, ha he pa ien would all ill wi h smallpox:
37
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
The mos common p e-Sale ni an u oscopy ex is Pseudo-Galen’s
De u inis (14). The Pseudo-Galen is a usion o wo ex s: he u ine
ea ise p ope , and i s a iable addenda, he mos popula o which was
a «Ca alogue o U ine Rules», possibly composed in he se en h cen u y
in wes e n Eu ope. The co e ex p o ides a heo e ical basis o u oscopy.
I comp ises an apology o he use ulness o he echnique, a spa se
physiological accoun o u ine o ma ion, a discussion o he echnical
equisi es o u ine inspec ion, and inally, a ca alogue o u ines o
a ious colou s and ex u es, in no pa icula o de , oge he wi h hei
pa hological signi icances. Howe e , he e is no a emp o explain he
logic behind u ine’s semio ic ole (15). The « ules» a e bald o mulae,
almos all o which a e p ognos ica o y, and almos exclusi ely o acu e
diseases and e e s (16). Wha is mos in e es ing pe haps abou Pseudo-
Galen is ha he inspec ion o u ine does no always, o e en usually,
u nish a diagnosis. Diagnosis is he p oduc o a whole a ay o symp oms
and signs; he eal alue o u oscopy is p ognosis (17).
HAEFLE, Hans F. (ed.). Ekkeha d IV. S . Galle Klos e geschich e, Ausgewähl e Quellen
zu deu schen Geschich e des Mi elal e s 10, Da ms ad , Wissenscha liche
Buchgesellscha , 1980, p. 240.
(13) KEIL, no e 5, p. 22, no e 18. See also WALLIS, Fai h. Signs and Senses: Diagnosis
by Pulse and U ine in AD 1000. Social His o y o Medicine, 2000, 13, 265-278.
(14) KEIL, no e 5, pp. 22 and 25. P obably composed in he i h o six h cen u y, his
ex was ansla ed om G eek in o La in in he ea ly medie al pe iod. I was i s
edi ed by LEISINGER, He mann. Die la einischen Ha nsch i pseudo-Galens, Bei äge
zu Geschich e de Medizin 2, Zü ich and Leipzig, O ell Füssli, 1925, and again
by Gundol Keil.
(15) KEIL, no e 5, p. 25.
(16) E.g. «In quo de o ina [sic] alba au mul a in acu is eb is soli udine [sic] eiusdem
eg i udinis u u am nuncia »: KEIL, no e 5, p. 62.
(17) Fo example, Pseudo-Galen says: «Hi quidem colo es u inae [i.e. ed and awny]
equen e a nobis uisi sun secundum diue si a em eg e udinis.... Debe enim
cau e equi i u um cum dolo e an sine dolo e si , an ue o hus ionem in ue e o
aci uel si calida es dum ege i ipsa u ina ac si uelu i uiscidi a is iace , id es
quidam s ip icum si . I a diuisas e iam quam maxime e diligen e in ende e
nebulas quasdam quas g eci ni ias appellan , quia diue si a em suam e in cunc an e
demons a . Sed cum cau e aspexe is, ibi eppe ies mala uel bone u u ae discusionis
signa, id es i ae e mo is»: KEIL, no e 5, pp. 57-58.
38 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
3. THEOPHILUS AND HIS DE URINIS
When wes e n s uden s o medicine encoun e ed Theophilus’ De
u inis in he ele en h cen u y, hey ecognized a subjec wi h which hey
we e al eady somewha amilia . Howe e , Theophilus’ ea men o his
opic ep esen ed a wholly unp eceden ed o de o sophis ica ion.
Theophilus’ li e and ca ee a e e y di icul o ace. We do no
e en know exac ly when he li ed, hough he se en h cen u y seems
highly likely. He was a ollowe o S ephen o A hens (who lou ished in
he second hal o he six h and he beginning o he se en h cen u ies),
and like S ephen, a p oli ic medical scholias and w i e (18). His De
u inis summa izes and schema izes he en i e La e An ique/Byzan ine
adi ion o u oscopy. Though mode n commen a o s end o ega d
his u oscopic adi ion as e idence o Byzan ine empi icism (19),
Theophilus, like S ephen be o e him, seems no o ha e been a clinician.
His i le p o ospa ha ios indica es ha he was an o icial in he cou
bu eauc acy, bu he is also iden i ied in he G eek manusc ip s as a
monk and a philosophe . He s ands, hen, in he adi ion o he
ia osophis ae, o physician-philosophe s.
Theophilus’ alen lay in syn hesis and schema iza ion. He analyzed
u ine unde h ee aspec s: i was a liquid subs ance, which migh be
« hick» o « hin»; i came in a ange o colou s om whi e o black; and
i con ained sedimen s which a ied as o hei posi ion in he u ine
(18) He w o e scholia on he Apho isms o Hippoc a es, ea ises on pulse, u ine and
exc emen s, as well as a compendium o Hippoc a ic-Galenic he apeu ics and a
gene al wo k on ana omy and physiology in 5 books: see KRUMBACHER, Ka l.
Geschich e de byzan inischen Li e a u , Handbuch de klassischen Al e umswissenscha
9.1, 2nd edi ion, München, Beck, 1897, p. 614; BISCHOFF; LAPIDGE, no e 10,
p. 55. On he De u inis see ANGELETTI; CAVARRA, no e 6. The G eek ex has
been edi ed by IDELER, Julius L. Physici e medici G aeci mino es, Be lin, 1841,
ep in ed Ams e dam, Adol M. Hakke , 1963, pp. 261-283. The La in ex was
edi ed om he mid-ele en h-cen u y manusc ip Einsiedeln, S i sbiblio hek, MS
32 (1060) by KEIL, no e 5, pp. 97-135: his codex, oge he wi h Auxe e, Biblio hèque
municipale, MS 240, is he oldes wi ness o he ex .
(19) ANGELETTI; CAVARRA, no e 6, p. 285.
39
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
lask, hei colou and hei shape. Theophilus wo ked ou he pe mu a ions
and combina ions o hese h ee in an o de ly manne , and linked hem
o he no ion o c asis, he quali a i e complexion o he body in heal h
and illness. Unde lying he en i e ea ise is he concep ha illness is
diso de o c asis, and ha his diso de lea es an imp in on he u ine.
Hea and cold con ol he ange o colou s in he u ine, while mois u e
and d yness de e mine i s ex u e. The e o e, he isible aspec o he
u ine is a di ec image o he complexional s a e o he body. Theophilus,
signi ican ly, is in e es ed in he u ine o heal hy people, as well as o
he sick.
Pe haps he mos signi ican di e ence be ween Pseudo-Galen and
Theophilus is ha Theophilus p esen s u oscopy as a ool o diagnosis,
ha is, as a means o de ec and iden i y a disease s a e, as dis inc om
p edic ing he ou come o a disease s a e, which is p ognosis. Theophilus
sha ed he p e-mode n concep ion o disease as an e en a he han an
en i y, a mo bid change in he body d i en by changes in he ela ionship
o he elemen al quali ies o ho and cold, we and d y. The e o e,
diagnosis was essen ially applied humo al physiology and humo al ae iology.
4. THE TEXT OF THEOPHILUS IN THE WEST
The da e o he La in e sion o Theophilus and he iden i y o he
ansla o con inue o be a ma e o deba e. I is no e en ce ain
whe he he ansla ion p e- o pos -da es he wo k o Cons an ine he
A ican. I s companion ex , Phila e us on pulses, was ce ainly a ailable
in Sale no in Cons an ine’s ime, o Al anus o Sale no (d. 1085) used
i in his own De pulsibus (20). Bu doub s pe sis abou Theophilus,
pe haps because Cons an ine he A ican, in he p ologue o his ansla ion
o Isaac Judaeus’ ea ise on u ines, says ha he could ind no eliable,
au ho i a i e wo k on he subjec in La in, and so elec ed o ansla e an
(20) CREUTZ, Rudol . De ühsale ni ane Al anus und sein bislang unbekann e
‘Libe de pulsibus’. Sudho s A chi , 1937, 29, 57-83; BLOCH, He be . Mon e
Cassino in he Middle Ages, 3 ols, Camb idge, Mass, Ha a d Uni e si y P ess,
1986, ol. 1, p. 98.
46 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
The ex o he Digby commen a y on Theophilus also bea s some
s iking simila i ies o Ba holomaeus, bu i s esemblance o he Cha es
commen a y is close . In ac , he Cha es and Digby commen a ies a e
much close o each o he han ei he is o Ba holomaeus, hough
en i e sec ions o all h ee ex s ma ch almos e ba im (35). They also
sha e many s uc u al ea u es; o example, hey aise he same quaes iones.
Bu he e a e signi ican di e ences as well. Whe e Cha es p e e s o
use he ex o Theophilus as a sp ing-boa d o mo e independen
commen a y, Digby s icks much mo e closely o he lemma a. The
esemblances among he h ee a e especially e iden on he «glossing»
le el, i.e. when dealing wi h he speci ics o Theophilus’ ex . On he
«commen a y» le el, i.e. when jumping o om he ex o dila e on a
poin , he h ee commen a ies a e mo e independen , and in some
cases, widely di e gen . This sugges s ha a common body o glosses on
Theophilus lies behind all h ee ex s, and ha i was on he basis o
hese ounda ional glosses ha each au ho buil up his own commen a y.
My hypo hesis ha he Cha es and Digby commen a ies a e ela ed
o, bu no de i ed one om he o he , di e ges om he conclusions
d awn by Ma k Jo dan om his ex ensi e wo k on he Cha es and
Digby Johanni ius commen a ies. In he case o he Johanni ius commen a y,
Jo dan a gues ha Cha es is a « eaching summa y» o Digby, because
Digby con ains e e y hing ound in Cha es, bu no ice e sa, and
because Cha es seems o be a simpli ied, pa ed-down endi ion o
Digby (36). Tha his is a om being ue o he Theophilus commen a y
will be made e iden in wha ollows. Which o us is co ec mus be le
o he judgemen o o he schola s; bu i is no impossible ha we a e
bo h igh , in which case we a e aced wi h he p ospec ha no all he
commen a ies g ouped in he Cha es and Digby collec ions a e by he
same au ho , o om he same milieu. E iden ly, he way o wa d is o
compa e he con en s o he di e en commen a ies wi hin each g oup,
(35) The Mau us commen a y is he odd man ou . Mau us does no seem o be using
he same ex o Theophilus as he o he h ee, and he « ounda ional glosses»
which I posi unde lay he Cha es, Digby and Ba holomaeus glosses (see
below) a e absen in Mau us.
(36) JORDAN, no e 1, pp. 43, 45-53; see also JORDAN, no e 3.

47
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
as well as be ween g oups—a ask which clea ly anks high on he agenda
o u u e A icella esea ch.
The « ounda ional glosses» which I posi unde ly he Cha es,
Digby and Ba holomaeus glosses all make use o Cons an ine he A ican’s
co pus o medical w i ings, pa icula ly his ansla ion o Isaac Judaeus,
he Pan egni, and in he case o he Cha es and Digby commen a ies
a leas , p obably also he Via icum (37). Abo e all, he h ee commen a ies
bea he unmis akable signs o he new collec i e and cu icula medical
eaching: a s ong in e es in heo y, especially in ae iology and humo-
al physiology; a ma ked as e o schema iza ion, and o pungen and
apho is ic summa ies; an in e es in quaes iones aised by he ex ; and a
conce n, albei aci , o ela e Theophilus o he o he elemen s o he
A icella, especially Johanni ius.
This s ong esemblance jus i ies he ollowing me hod o his
pape . Because I wan o examine in some de ail he s a egies o
in e p e ing Theophilus—and in e p e ing u oscopy i sel —I shall
concen a e he e on he Cha es commen a y, and add a ew ema ks
o a compa a i e na u e on he Digby ex . I shall also con ine mysel o
i e sec ions o Theophilus’ ex which o e he iches lode o ma e ial
e lec ing he commen a o ’s sou ces, app oaches and ideas. These a e: (1)
he p ologue, including he commen a o ’s accessus, because i de ends
u oscopy’s claim o be conside ed a scien ia;(2) he accoun o how he
(37) Cha es and Digby ci e only Isaac Judaeus di ec ly, bu Ba holomaeus also
quo es di ec ly om he Pan egni. Howe e , he e is some ai ly solid e idence
ha Cha es and Digby used he Pan egni and he Via icum, which will be discussed
below. The Theophilus commen a ies show none o he in luence o Nemesius
which Ma k Jo dan ound o be so p ominen in he Cha es and Digby Johanni ius
commen a ies (no e 1, p. 49). Howe e , I am inclined o accep Jo dan’s conclusion
ha hese ea lies commen a ies a e Sale ni an p oduc s. An al e na i e hesis,
ha he A icella was assembled and i s ea lies commen a ies composed in no he n
F ance, has no ecei ed much suppo : see MORPURGO, Pie o. I commen i
sale ni ani all’A icella. In: Monkika Asz alos, John E. Mu doch; Ilkka Niiniluo o
(eds.), Knowledge and he Sciences in Medie al Philosophy. P oceedings o he Eigh h
In e na ional Cong ess o Medie al Philosophy, Helsinki, 24-29 Augus 1987, Helsinki,
Publica ions o Lu he -Ag icola Socie y, se ies B 19, 1990, ol. 2, pp. 97-105, and
MORPURGO, Pie o. Filoso ia della na u a nella Schola Sale ni ana del secolo XII,
Bologna, Coope a i a lib a ia uni e si a ia edi ice Bologna, 1990.
48 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
body makes u ine, because i es ablishes he connexion o u oscopy o
physiology and ana omy which jus i ied ha claim; (3) he discussion o
«na u al» u ine, because i e-w i es u oscopy in e ms o humou al
heo y; (4) he pa hological signi icance o u ine which is hin and
whi e, because i illus a es how he Cha es commen a o de ines diag-
nosis as a kind o expe imen al physiology, a he han (in Guldol
Keil’s ph ase) a o m o «medical di ina ion» (38); and inally (5) he
discussion o he spec um o colou s ound in u ine, because i ma ks,
I belie e, he ini ial s ages o e lec ion on he p oblem o he elemen s.
6. THEOPHILUS IN THE CLASSROOM
6.1.The scien ia and doc ina o u ine: he accessus
All o he wel h-cen u y commen a ies on Theophilus begin wi h
ha hoa y class oom echnique, he accessus. Howe e , each ames he
accessus somewha di e en ly. To pu he Cha es commen a y’s accessus
in o pe spec i e, I ha e d awn up a able compa ing i s accessus o hose
o he Digby commen a y, and he commen a ies o Ba holomaeus and
Mau us o Sale no. High hopes ha e been pinned on he accessus as a
clue o he o igin o hese commen a ies (39), bu in his case, he
accessus shows he complex in e connexion o hese ex s; i does no
es ablish any linea ela ionship (40).
The Cha es amily has been dis inguished om he Digby g oup
on he g ounds ha Cha es has a six-pa accessus, while Digby uses
se en ca ego ies (41). Howe e , his may be a dis inc ion wi hou a
(38) KEIL, no e 5, 14-15.
(39) Especially by MORPURGO, no e 37 (1987), pp. 100-102. Fo c i ique o his
app oach, see JORDAN, no e 1, pp. 47-48; c . JACQUART, Danielle. A is o elian
Though in Sale no. In: Pe e D onke (ed.), A His o y o Twel h Cen u y Wes e n
Philosophy, Camb idge, Camb idge Uni e si y P ess, 1988, p. 414, no e 29.
(40) The accessus scheme adop ed by all hese commen a ies is b oadly modelled on
ha used by Boe hius in his accessus o he Isagoge o Po phy y: see MINNIS,
Alas ai J. The Medie al Theo y o Au ho ship, London, Schola P ess, 1984, pp. 18-28.
(41) BURNETT, no e 28, pp. 129-130.
49
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
di e ence. The Cha es commen a o explici ly says ha he will conside
six ca ego ies, bu in ac he adds a se en h, he i ulus. Digby does no
o mally decla e how many ca ego ies cons i u e i s accessus. Cha es’
emphasis on he numbe six may ha e been in luenced by he Pan egni,
which p esen s a six-ca ego y accessus (42). Howe e , nei he Cha es
no any o he o he commen a ies ollow he Pan egni’s o m o accessus:
in en ion, u ili y, i le, pa o doc ine o which i pe ains, name o
au ho , and di isions. I should be no ed ha Cha es and Digby sha e
he same e minology (excep o modus ac andi/ diuisio), bu he o de
o ca ego ies is no he same. Mau us and Digby, on he o he hand,
employ he iden ical ca ego ies, in he same o de , bu again wi h some
(42) CONSTANTINE. Pan egni, Theo ica 1.2, Basel, 1539, pp. 1-2. Haly Abbas s a s
wi h 8, which Cons an ine educes o 6: see JACQUART, Danielle. Le sens donné
pa Cons an in l’A icain à son oeu e: les chapi es in oduc i s en a abe e en
la in. In: Cha les Bu ne ; Danielle Jacqua (eds.), no e 2, p. 79. I should be
no ed ha he Cha es Theophilus commen a y uses he same accessus o ma as
he Cha es Johanni ius commen a y: JORDAN, no e 1, p. 46.
TABLA I
Compa ison o accessus in Cha es, Digby, Ba holomew and Mau us
Cha es Digby Ba holomaeus Mau us
London BL Royal 8.C.IV Bodleian, Digby 108 Main Tex : Winches e 24 Pa is, B.N. la . 18449
ol. 163 ol. 76 ol. 157 ol. 145 .
Va ian : E u Amplonian 4E
ol. 58
ma e ia ma e ia in en io ma e ia
modus ac andi in en io causa in en ionis in en io
( a ian : ope is)
in en io causa in en ionis u ili as in en ionis causa
u ili as u ili as ad quem pa em u ili as
philosophie spec e
cui pa i philosophie cui pa i philosophie quo gene e doc ine supposi io
suppona u suppona u u a u
causa di isio di isio o do ac andi
( i ulus) i ulus i ulus i ulus
50 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
small a ia ions o e minology. In pa icula , Mau us, like Cha es,
eschews diuisio in a ou o o do ac andi (Cha es: modus ac andi).
Ba olomaeus uses diuisio, bu commen s ha i is in ac inapp op ia e,
as Theophilus’ ea ise has no di isions, hough one can speak o an
o do (43). This may be why Mau us does no use he e m diuisio, and
ac ually subs i u es Ba holomaeus’ e m o do. Bu wha abou Cha es?
Did he Cha es commen a o ead Ba holomaeus, o ice e sa?
Ba holomaeus complains ha pedan s hink ha e e y book has o
ha e a diuisio because i says so in he Pan egni. I he Cha es commen a o
was awa e o he Pan egni, his would u nish some e idence o his
c i ical and independen a i ude. None heless, his angled web should
ale us o he pi alls o a emp ing o use accessus as a so o gene ic
ma ke o he a ilia ion o commen a ies.
The Cha es, Digby and Mau us accessus also include he ca ego y
ma e ia, which is some hing o an oddi y, in ha i usually belongs o he
ex insic o subjec accessus, no he accessus ci ca lib um. This s ikes me
as qui e delibe a e. The unglamou ous and echnical subjec o u oscopy
needed some explaining i i was o be accep ed as doc ina, some hing
ha dese ed o be augh om ex s, in schools. We shall see in a
momen how he Cha es commen a o handled his (44).
(43) «Que lib i diuisio. in ei ue i a e nulla es . quidam amen diuisionem assi<g>nan e
conan u . decep i ex quibusdam ue bis que in pan egni haben u . dici u enim
ibi VII [sic] esse inqui enda in p incipiis lib o um. In e que enume a u lib i
diuisio. Vnde in omnibus lib is diuisionem assigna e uolun . Nos au em concedimus
ubique inqui endum esse. sed non ubique assignandum. ubi scilice nulla es .
hec au em peni us nulla es qua e assignanda (non/ es . Sed loco diuisionis
po es inqui i o do. qui alis es ..». (E u , S adbiblio hek, MS Amploniana, Q
174 ol. 58 b).
(44) One migh add as well ha Mau us abb e ia es Cha es/Digby’s «cui pa i
philosophie suppona u » o he e se «supposi io» (Pa is, Biblio hèque na ionale,
MS la . 18499, ol. 145 b), bu Ba holomaeus pu s i e y di e en ly: «ad quem
pa em philosophie spec e » (E u , S adbiblio hek, MS Amploniana, Q 174, ol.
58 b). This ph ase is ound e ba im in Gundissalinus, De di isone philosophie
[MORPURGO, no e 37 (1987), p. 100], whose o mula o accessus ci ca lib um
also uses in en io, u ili as, i ulus and dis inc io lib i. Gundissalinus seems o ha e
done mos o his w i ing in he 1150s, i.e. abou he same ime as, o sligh ly
ea lie han Ba holomaeus, bu how he wo men came o sha e iden ical e minology
o he accessus is no clea .
51
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
The Cha es commen a y on Theophilus begins by plunging di ec ly
in o he accessus. The subjec ma e o Theophilus’ book is u ine, i s
colou and i s sedimen . The manne in which Theophilus ea s he
subjec (says he commen a o ) is i s by de ining u ine, and hen
desc ibing i . Theophilus dis inguishes u ines acco ding o subs ance
( hin, hick, and in-be ween), and acco ding o hei colou s, showing
how one colou a ises om ano he (as we shall see, his is a pa icula ly
Cha ian ouch). Then he shows (os endi ) which kinds o subs ance
can be combined wi h which colou s. Finally, he de ines and dis inguishes
be ween di e en kinds o sedimen (hypos asis). The Cha es
commen a o ’s choice o e bs is elling, o de ini ion, desc ip ion,
dis inc ion, demons a ion a e he me hods o a scien ia, and hey ele a e
u oscopy o a highe , «doc inal» plane.
The Cha es commen a o also cha ac e izes Theophilus’ in en ion
in ma kedly philosophical e ms: i is o discuss he essence [essen ia]
and o ma ion o u ine, and o demons a e i s a ia ions (45). Mo eo e ,
he u ili y o he wo k is also concei ed in a heo e ical way: i p o ides
secu e knowledge abou heal h, sickness, and he neu al s a e (which
is a ain echo o Theophilus, hough p obably de i ed om Johanni ius),
and he causes o hese hings (which is no in Theophilus) (46). The
e m «cause» (causa) de ines u oscopy as an adjunc o ae iology.
(45) L ol. 163 a: «In en io ue o heophili es essen iam u inalis e usionis cum loco
gene a ionis ipsius e o ma ionis. os ende e. eiusdemque di e en ias in subs an ia.
colo e. e sedimine. cum suis signi ica ionibus. demons a e».
(46) L ol. 163 a: «V ili as ue o es i ma cogni io sani a is. eg i udinis. e neu ali a is.
cum causis eo um». C . Theophilus: «Nam ypoc as de u inis exponens. e aliud
alibi in ac a ibus suis spa sim angens. e gene a. e species. e di e en ias
ea um. e ex eis cogni iones e p ecogni iones. u u is pa ium disposi ionibus
p e e na u am e in sanis co po ibus. e in acu is eg i udinibus minus haben em
doc inam elinqui ». (KEIL, no e 5, p. 97). Johanni ius: Theo e ical medicine is
di ided in o h ee pa s «i<d es > in con empla ionem e um na u alium e non
na u alium e ea um, quae sun con a na u am, ex quibus sani a is, aeg i udinis
e neu ali a is scien ia p ocedi ..». [MAURACH, G ego (ed.). Isagoge ad Techne
Galieni. Sudho s A chi , 1978, 62, p. 151]. Fo p oblems connec ed wi h his
admi edly wo king edi ion, see JORDAN, no e 3, pp. 124-125, no e 16, and
FISCHER, Klaus-Die e . Ve besse ung zu Isagoge des Johannicius. Sudho s A chi ,
1983, 67, 223-234.

52 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
Signi ican ly, he commen a o does no men ion ha inspec ion o
u ine migh se e p ognos ica ion, o indeed, any clinical pu pose
wha soe e . No su p isingly, he pa o philosophy o which his book
pe ains is physica. The commen a o is a he empha ic ha u oscopy
is an exclusi ely heo e ical science in which «con empla ion alone
ope a es» (47). The unnamed sou ce o his schema is Johanni ius, who
di ides medicine in o heo y and p ac ice, and de ines heo y as
«con empla io na u alium» (48). The cause o Theophilus’ wo k is he
p olixi y and lack o o de in he wo ks o Hippoc a es, Galen, and
Magnus: in sho , i was composed in he in e es s o doc ina.
Theophilus says ha u ine e eals «obscu e hings» (obscu as es).
The commen a o in e p e s hese «obscu e hings» no as he unce ain
ou comes o disease, o e en as he diseases hemsel es, bu a he as
he in e nal o gans (especially he li e ) and he diges i e i ue which
makes blood. He adds ha because he ollowe s o Galen, Magnus and
he o he s did no know u ines, hey consequen ly did no know he
in e nal o gans (49). In sho , o he Cha es commen a o , u oscopy
is p ima ily in e es ing as a key o ana omy and physiology (50).
(47) L: ol. 163 a: «physice supponi u an um pe ((h//eo icam. In hac enim
scien ia sola con empla io ope a u ». C . pa allel passage in Digby (no e 97).
(48) See no e 46 abo e; howe e , i should be no ed ha Mau ach did no use he wo
ea lies manusc ip s o he Isagoge, namely Pa is, Biblio hèque na ionale, MS
nou . acq. la . 1628 and Mon e Cassino, MS 225 (bo h s. XI, in Bene en an
sc ip ), and which bo h ead «in con empla ionem na u alium ex quibus sani a is..».:
see NEWTON, F ancis. Cons an ine he A ican and Mon e Cassino: New Elemen s
and he Tex o he Isagoge. In: Cha les Bu ne ; Danielle Jacqua (eds.), no e 2,
p. 33, no e 56 and igs. 1 (p. 43) and 2 (p. 4).
(49) L ol. 163 b: «Obscu as es id es in e icaces ope a iones. e obscu os in ellec us id
es inexplicabiles e alsos sun . Vel haben obscu as es id es epa . e alia
in e io a que pa iun u sun eis obscu a. De obscu is ue o haben obscu os
in ellec us. Nam u ina um e ce e a. Ve o quia non haben cogni ionem u ine.
non haben cogni ionem in e io em pa ium. quia si habe en cogni ionem u ine.
e habe en cogni ionem illa um pa ium».
(50) I is no ewo hy ha a his poin he E u e sion depa s om he London
e sion o dila e on he abili y o u ine o e eal c asis: «Obscu as id es g aues uel
maledicans. e es que paciun u . u capu . pulmo. s omacus. e in ellec us id es
quomodo deben in elligi pacien es pa es uel passu e. e quid pacian u . e
53
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
6.2.Physiological con ex : he p oduc ion o u ine
A e de ining u ine as « he il a e o he blood» (colamen um sanguinis),
Theophilus’ ea ise p o ides a b ie ana omical accoun o how i is
p oduced. When ood is u ned in o blood in he li e , he ligh e ed
bile ises o he op, and is aken up by he gall bladde h ough i s duc
posi ioned nea he li e . The spleen bea s o he ea hy ma e , he
d egs o he blood so o speak, by i s duc . A wa e y supe lui y is le
wi h he blood, so ha i can pass h ough he b anches o he chilic
ein, and hence o he kidneys. The e i is u ned in o u ine, and
ansmi ed o he bladde . I blood is clea and pu e, i s supe lui y will
be likewise. Bu i o some eason he ope a i e i ue o he blood is
impeded om ca ying ou i s wo k, he u ine will appea hin and
whi e, o hick and whi e. These u ines a e he p oduc o impe ec
and c ude diges ion, whe eas o he s a e he supe lui y o an o e hea ed
and adus blood.
The Cha es commen a o inds his accoun inadequa e, and p oceeds
o supplemen i wi h an imp o ed ana omical and physiological back-
g ound, culled ex a lib um (51). This accoun s esses ha he p oduc ion
o u ine has an ana omical se ing as well as a physiological con ex ,
which is exac ly wha was announced in his accessus. Fo his ma e ial, he
commen a o u ns o he opening chap e o Isaac Judaeus’ ea ise on
quomodo. e unde. e ex quo empo e. Vnde subdici . Nam u ina um ap a id es
cong ua secundum empus e passionem aci nos cognosce e. non appa en es
locos. sicu epa in i mum. e splenem. e enes. e quomodo disposi i sun loci id es
quomodo diue so modo posi i sun in sani a e uel in eg i udine uel neu o. E
hoc exponi quod sequi u . E secundum qualem c asim id es habi udinem uel
empe anciam. Ea enim con i macio es p edic o um loco um. Tempe ancia dico
au secundum calidum e humidum. uel secundum ce e a. que dis empe anciam
na u e uel de imen a paciun u . Ex a na u am id es in hiis que sun non
na u ales. P e e na u am id es nondum in i ma i sed eg o a e pa a i. e secundum
qualem c as[s]im e ideo addi . Eius enim que sanguinem ope a u . hoc addi u
os enda cuius p o essionis si locus ubi nasci u id es epa e a quo disce ni u
id es in senibus». ( ol. 1 a)
(51) L ol. 163 b: «P emisso p ologo agi de u ina pe di ini ionem. Sed p iusquam
ponamus illam di ini ionem quedam sun no anda ex a lib um u melius pa ean
illa que sun in lib o».
54 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
u ines, as well as an as ye uniden i ied ana omical sou ce wi h a s ongly
eleological bias, edolen o he Second Sale ni an Demons a ion (52).
A e being diges ed, he ood passes in o he duodenum, so called
because i is wel e inge s in leng h. I hen goes o he jejunum, which is
so called because i akes no hing o i sel . F om he jejunum, he li e
a ac s he liquid pa o i sel h ough he mesen e ic eins, which a e like
leeches (a a he dis u bing analogy, no ound in Isaac). This phase o
he p ocess gi es he commen a o a chance o dig ess on he phenomenon
o a ac ion in gene al. All a ac ion, he says, is caused ei he by hea
(like oil in a lamp) o by an ins umen (as ai is mo ed in he a e ies,
o wa e in canals, o i on by a magne ), an analogy d awn om he
discussion o diges i e ac ion in Pan egni Theo ica 4.2 (53).
The Cha es commen a o ’s ana omical excu sus in ac exceeds
conside ably he equi emen s o any accoun o he p oduc ion o
u ine, especially in i s leng hy and ci cums an ial desc ip ion o he
a ious b anches o he po al ein and hei unc ions. A e dila ing
on hese, and on he oles o he s omach, gall bladde and spleen, he
e u ns o he heme o he o ma ion o u ine. I is in he po al ein,
(52) Jo dan has a gued ha he Digby commen a o and he au ho o he Second
Sale ni an Demons a ion a e one and he same pe son on he basis o a s ong
esemblance be ween hei espec i e dicussions o ision: JORDAN, no e 1, pp.
48-49. Howe e , i should be no ed ha while he au ho o he Second Sale ni an
Demons a ion claims o ha e composed commen a ies on Johanni ius, he Apho isms,
and Phila e us, he e is no men ion o Theophilus. Mo eo e , Digby’s discussion
o he bladde (London, B i ish Lib a y, MS Royal 8.C.IV ol. 179 a) men ions
he wo holes h ough which u ine en e s, and he e idence p o ided by animal
dissec ion (compa e o Cha es ex ci ed in no e 55 below). This passage is no
ound in he Second Sale ni an Demons a ion: see ed. in RENZI, Sal a o e de.
Collec io sale ni ana, Napoli, Tipog a ia del Filia e-Sebezio, 1853, ol. 2, p. 398.
Finally, bo h Cha es and Digby used ana omical e ms no ound in he Second
Sale ni an Demons a ion, e.g. uena chilis.
(53) Basel, 1539, p. 82. C . LAWN, B ian (ed.). The P ose Sale ni an Ques ions, Auc o es
B i annici medii ae i 5, London, Ox o d Uni e si y P ess o he B i ish Academy,
1979, B 47 (p. 23), whe e he analogies o he canal and he wick a e used in he
con ex o a discussion o magne ic a ac ion. Lawn poin s ou , howe e , ha
U so o Calab ia used he same ma e ial in his commen a y on Hippoc a es’
Apho isms. This dig ession on a ac ion is no ound in he Digby commen a y.
55
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
he says, ha he ood i s ecei es he sub le ex u e and ed colou o
blood. The colou is ac ually impa ed o he blood by he ed li e
i sel (54). This is a a he in e es ing idea, no only because Theophilus
nowhe e explains why blood should be ed, bu because he Cha es
commen a o is obsessed wi h he issue o how hings in gene al, and
u ine in pa icula , ac ually change colou . He e he seems o sugges
(al hough i is no explici ) ha physical con ac wi h he ed li e dyes
o blood ed. Mo e on his subjec will ollow la e .
A e he body membe s ha e ex ac ed he nu imen om he
blood, he emaining wa e y liquo descends by wo b anches o he
ena chilis in o he kidneys. The u ine hus o med in he kidneys
descends o he bladde . The e a e wo openings in he bladde : a small
one on op by which i is illed, and a la ge one below by which i is
emp ied. Animal dissec ion howe e does no show he smalle opening.
Why? Because i is cons ic ed by he cold, like he po es and he
openings o ne es (55).
Now a las , he commen a o eels ha he s age has been adequa ely
se , and he can ac ually u n o Theophilus’ wo ds. Bu hose e y
opening wo ds— ha u ine is he il a e o he blood—immedia ely
p o oke a quaes io. Is i a il a e o blood alone, o o blood and he
o he humou s? The inspi a ion o his quaes io is Isaac Judaeus, who
says ha u ine is he il a e o all he humou s (56). The commen a o
p o ides wo solu ions. Fi s , ed bile and black bile, being by na u e
d y, canno low. The e o e u ine can only be he il a e o blood and
(54) L ol. 163 a: «In hac au em po a sublimi as cibo um p imum ecipi modum e
colo em sanguinis. quia cum ab epa e ibi decoqui u . in suum colo em conue i ».
(55) L ol. 163 a-b: «Sun au em in uesica duo o amina. unum supe ius e pa uum
quo imple u uesica. al e um in e ius. e magis qua euacua u . Pa uum amen
animali occiso non appa e . Claudi u enim pe es ic ionem igo is sicu po i.
e o amina ne uo um». As men ioned abo e (no e 52), his in o ma ion is no
om he Second Sale ni an Demons a ion, o any o he he o he ex s iden i ied
and ansla ed by CORNER, Geo ge W. Ana omical Tex s o he Ea lie Middle Ages,
Washing on DC, Ca negie Ins i u e, 1927, no does i de i e om Pan egni Theo ica
3.33. The Digby commen a y men ions wo small openings h ough which he
bladde is illed, bu no he opening by which i is emp ied.
(56) FONTANA, no e 21, p. 144.
62 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
e e s i signi ies «a diminu ion o he humou ». I is also a sign o
obs uc ion [emph axis], o example in cases o neph i is, incipien
qua an e e , and d opsy. When people expe iencing pain in he neck,
head and shoulde s pass hin whi e u ine, i he alds dizziness and
ain ing [lipo omia](74).
The Cha es commen a o ’s main objec i e in his sec ion is o
explain why wha Theophilus says is ue—why such condi ions mus o
necessi y lead o hin, whi e u ine (which is some hing ha Theophilus
does no explain)—and o couch ha explana ion in e ms o a ully
humo al ae iology. To begin wi h, why does Theophilus say ha hin,
whi e u ine «p ecedes all he o he s?» The Cha es mas e ’s explana ion
akes syllogis ic o m, o which he is qui e sel -conscious. The colou
whi e signi ies indiges ion, and all he o he colou s diges ion. Bu
indiges ion is p io o diges ion, o ha which is undiges ed can be
diges ed and decoc ed; bu ha which is decoc ed canno e u n o a
aw s a e. The e o e he colou whi e is p io o he o he colou s. O
else i is p io because i akes on all he o he colou s, while he o he s
do no ake on whi eness ( his will be he s a ing poin o his analysis
o he colou s o u ine in he nex sec ion) (75). Thin subs ance p ece-
des he o he subs ances because hinness signi ies indiges ion and
hickness adus ion. Wha is undiges ed p ecedes wha is diges ed o
bu n . The e o e, hin subs ance p ecedes mode a e and hick subs ance.
The London e sion o he commen a y obse es ha he wo syllogisms
a e analogous (76).
(74) KEIL, no e 5, pp. 100-102.
(75) The sou ce o his obse a ion is Isaac Judaeus: FONTANA, no e 21, p. 185.
(76) L ol. 164 b: «Albus colo p ecedi alios colo es hoc modo. Albus colo signi ica
indiges ionem. omnes ue o alii diges ionem. Indiges io ue o p io es diges ione.
Nam illud quod es indiges um. po es dige i e decoqui. Illud au em quod es
decoc um. non eue i u ad c udi a em. E go albus colo p io es aliis colo ibus.
Vel ideo p io es quia suscipi omnes alios colo es. alii ue o non suscipiun
albedinem. Tenuis subs an ia p ecedi alias subs an ias. quia enui as signi ica
indiges ionem pinguedo adus ionem. P ius es quod indiges um es quam quod
[in] diges um uel [MS: in] combus um. Tenuis e go subs an ia p io es medioc i
e pingui. Locus a ce e o in u oque sillogismo».

63
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
(77) L ol. 164 b-165 a: «V ina alis mul a in quan i a e. similis id es con inua in
empo e signi ica diabe en id es ansi um u ine equen em; i enim aliquando
in enibus nimia dis empe an ia calo is p ope nimium calo em. uel aliam causam.
Quoniam ue o calo is es a ahe e enes quasi si iculosi sempe sibi a ahun
aquosi a em ab epa e. a ac am lice indiges am. epa a s omacho. s omachus ab
ex e io ibus. Vbi quia non es locus decoc ionis. conuenien e ansi ad uesicam.
Vnde i enuis luxus u ine». The sou ce o his explana ion has no been aced:
i is e y di e en om ha pu o wa d by Isaac Judaeus (FONTANA, no e 21,
p. 161) bu ma ches on a numbe o poin s Pan egni Theo ica 6.34, and e en
mo e so Via icum 5.19, Lyons, 1515, ol. 163 b.
(78) L ol. 165 a: «V ina e ce e a. Alba e enuis e mul a in eb ibus amphime is id es
co idianis. signi ica eb em illam de ice e p op e huiusmodi humo es qui euacua u .
Cum enim co idiana habea ie i ex legma e. si legma habunde in emissione
u ine eg i udo necessa io euacua u ».
The Cha es commen a o also ans o ms Theophilus’ bald equa ions
o hin, whi e u ine wi h ce ain diseases in o elabo a e pa hog aphies,
o which u ine p o ides he demons a i e semio ic clue. Fo example,
he ills in he logical s eps in Theophilus’ desc ip ion o diabe es.
Because i is he p ope y o hea o a ac , he o e hea ed kidneys, as
i pa ched wi h hi s , a e always a ac ing o hemsel es wa e y subs ance
om he li e , e en hough wha hey a ac is undiges ed. Because
decoc ion canno ake place in he kidneys, he mois u e eadily passes
o he bladde , whence i exi s as a lux o hin u ine (77). This is a
good illus a ion o he Cha es commen a o ’s s a egy. Theophilus’
diagnosis is some hing o a «black box»: hin, whi e, abundan u ine
signi ies diabe es, a diso de o excess hea , which a ac s mois u e.
Wha he commen a y does, is explain why he esul ing u ine will hen
be no only abundan (as one migh na u ally an icipa e) bu also hin
and whi e: he mois u e unna u ally d awn o om he li e is undiges ed,
and he kidneys canno diges i .
An e en be e example is u nished by he commen a o ’s analysis
o Theophilus’ s a emen ha whi e, hin and abundan u ine in cases
o epheme al e e signi ies ha he e e is aba ing because he humou s
a e being e acua ed. Why should his aba emen p oduce whi e, hin
u ine? The commen a o answe s ha epheme al e e comes om
co up phlegm. I phlegm abounds in he u ine, hen i s ands o
eason ha he sickness is being e acua ed (78). Theophilus does no
64 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
(79) I should be no ed ha Johanni ius dis inguishes «epheme al» and «co idian»
e e s: epheme al e e s a e sea ed «in animo», while e e s a ising om co up ed
humou s a e «pu id». O hese, co idian e e is caused by mo bid phlegm:
MAURACH, no e 46, p. 160. Bu i will be no ed ha he commen a o equa es
amphime is wi h co idianis: so does Cons an ine in Via icum 7.6, Lyons, 1519, ol.
168 b, and in Pan egni P ac ica 3.32, Lyons, 1519, ol. 90 b, bu no in Theo ica
8.4. Since he P ac ica o he Pan egni was assembled o e some ime, and no
manusc ip ea lie han 1200 su i es, i seems mos likely ha he commen a o
was using he Via icum.
say ha epheme al e e s a e caused by co up phlegm; he commen a o
d ew his in o ma ion om Cons an ine (79).
6.5.Theo e ical e- aming o semio ics: he ch oma ic scale o u ines
Ano he o Theophilus’ inno a ions was o p esen he colou s o
u ine in he o m a ch oma ic spec um om ligh o da k, s a ing
om whi e and i s shades («milky whi e», «ligh g ey» [glaucus], camel-
hai g ey [ca apos]) and unning h ough yellow (pale yellow [subpallida],
«somewha awny» [sub u us], awny [ u us], eddish [sub ubeus]), ed
[ ubeus] and i s a ian s ( lame- ed [ypico he on/ipe i he on], blood- ed
[e icon], wine- ed [inopos], blue-g ey kianon [=cyanon], «dusky» [ uscus]),
g een [cla on o clo on] and cha coal-g ey [pelicinon/peli hinon], o black.
The no ion o a anging he colou s in such a spec um is no ound in
Isaac, who deals wi h he colou s o u ine in appa en ly andom o de :
whi e, black, g een, g ey, yellow, ed, pu ple and pink.
The Cha es commen a o is clea ly imp essed by Theophilus’
spec um. He is pa icula ly aken by he idea ha each colou is made
om he colou ha p ecedes i , beginning wi h whi e, which is he i s
amongs colou s. I seems o sugges o him he no ion ha he humou s
which unde lie and de e mine u ine a e no en i ies, bu a he poin s
on a spec um. The commen a o says ha i chole ic ma e is added
o whi e, he esul is a colou which is whi e-ish [subalbidus]. I mo e o
his same chole ic ma e is added, wha e en ua es is pale yellow
[subpallidus]. I you add s ill mo e chole ic ma e , i becomes somewha
awny [sub u us]. Then i mo e is added, i becomes awny, and so o h.
The image he e o a pain e beginning wi h whi e pigmen , and p og essi ely
65
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
(80) L ol. 165 b-165 a: «No a in is o ac a u IIIIo gene a colo um cons i ui. albi.
scilice . ubicundi. ui idis. e nig i. e la i udines eo um id es species. quomodo
unaquaque ex alia p oc ee u ascendendo ab albo. qui es p imus usque ad alios
colo es. Es igi u e ce e a. IIII sun p incipales colo es. albus. ubicundus.
ui idis. nige . Quo um unusquisque habe plu es species. e unus ex alio habe
ie i. Ve bi g a ia. Si albedini adda u cole icus colo subalbidus inde es p incipali e .
amen ab albedine e ici u . u decoc io semic ude ca nis posi e supe ca bones.
que p imum incipi pallesce e. Subpallidus es albus. cui si plus pa um adhuc
cole e adda u . e ici u pallidus. Si adhuc plus. i sub u us id es subci inus.
qui assimila u au o uenien e de cel ica egione. unde u pu us au us sole
ueni e. deinde si plus adda u . u us e ici u id es ci inus sicu o izon au um
uel eu izon. Eu izon bona adix in e p e a u pe quam bonum au um accipimus.
Deinde si plus i sub ubeum p incipan e quidem ubo e similis guico id es
c oco o olano. deinde ubeum sicu c ocus ue us o ien alis. deinde epi econ
[ ec e: ype i he on] i id es sub ubicundum ac um ad aquoso sanguine. quasi
splendo id es ubo . si supe ueni e . quod e iam uoca u inicon id es dac ilicon.
quasi sun dac ili. deinde ue o si eu i on id es ubicundus sicu ipse sanguis sine
dolo id es adus ione. Deinde i inopos cum aliquid ing edi is iungi u ubicundi a i.
u uinum nig um id es nig edo aliquan ulum commisce u ubo i. au i u
uinum p o undius in nig e udinem. Si plus nig edinis ei adda u . i pu pu eus
sicu colo e epa is. Deinde si plus nig edinis adda u . i kianon colo e u ga us».
(81) «Si ue o in ec ionem ecipia aliquam ellis alba u ina secundum p imam quidem
a ionem subpallida i . u decoc io semic udis ca nis. Si ue o pe mane empo e
aliquo decoc io. in ec ionem maio em aciens pe ici pallidum colo em». (KEIL,
no e 5, p. 102).
(82) JACQUART, no e 39, p. 419.
adding mo e and mo e ed (80). The commen a o seems o ha e picked
up on an idea enuncia ed by Theophilus himsel , who says ha i whi e
u ine ecei es an in ec io o ed bile, i becomes subpallida. I i hen
ecei es in ec ionem maio em, i becomes pallida (81). The wo d in ec io
was des ined o become an impo an one o la e Sale ni an commen a o s
on he Isagoge such as Ba holomaeus and Mau us, o whom i came o
deno e he p ocess by which one elemen , coming in o physical con ac
wi h ano he , exchanges quali ies wi h i . Danielle Jacqua has documen ed
he use o in ec io in his con ex . She a gues ha in ec io ep esen ed an
expe imen in sol ing he p oblem o how he elemen s, quali ies and
humou s a e al e ed and combined—a p oblem posed by he Isagoge o
Johanni ius. This p oblem e en ually inci ed he Sale ni ans o explo e
he po en ial o A is o elian na u al philosophy (82). I would en u e o
66 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
(83) Isaac enuncia es a somewha simila idea (FONTANA, no e 21, pp. 170-171)
whe e he desc ibes colou s as compounds o o he colou s (e.g. pu ple is a
combina ion o black and ed), and he Cha es commen a o has ce ainly ead
Isaac, because he uses Isaac’s e ms o some o he colou s, e.g. ubicundus and
li idus. Bu Isaac does no o ganize his colou s as a spec um.
(84) Digby commen a y, L ol. 179 b: «Si que a u quomodo (e go/ alio um humo um
in ensio ((ali e in ec io//. pe u inam cognosci u . cum eo um non si supe lui as?
R<espondeo>. in en ione ((uel in ec ione// illo um hic sanguis ua ia u . quia
aliquando ua ia u . qui aliquando cole icus. aliquando legma icus. aliquando
melancolicus e ici u . quam sanguinis in ec ionem. uel al e na ionem pe u inam.
que ipsius es supe lui as cognosci opo e ».
(85) A ol. 2 a: «I em uidendum es de empo e. e p imum secundum e a es. Adolescen ia
enim bene colo a am debe habe e u inam. Na u alis enim calo in illis pe uale .
guess ha Ba holomaeus chose his wo d (and Mau us i s synonym
con agio) because i was used by Theophilus o designa e he g adual
ans o ma ion o whi e u ine by ed bile (83). They simply gene alized
he speci ic meaning gi en o i in De u inis. Indeed, in he copy o he
Digby commen a y p ese ed in Royal 8.C.IV, in ec io is used o desc ibe
he al e a ion o blood by he p esence o o he humou s, which will be
isible in he u ine (84). Pe haps i was his b oade issue which mo i a ed
he Cha es commen a o ’s ma ked in e es in how hings change colou .
Finally, he Cha es commen a o e u ns o Theophilus’ s a emen
ha ime is an impo an ac o in judging u ines. Time, he concludes,
mus ac ually a ec he colou and subs ance o he u ine, no jus he
sedimen . The e o e mo e is in ol ed ha jus he ime o collec ion.
The Cha es commen a o concludes ha he age o he pa ien mus
also be a ac o . He e again he u ns o Isaac Judaeus, o bo ow he
i s o Isaac’s chap e s on he e ec o he «non-na u als» on he
quali y o u ine. Adolescen s should ha e a well-colou ed u ine, o
na u al hea p e ails in hem, bu because hey ea all he ime, and oo
much, hei u ine appea s u bid and no well-cooked. In young men
he u ine is hin and awny because o an abundance o chole , and in
ma u e men, i is hin and whi e, because ma u e men a e melancholic.
He e he commen a o depa s om Isaac, who says ha he u ine o
ma u e men is ci ine. Ins ead, he picks up Johanni ius’ schema linking
he humou s o he s ages o he li e cycle. In ac he commen a o uses
Johanni ius’ and no Isaac’s e ms o he ages o man (85). Acco ding
67
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
sed p op e assiduam e equen em comes ionem. u bida e non bene coc a
appa e . I em e si na u alis calo magis in e a e illa p eualea . in endi u amen
non in quali a e. que colo a bene. sed in quan i a e. In iuuenibus ue o enuis
u ina. e u a es p op e habundanciam cole icam. In quibus magis in endi u
na u alis calo in quali a e quam in quan i a e. Non enim c escun . quod es
opus quan i a is. In senibus enim enuis e alba es . Senes enim melancolici sun .
In senio au em u ba a e mala p op e habundanciam igidi a is e humidi a is
e p op e des uc ionem na u alis calo is». Johanni ius and Cha es call he
i s age adolescen ia (MAURACH, no e 46, p. 155); Isaac, pue i ia (FONTANA,
no e 21, p. 163).
(86) MAURACH, no e 46, p. 155.
(87) A ol. 2 a: «In empo ibus au em simili e conside andum es . In ue e namque
debe esse sanguinea. ibi enim sanguis exc esci . In es a e ue o cole ica. In
au umpno melancolica. in hyeme legma a. Si ue o in hyeme si sanguinea. uel
in ue e legma ica signi ica habundanciam uel sanguinis uel leuma is sicu e in
aliis». C . MAURACH, no e 46, p. 155.
(88) See no e 76 and compa e o Digby (London, B i ish Lib a y, MS Royal 8.C.IV,
ol. 180 b): «Albus enim colo alios colo es p ecedi hoc modo. Albus enim
o he Isagoge, melancholy is associa ed wi h he ma u e yea s (86).
Melancholy is cold and d y, so melancholic u ine is whi e and hin. The
Cha es commen a o goes on o link he colou s o u ines o he
seasons when he co esponding humou domina es. This is no ound
in Isaac, bu may be a de elopmen o Johanni ius’ schema linking
elemen al quali ies, ages o li e, and seasons (87).
7. COMPARISON WITH THE DIGBY COMMENTARY
The Cha es commen a y opens a window on o a school whe e
medicine is s udied om an agg essi ely heo e ical s andpoin . The
Digby commen a y, howe e , e eals a a he di e en wo ld.
On he whole, he Digby commen a y is no as igh ly o ganized and
c isply a gued as Cha es, and is a he mo e epe i ious. Though e e y
bi as commi ed as Cha es o es ablishing u oscopy on a igo ously
humo al basis, Digby lacks Cha es’ single-minded d i e o logic and
scien i ic cohe ence. Fo example, he syllogism h ough which Cha es
p o es why hin, whi e u ine should be conside ed i s is mo e loosely
p esen ed in Digby (88). Whe eas in e e y disease discussed unde he

68 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
signi ica indiges ionem. Alii ue o diges ionem uel adus ionem. Indiges io ue o
p io es diges ione. Illud enim quod indiges um es . po es dige i. Quod ue o
diges um es ad c udi a em nequi educi. Vel ideo p io . quia omnes colo es
suscepi . Alii ue o non suscepiun albedinem. Si quis dica . Nonne uidimus
ubo e e ci ini a e aliisque colo ibus de subi o co po e abla is.’ co pus emane e
album? Ad quem dicimus impossibile es albedinem succede e. nisi p ius colo es
illi emouean u . quod non es i a de albedine. I e um enuis subs an ia alia
p ecedi . P ius enim enui as es ibi dum nondum es ac a ebullicio qua inspissa u ».
(89) Digby, ol. 181 a: «Talis ueniens in eb ibus amphime inis id es co idianis. e mul a.
signi ica eb is solu ionem. e de icie e p obos humo es qui euacua u ». C . no e 78.
(90) Digby, ol. 179 b-180 a: «Quomodo si colligenda no andum si . Colliga u in
uase ui eo. albo. e cla o. e o undo in undo. ad uesice simili udinem uel
modum/. e ope ia u ne igido ae e co umpa u . sed in na u ali pe du e
colo e. sicu exi a co po e. neque de uase in uas mu e u . ne o e mu ando ae
igidus subine e . neque de loco in locum po e u . quia ex depo a ione u bida
e ici u . uel ing ossa u . e in ue i a e cognoscenda decipi u . Ro undum uas ad
modum uesice ideo opo e esse. u pa ua loci [illeg.] ac a uidea u . e sicu in
uesica iacui . sic in uase ((ui eo// epona u . cla um ideo.’ u quid in e ius si
sub ili e uidea u . Quan a colliga u .’ o a scilice quia melius o a quam pa s.
Ac ionem co po is os endi . e i e um quia quan i as ipsius op ime es conside anda.
I em quia aliquando sedimen cum u ina eg ediens in p incipio mi c/[nec] ionis
u i a dicam eg edi u . Aliquando in ine. Quecumque e go pa s u ine abicia u .’
o asse sedimen cum ipsa di undi u . Quod si in calice appa e e .’ in uen is
iudicium ce i ica e . Si mul o iens colligi u .’ diue sis in uasis epona u . u pe
se uniuscuiusque p op ie as appa ea . Quo empo e si conside anda. Opo e u
cum a uesica exie i . an equam ab ae e co umpa u .’ inspicia u . Quomodo
uidea u in loco scilice lucido solis splendo e opposi o. Vas in dex a enea u .
In sinis aque manu e<c> us mouea u . u cla i as. uel u bulen ia ipsius uidea u .
e leui e mo us pos ea equiesce e pe mi a u . u leui a em ypos asis e ueloci a em
ub ic o hin, whi e u ine, Cha es is conce ned o demons a e exac ly
why ha diso de would p oduce ha kind o u ine, Digby seems less
compulsi e: o example, Digby’s discussion o epheme al e e in ela ion
o hin whi e u ine does no men ion ha epheme al e e is caused by
phlegm, an omission which om Cha es’ ae iological pe spec i e a he
ob ia es he en i e poin (89). Bu abo e all, he Digby commen a o (as
indeed Ba holomaeus and Mau us) is much mo e in e es ed in clinical
ma e s han he Cha es mas e is. When he Digby commen a o uses
Isaac Judaeus, he ends o ollow him mo e closely han Cha es does.
Whe e Cha es edi s ou Isaac’s ins uc ions o how o inspec u ine in
he lask, Digby includes hem, almos e ba im (90). Cha es men ions
69
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
mo ionis uideas. Si necesse si ad candelam uide i.’ simili e ia . Quo iens uidea .’
ibus uicibus (scilice / e in e missiue quiesca . V ina enim pos quam exii .’
mu a u in uase mul is modis. Aliquando enim mingi u enuis.’ e manea
enuis. Aliquando mingi u enuis.’ e ((pos ea i // spissa. Aliquando mingi u
spissa.’ e mane sic. Aliquando spissa eg edi u .’ e pos ea eddi u enuis. Quod
u scia u .’ e uidenda es scilice s a im pos quam exii . e paulo pos . e i e
pos ea e cio. e cum in e uallo. Si in ig<i>de u .’ non debe ecal<i> ie i; quia
aliquando u bida e alba ex pig icia calo is na u alis ad complemen um sui exi .
e pos ea [calo e ex e io i apposi o.’ subs an ia cla esci . e sump o: excised?]
calo e ex inseco.’ a calo e na u ali mu a u . e cum in se p ius indiges a esse .’
diges a uide u . e sic cum medici necessa io alli u ». C . FONTANA, no e 21,
pp. 152-153.
(91) Cha es (L ol. 164 b): «Plana quoque id es con inua. e ad modum pinee debe
esse. cum ex calo e in e ia decoc ione omnium memb o um decoqua u . unde
exiens modum pinee. in o ma debe e ine e. Quam o mam si habue i pe ec am
empe an iam calo is in co po e sine aliqua uen osi a e signi ica pe ec a». (The
sec ion in which his passage would be ound is missing in E u ). Digby (Royal
8.C.IV ol. 180 b): «Subs an ia ue o plana id es con inua; u si acu a supe ius
g ossa in e ius. ad modum pinee que o ma es ignis in quo no a u quod calo
p euale in diges ione na u ali. e inde o mam accipi ignis». Whe e his no ion
ha u ine sedimen should look like a pine cone comes om is no known. Isaac
does no say his. Howe e , he does say ha good hypos asis should se le o he
bo om o he lask in he o m a heap, wide a he bo om and na owing o a
poin a he op, like a lame. A ew lines la e , he adds ha he hea is shaped
like a pine cone, because i is he sea o he na u al hea (FONTANA, no e 21,
p. 205). Digby has e iden ly g asped Isaac’s main poin , which is o link he hea
o diges ion o he shape assumed by he sedimen .
(92) Digby commen a y, L ol. 181 b: «V ina e iam alis. mul a in quan i a e. e similis
id es con inua. in empo e signi ica diabe en id es id es [sic] ansi um equen em.
i aliquando in enibus nimia calo is dis empe an ia p op e nimium labo em.
uel aliam causam. Quoniam ue o calo is es a ahe e. enes quasi si iculosi
ha good sedimen should se le on he bo om o he lask in he o m
o a pine cone, bu he explana ion is e y ellip ical. The Digby commen a o
is much clea e and mo e de ailed abou wha his pine cone shape
means (91). In sho , one ge s he imp ession ha he is ce ainly mo e
in e es ed, and possibly mo e expe ienced, in he ac ual p ac ice o
u oscopy. E en when Digby mi o s Cha es qui e closely, li le de ails
e eal he o me ’s mo e clinical o ien a ion. Fo example, Digby’s
discussion o diabe es is almos iden ical o he one in Cha es, bu
Digby adds ha diabe ic pa ien s expe ience unquenchable hi s (92).
70 FAITH WALLIS
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
sempe a ahun sibi aquosi a em ab epa e a ac am. lice indiges am. epa a
s omacho. s omachus ab ex e io ibus ubi quia diges ionis uel decoc ionis// non
es locus conueniens. e enes in e en ione sun debiles.’ s a im ansi ad
uesicam e exi . Vnde i con inuus luxus u ine e si is inde iciens. cum enes
sa u a i non possun . humidi a em a ac am e ine e nequeun es». C . no e 77.
(93) Cha es (L ol. 164 a): «Que i u au em qua e illas solas na u ales dica . ubi
ypos asis alba appa e . cum sepissime in u ina obus o um nulla uidea u ypos asis.
E dicimus quia obus i non sun pe ec e empe a i sed in calo e in ensi. Qui
calo e iam ecem sanguinis <que> in e cia decoc ione debe esse ypos asis
consumi . ideoque u ina eo um non iudica u na u alis». Digby ( ol. 180 a):
«Que i u qua e illas solas na u ales dica . ubi es ypos asis alba. e ce e a. Cum
sepissime in u ina obus o um e sano um nulla uide u [co . o uide[ ]a u ]
ypos asis. e dicimus quia hoc con ingi ex calo is o i udine. Tan us es in eis
calo qui supe lui a em e cie diges ionis omnino consumi . uel pe sudo em
expelli . e hoc nullum malum. si sedimen in u ina eo um non appa ea ». Digby
also picked his up om Isaac, who wice men ions Galen’s dic um ha he u ine
o hea hly people o en does no ha e sedimen : see FONTANA, no e 21, pp. 149
and 207. No ice ha Cha es e e s o hese people as obus i and Digby as obus i
and sani. Isaac calls hem sani.
(94) Digby ol. 182 a: «[U ine which is pallida] signi ica p incipium diges ionis e
igidi a is dominium. sed amen cole am admisce i ex qua commix ione aliquan ulum
colo a u . Si plus cole a i enda u u calo igidi a i equipollea . iun medioc es
colo es. Ru us e sub u us. Si plus deinde in enda u cole a u calo p eualea .’ iun
ubeus e sub ubeus. Deinde si plus adhuc.’ e sub ubicundus e ubicundus. Deinde
inopon. cum aliquid nig edinis iungi u cum ubicundi a e. Si plus nig edinis adda u .’
i pu pu eus sicu colo epa is. Si adhuc plus.’ kianon. cuius coniunc ionis egula
alis es . Si albo colo e supe uenia splendo id es ubo e pos ea aduenia plu imum
Whe e Cha es condemns he sedimen - ee u ine o a hle es as «unna u al»
Digby akes a mo e neu al and p agma ic app oach: hese people a e
ob iously heal hy, so in his case, u ine wi hou sedimen mus be
na u al (93). Like Isaac, bu unlike Cha es, Digby is in e es ed in he
e ec o all he «non-na u als» on he s a e o u ine; Cha es is only
in e es ed in he seasons, because unlike he o he non-na u als, he
seasons ha e quali ies which link hem o he humou s. The con e se is
ha Digby is somewha less in e es ed in issues which could be classi ied
as na u al philosophy han is Cha es: Digby, o example, is no cu ious
abou why blood is ed. The commen a o iews he ch oma ic spec um
o u ine as a scale unning om indiges ion h ough o o e diges ion,
om excess cold o excess hea , no as an illus a ion o how colou s
eme ge one om he o he (94).
71
In en ing Diagnosis: Theophilus’ De u inis in he Class oom
DYNAMIS. Ac a Hisp. Med. Sci. His . Illus. 2000, 20, 31-73.
nig edinis.’ ia kianon. Deinde i uscus ex albo e nig o equali e coniunc is.
Deinde i ui idis pe adus ionem cole e. Deinde pe i on ((uel peli hmon// id
es liuidus colo qui p o undio es usco. scilice nig edinem. e i ex albedine
e nig edine. p incipali e amen nig edine. i enim hic colo si nimia igidi a is
domine u sanguini. qui da liuidi a em. sicu possumus uide e in labiis qui
p op e igus liuescun . quibus si magnum igus accesse i .’ e iciun u nig a.
Sic e u ina. i (e / [enim: expunged] nig a (ex/ nimia adus ione». C . no e 80.
(95) Digby commen a y, L ol. 177 a: «Sicu in humano co po e non simplici e sed
mul i o mi e i opposi io [co . in ma g. ope a io]. i a omnis ope a ionis non
una sed mul a signa appa en . Quo um quedam signa in eges ionibus. quedam
in pulsibus. quedam in u inis. Ce e o umque signo um subiec is cons i u a sun .
I em sicu aliquando sani a i. aliquando eg i udini. aliquando neu ali a i subiaci .’
sicu eius al e i a is ((uel al e a ionis// diue sas signi ica iones eppe iun u ».
(96) Digby commen a y, L ol. 177 a: «Me i o igi u quisquis humani co po is s a us
[illeg.] uel conse uandos suscepe i diligens inues iga o insude u pe quasdam
supe lui a es a co po e eg edien es quicquid ((ali e quid// in e ius elabo e u .
sagaci coniec u a pe penda . Quo um heophilus non igna us. hunc libellum de
signi ica ionibus u inae ad communem omnium medico um u ili a em composui ».
(97) Digby commen a y, L ol. 177 a: «Physicae hunc libellum supponi nemo dubi a .
cum de e um con empla ionibus aga ».
(98) Digby commen a y, L ol. 177 a: «Ex his mani es is quan um ad illos ((qui//
haben . uel habue un . es obscu as. id es in e icaces ope a iones. e obscu os
in ellec us ((id es inexplicabiles sen en ias.// Vel haben obscu as es id es
passiones in e io um memb o um sun eis obscu ae. id es la en es. u epa is e
similium. e inde obscu os haben in ellec us».
Bu pe haps he mos s iking di e ence, in iew o he heme o
his pape , is he Digby commen a o ’s a i ude owa ds he ela ionship
o u ine and diagnosis. The commen a y opens wi h he obse a ion
ha he unc ions o he human body a e no simple, bu mul i o m,
and so he e is no one, bu many signs by which hey can be ead. In
sho , u ine inspec ion is only one o an a ay o diagnos ic s a egies;
a e y p ac ical pe spec i e (95). Digby goes on o iden i y he po en ial
eade as someone conce ned o es o e o conse e he heal h o he
human body, who should bes i himsel as a diligen in es iga o o ind
ou om hese supe lui ies wha is going on inside he pa ien (96).
Theophilus’ book is hus p ima ily use ul o doc o s, hough «no one
doub s» ha i belongs o physica, «because i deals wi h he con empla ion
o hings» (97). The «hidden hings», which he Cha es commen a o
sees as he inne o gans o he body, a e in e p e ed by Digby as he
diseases o he inne o gans [passiones in e io um memb o um](98). In